( )

20 2006


1
1.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.2 : . . . . . . . . .
1.3.3 . .
1.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .

. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .

5
10
12
13
14
18

2
2.1 . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1
2.1.2 . . . . . . .
2.1.3 - . . . . . . .
2.1.4 . .
2.2 . . . . .
2.3 . . . . . .
2.3.1 . . . .
2.3.2 . . . . .
2.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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.

19
20
20
21
21
22
24
25
25
26
27
31
31

3
3.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Jeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

33
33
35
38

. . . . . .

. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . .
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. . . . . .
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. . . . . .
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. . . . . .

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1
3
4
4

ii

3.4 . . . . . . . .
3.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4
4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 . . . . .
4.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.

. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .

. . . . . .
. . . . . .

41
43
44
45
45
45
47
49
50
51

5
5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2 . . . . . .
5.3 . . .
5.3.1 .
5.3.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2 ,
. . . . . .
5.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.1 . . . . . .
5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57
57
58
58
59
60
60
62
63
63

6
6.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 . . . . . . .
6.3 ;
6.3.1 Zeeman . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 . . . . . . .
6.4 (M HD) . . . . . . .

73
73
74
77
77
81
83

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.

.
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.

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.
.
.
.
.

64
65
65
66
68
68
71
71


6.5 V irial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6 Alf ven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7
6.7.1 . . . . . . . .
6.7.2 V irial . . . .
6.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii
. . . . .
. . . . .

. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .

86
89
90
91
92
93

iv

,
.
.
, , ;
, ,
,
,
.

. ,
,

.

,
.

.
;
,


.

.
1

1.1: (
, , ).

1
cad
s [ms ]
[kgm3 ]
[m2 s1 ]

344
1.21

1.5 105

()

()

104
103
10+2

3 105
10+5
102

104...5
1021
1017

1.2:
SI.

1 Mm
1 AU
1 pc
1M
1 yr
1 M yr

=
=
=
=
=
=

106 m
1.5 1011 m
3.1 1016 m
2.0 1030 kg
3.2 107 s
106 yr

. 1AU
( -)
.
kiloparsec (kpc).
10Kpc, , ,
(light year).
(1yr = 3.16 107 s)
(M = 2 1030 kgr ).
,

.
AGN
SN
BH
WD
CV

(, )
Cataclysmic Variable ( WD )

1.1

1.3: .

(CV)

6 Mm
70 M m
700 M m
10 1000 M m
15 kpc

1.4: .

Stefan-Boltzmann

1.1

G
kB
R
c
0

6.673 1011
5.67 108
8, 314
3 108
4 107

m3 kg 1 s2
kg s3 K 4
m2 s2 K 1
m s1
V s A1 m1

. ,
,
.

.
(,
), ()

( Lorentz ).
:
( )
(); : `
(L)
(` << L).
E ( V << L3 )
. ~
v=w
~ + ~u, ~u

1.1:
E
.

E w
~
~
u(~x, t). ( . (1.1) )
`

` = (n)1
n
. 1015 cm2
n 1019 cm3 , ` 104 cm.
n 10cm3
` 1014 cm ( -),
1019 cm.



.

1.2
1.2.1

.

( (~
x, t),

1.2

P (~
x, t), T (~x, t), ~u(~x, t)
.

.
Euler
(~
x = ~x0 ) ,
Langrange ( )
.

(~
x(t)).

Euller

dQ
=
dt

Q
t

(1.1)
~
x0

Langrange

DQ(~x(t), t)
=
Dt

Q
t

+ ~u Q(~x(t), t).

(1.2)

~
x0

(convective
derivative).
2.1:
V = xyz

D(V )
= ( ~u)V.
Dt

(1.3)

(V =.),

~u = 0.
2.2:
(Ox)

~u = 0.
.

1.2.2

1.2: m
2mvx .
,
,
(yz)
x.
m 2px ,
(2px n0 vx ), n
vx ( . (1.2)
). x 6
,
(2px n0 vx ) 6,

P =

nmvx2
2nmvx2
=
.
6
3

3
mv 2
kB T =
2
2

P V = N kB T,

(1.4)

N = nV
V kB Boltzmann .
.
= M/V = N m/V

1.2

P =

kB T
m

(1.5)

(,
)

P =

R
kB T = T
m

(1.6)

R .
( )
,
n.
()

A
Z +1

.
2.3:
X , Y
Z (Am = 2Zm , Zm >> 1)

1
2X +

3Y
4

Z
2

.
m . Maxwell,
Boltzman
vx vx + dvx
( [;, ]
) (
)

1/2

m
mvx2
Maxwell-Boltzmann
f (v ) =
exp
.
(1.7)
M

2kB T

2KT

.
fM

fM (vx )dvx = 1.

P =

2nvx2 fM (vx )dvx = nkB T =

N
kB T.
V

(1.8)

fM (v) =

m
2kB T

3/2
e

mv 2
2k
T
B

(1.9)

< v 2 >=< vx2 + vy2 + vz2 >= 3 < vx2 >

Z
2

< v >=

Z
2

v fM (v)d v = 4
=

v 2 fM (v 2 dv)

3kB T
m

( )

1
3
U = mn < v 2 >= nkB T.
2
2

Vrms

1/2

3k
T
B
.
= < v2 > =
m

r
Vm =

2kB T
.
m

(1.10)

1.2

( Vm )

< v >= 4

vfm (v)(v dv) =

8kB T
m

1/2
.

:
, .
dQ , ,
dU
dV dW = P dV .
U = 23 N kB T dU = (3/2)N kB dT.

dU = dQ + dW = dQ P dV.

(1.11)

U
T

CV =

Q
T

3
= N kB .
2

CP =

Q
T

.
P

(1.11)

Q
T

= CV + P

V
T

= CV + N k B

(1.12)

CP = CV + N kB .
dQ S, dQ = T dS.

10

(dS = dQ = 0).


.

CV dT = P dV = N kB T

dV
.
V

(1.13)

. (1.13) ln(T CV V N K )=

TV

N kB
CV

= T V 1 = .

(1.14)

kB
CP
= CV +N
= C
= 5/3.
CV
V
. (2.13)

P = k .

(1.15)

= 1,
.

c2s =

P
.

(1.16)

c2s = P/, ,
, c2s = RT / = P/.


.

1.3
,
,
, ,

D~u
= P.
Dt

1.3

11

~ ( )
F

D~u
= P + F~
Dt

(1.17)

Euler
1.5,
1.5:
V
m, q , r, V , ~g ,
~ ,
~ ,
B
, K .

Lorentz
Coriolis

F~g
F~m
FC
Fcf
F~D
F~b

=
=
=
=
=
=

m~g
~
q~u B/c
~
2m ~u
m2 r
6K ~u
V ~g

. Lorentz, Coriolis
.

(r)

Gm(r)(r)
F~ =
er = Ug
r2
Ug ,

Z
m(r) =

4r2 (r)dr

r .

(1.18)

12

1.3.1
: m = V
V ,
(
),

D(V )
D(V )
D
=
+ (V )
=0
Dt
Dt
Dt
. (1.3)

(V )

D
+ (V ) ~u = 0
Dt

+ (~u) = 0.
t

(1.19)

. (1.19) .
:
dm = V .

. (1.17) (V ~
u)

(V )~u

D~u
= (F~ ~u ~u P )V
Dt

D 1 2
( u V ) = (F~ ~u ~u P )V.
Dt 2

D(P V )
Dt

DP
D(V )
+P
Dt
Dt

P
+ ~u P + P ( ~u)V
= (V )
t
= (V )

D 1 2
P
u + P = F~ ~u +
+ P ~u .
Dt 2
t

(1.20)

1.3

13

~ =
F
Ug

Ug
D 1 2 P
P
u + + Ug =

.
Dt 2

t
t

(1.21)

1
P
( u2 + + Ug ) = .
2

(1.22)

Bernouli.

1.3.2 :


.
.
.

Fb = g
g 10m/s2 = i e
.

=
.

T
60o C
300K / = 0.2. 1kgrm3
3
, 4
3 R g
M g
500kgr

4 3
R = M
3

R=

3M
4

1/3
= 9m.

14

100Km. ,
(
)

. 10
Krakatau, .

q.
t =

2H
g

= 140s.

dv
= mg FD .
dt

FD = 6K v,
= 2 105 kgm1 s1 , K
, m v .
-

0=

4 3
r p g 6K v
3 K

p = 4 103 Kgm3
. K = 1m

v=

22K p g
4 104 m/s.
9

t = H/v = 10 .

1.3.3

:

.
.

1.3

15

.

.
Oz
(x, y, z)
(x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) .

x = x0 cos + y 0 sin
y = x0 sin + y 0 cos
z = z0
.
~ = (0, 0, )) x 0 , y 0 , z 0
= (

0 , z 0
x 0rot , y rot
rot

~ ~r)x
x 0rot = x + (
0
~ ~r)y
y rot = y + (
0
zrot
= z.

0
~ ~r.
~rrot
= ~r +

0
0
(rrot )2 = (x 0rot )2 + (y rot
)2 + (zrot
)2 )

= (x 0 )2 + (y 0 )2 + (z 0 )2 = (r 0 )2 .
Lagrange

L=

m 0 2
m
m
~ ~r)2 Ug ,
(r ) Ug = (rrot )2 Ug = (r 2 +
2
2
2

L=

m
[(x y)2 + (y x) + z 2 ] Ug
2

(1.23)

16

Ug .


Langrange

+ Ug = 0
m(
x y)
m(y + x) my
x
U
g
+
m(
y + x)
+ m(x y) + mx
=0
y
Ug
m
z+
=0
z

(1.24)
(1.25)
(1.26)

.(1.24)-(1.26) )

~ + 2m~r
~ + m
~ (~r )
~ Ug .
m~r = m~r
~r

(1.27)

. (1.27)
, ,
~ ) (Fcf = m
~
Coriolis (FC = 2m~
r

~ .
(~r )

. (

[;]).
(. (1.19) ) (. (1.17)

(x, y, z) (r, , z)
( . (1.3) ).


. ,

(
).
(r, )
z
u(r, ) = ur (r, )
er + (u (r, ) + r)
e

v = ur

1
+ (u + r)
.
r
r

1.3

17

1.3:

= er

e
+
.
r
r

~u =

ur

ur
+
(u + r) +
r
r
r

er . (
er / = e ).

1
1
+
(rur ) +
((u + r)) = 0
r
r r
r

(1.28)

~u ~u = ur

~u u + r ~u
+
r
r

(
).

[~u ~u]r = ur

(u + r) ur
(u + r)2
ur
+

r
r

18

[~u ~u] = ur

((u + r)
r

+
+

ur (u + r)
r
(u + r) (u + r)
r

(r, , z)

ur
ur
+ ur
t
r

(u + r) ur
(u + r)2

r
P
= Fr
r

(1.29)

((u + r) ur (u + r)
+
r
r
(u + r) u
1 P
+
= F
r

r
r .
u
t

+ ur

(1.30)

1.4


.
1. (. 1.19 )

+ (~u) = 0.
t
2. (. 1.17)

D~u
= P + F~ .
Dt

3. (
)

P = C
P = RT
.

( . 2.1) .
..
( LS ), ,
.
.

2.1:
19

20

2.1
,

,

P = F~g ,

(2.1)

2.1.1
2.1:

0 = 1.4gr/cm3
.

GM 0
dP
=
2
dr
R
dP |0Pc =
Pc = G

GM 0
R
dr |0
2
R

M 0
= 2.7 1015 dynes/cm2
R

Pc = 1.4
1017 dynes cm2 . ,
.
( . 1.5)

Pc =

0 kB
m

Tc

(2.2)

2.1

21

(=0.62)

Tc = 1.4 107 K.
2.1.2
(. (2.1
.
~g = ~g , ~g
F
. . (2.1)

dP
= g
dz
P = c2s

c2s

d
= g
dz

1 d
= g/c2s
dz

(z) = 0 ez/H

(2.3)

H = c2s /g .

2.1.3 -

,

Fg
Pg =
4r2

(4r2 0 dr)( 43 r3 0 )
4r2 r2
0
3 GM 2
2
= G2 R2 =
3
8 R4
=

22

(
)

P = nkB T =

M kB T
.
4
3
3 R mH

3 GM 2
M kB T
= 4 3
8 R4
3 R mH

2kB T
R
GmH

(2.4)

M = 2 1033 gr MJ .
.

2.1.4

.
,
.
dr, r
(r),

m(r)G
4r2 (r)dr
r2

4R2 dP
dP .

dP
Gm(r)
=
,
dr
r2

Z
m(r) =
0

4(r0 )2 (r0 )dr0 .

(2.5)

(2.6)

2.1

23

r
= ce 1
Rc
ce .
. (2.6)

m(r) =

4 3
r4
ce
r ce
3
Rc

(2.7)

M = m(Rc ) =

Rc3
ce
3

4r3 3r4
m(r) = M
4 .
Rc3
Rc

(2.8)

m(r) . (2.5)

P = Pce

G2ce

r4
2 2 7 r3
r
+
3
9 Rc 4Rc2

(2.9)

Pce P (Rc ) = 0

Pce =

5
5M 2 G
G2ce Rc2 =
.
36
4Rc4

5G2ce Rc2
24r2 28r3
9r4
P (r) =
1
+

.
36
5Rc2
5Rc3
5Rc4

(2.10)

(P (r) = nkb T (r))
r

5 GmH
19r2
9r3
mH P (r)
r
2
=
+
.
T (r) =
ce R 1 +
kB (r)
36 kB
R
5R2
5R3

. (2.5)
(2.6) (
Bowers and Deeming, Vol. 1, Chapter 7 ).

24

2.2

= cs k ( ).
(P = P0 +P1 , =
0 + 1 , u = u1 P0 = F~

1
+ 0 u1 = 0
t

(2.11)

u1
1
+ P1 = 0.
t
0

(2.12)

P = c2s

P1 =

dP
d

1 = c2s 1

(2.13)

. (2.11), (2.12) (2.13)

2 1
c2s 2 1 = 0
t2

(2.14)

.
cs .
~

1 = 10 ei(k~rt)

.

= cs k

(2.15)

(
). (
)

cad
s

5P
3

1/2

5kB T
3mH

1/2
(2.16)

cs = 10 10T4 K

1/2

Km
s .

2.3

2.3

25

2.3.1

( . 6.18)

16 2 20 G
W =
3

r4 dr =

3 GM 2
.
5 R

2.2: 6.18
Virial,

L = 3.0 1033 ergs/sec.

3 GM 2 dR
dW

dt
5 R2 dt
Virial W = 2U ,

dW
3 GM 2 dR

2L
dt
5 R2 dt
( (U )
(L)

dR
2.38 105 cm/sec
dt
, .
,

.

2.3:
R0 >> R

R0 R , ;

26

E = W + U , Virial
W = 2U , E = U .

1
1
U = W =
2
2

3 GM 2
5 R

1048 ergs

tk =

1048 ergs
107 yrs
1033 ergs/sec

,
109 .

2.3.2

,

41 H 1 2 He4 + 2e+ + 2e + Energy.

41 H 1 4(1.0078amu) 2 He4 4.0026amu (1 amu
(atomic mass unit)=1/12 12 C ).
M = 0.0286amu,

0.0286
= 0.71%
4.0312
.

(0.1M )

E = 0.71 (0.1M )c2 = 1.27 1051 ergs

tn = Lt0 = 1010 yrs
.

2.4

2.4

27

r
V = r S

[P (r + r) P (r)] S +

GM (r)(r)Sr
=0
r2

dP (r)
Gm(r)
=
(r).
dr
r2

M (r + r) M (r) = 4r2 (r)r

dM
= 4r2 (r)
dr

.

E = U + Ug
Virial 2U + Ug = 0

E = U =

Ug
2

28

.
dL(r)
dr
2
4r (r)(r),

dL(r)
= 4r2 (r)(r)
dt
r
, A = 4r 2 r
Prad = 31 T 4 ,

dPrad
dr4r2
dr

[m2 /kgr]
L(r)/cdr.

L(r)cdr =
L(r) = 4r2

dPrad
dr4r2
dr

4c 3 dT
T
3 dr

(2.17)

1 2 ( . 2.2).
1 (r) P1 (r) 1
r + r, 2 (r), P2 (r).
(r), P (r).

P2 = P1 (

2
)
rho1

( ).

2.4

29

2.2:

P2 = P2 = P (r + r) ' P1 +

2
2

dP
dr

dr

1
1

P2
1 dP
= 1
dr
' 1 1 +
P1
P dr
1 dP
dr
' 1 +
P dr

2 2 > 0

d
dP

> 0.
dr
dr

(2.18)

(P =

kT /mp ) =
P dT
1
<
.
T dP

( )
. , ,

30

( . 2.3).

.
(
).

2.3:

dP (r)
dr
dM (r)
dr
dL(r)
dr
dT (r)
dr

GM (r)(r)
r2

= 4r2 (r)
= 4r2 (r)(r)
=

3(r)L(r)(r)
16cr2 T (r)

2.5

31

1
dT (r)
=
dr

T
dP (r)
P
dr

.
P (r), (r), (r)

. ( )
(r), T (r), P (r), (r), (r), L(r).

2.5

,

1. (
)
2. ( )
3.

4. -
5.

.
6.
.

2.6

1. , ,
() =< > ()
= 4 < > (1 r/R ).
() () () ()

32

2. ()

f (r) = P (r) + GM 2 (r)/8r4

( P (r) r M (r)
r )
. ()

.
3.

, dr/dt = 5r 4 .
, ,
, () ()
()
.
4.
(39.52AU )
,

5. M
0 =.,

6. ()
, V = V (r) Poisson

1 d
r2 dr

2 dV
r
= 4G
dr

1 d2
(rV ) = 4G
r dr2

()
(=.)
()
r
() = rho0 e
, =.

.

. .


.

3.1

Rc
.

.

.

r =

GM
r2

(3.1)

r ,

M=

4 3
R 0
3 c
33

34

0 . . (3.1)

r
4
= G0
Rc
3

r
Rc

2
.

(3.2)

( = r/Rc , = t/t0 , t0 =

[(4/3)G0 ]1/2 )
d2
= 2 .
d 2

(3.3)

1 2
= 1 1.
2

(3.4)

= 0 = 1.
. (3.4) ,
= cos2 (3.2)

22 cos2 cos2 = 0.

(3.5)

. (3.5)

1
1
+ sin 2 = 21/2 .
2
4

(3.6)

. (3.1) . (3.6).
. (3.6) = /2

( = 0)
r
tf f =

3
.
32G0

(3.7)

tf f
.
21020 Kgr/m3 ,
tf f 106 .

. . (3.1)

3.2 Jeans

35

3.1: . (3.6).

4G0
Rc

Rc
2
3
tf f

r
tf f

Rc3
.
GM

(3.8)

. (3.7).

Jeans

3.2

.
, , ,
P0 , 0 , 0 , u0 = 0 (
).

= P0 + P1

= 0 + 1
u = u1
= 0 + 1
<< 1.

36

0 ~u1 =

1
t

(3.9)

~u1
= (1 + P1 /0 )
t
2 1 = 4G1
P1 =

c2s 1

(3.10)
(3.11)
(3.12)

(3.9), (3.10)

( ~u1 ) = 2 1
t

c2s
0

2 1

1 2 1
.
( ~u1 ) =
t
0 t2

(3.13)

(3.14)

2 1 . (3.11)
(3.13) (3.14)

1 2
4G0
2
2 2+
1 = 0.
cs t
c2s

(3.15)

. (3.15)

1 2
2
2 2 1 = 0
cs t

(3.16)

~ .
P0 = F
3.15 3.16
~

1 = 10 ei(k~rt)
( ~k )
. (3.15)

D(~k, ) = 2 k 2 c2s + 4G0 = 0

(3.17)

. (3.16)

D(~k, ) = 2 k 2 c2s = 0.

(3.18)

3.2 Jeans

37

3.2:
. k kJ k > kJ
= kcs .

D(~k, )
D(~k, ) = 0
. . (3.17) , k 2 < 4G0 /c2s
2 < 0 ( = i )

~

1 = 10 et eik~r .

Jeans

2cs
2
J =
=
kJ
4G0

(3.19)

.
1020 Kgr/m3 , cs = 1Km/s J = 20pc.
. (3.2) (1)
k << kj

38

, (2) k >> kJ
= kcs .

3.3

VR (r)
( . (3.3).

VR (R + r) VR (R r)
.
r

R = 150pc

3.3:
V (R) .
.
, = 2 1015 sec1 .
Fc = m 2 r
,

GMc
2 Rc
Rc2

3.3

39

Mc G
Rc3

1/2
(3.20)

. (3.20)

>

3 2
= c = 3.6 106 2 gr/cm3
4G

.
c = 1023 g/cm3
. 5
(
2 1024 g/cm3 ). , ,
5-10
.

3.1
Fc = m 2 r

d2 r
GM
L2
=

+
dt2
r2
r3

(3.21)

L = r 2 =
. . (3.4) . (3.21)
L2 /(GMc Rc ) = 0.1
. (3.4)
req = L2 /GMc
. (3.4).

40

3.4:
.

3.1: ,

, 10Km.
,
25 .
: , L = I,

2
I = M R2
5

2
2
M R2 = M Rf2 f
5
5

Tf =

Rf
R

2
T = 0.1msec.

(3.22)

3.4

3.4

41

0
T 0
.

3.5:

, ,
, Rc ,
. Virial ( . (6.16) ),

1 d2 I
= 2U + Ug 4R3 Pext
2 dt2

(3.23)

Ug =

3Mc2 G
5Rc

( . (6.18).
(Pext ).
c = Mc /(4Rc3 )

U=

3 M kB T
.
2 mH

42

1 d2 I
=0
2 dt2
. (3.23)

Pext (R) =

3Mc2 G
3kB T Mc

.
3
4mH Rc
20Rc4

(3.24)

. (3.6)

3.6:

Rc .

RJ =

3 15 kB T
16 mH c G

1/2
(3.25)

Jeans.
R > RJ ,
RJ .
,
.

W = U + Ug =

3Mc kB T
3Mc2 G

2mH
5Rc

(3.26)

3.5

43

( ) R < Rcr =

(2/ 3)RJ . . (3.24) Rcr

Pmax 3.14

kB T
mH

1
Mc2 G2

(3.27)

Pmax .
. (3.23),
Pext > Pmax .

1
1
3
2

.
Ug = GM
5
Rf
R


.

3.5

.


.
: 0 = 1024 g/cm3 ,
B = 3G = 8 1016 2
1015 sec1 .

1. ( )
.
2. , ,

.

44

3.

4.
5.
= kcs ( ).

.


.


.

3.6
1. tf f = [3/32G0 ]1/2
0 = 2 1024 grcm3 4
1023 grcm3 .
tf f
.
2.
r = 0.1pc, = 4 1023 grcm3
= 2 1015 s1

(30Kms1 )
3.
E = U + W
Jeans

Rc2 = (4/3)RJ2
4. ()
T = 50K 0 = 8.4 1022 grcm3 .
()
T = 150K
0 = 2 1016 grcm3 .
,

4.1

.

( ) .


(jets)
.
,
.

- (Gamma Ray Bursts) .

4.2

R
.
.

. :
1.
f (v).
v > v , v
45

46

1
J = n0 (t)
2

f (v)v(v 2 dv)

(4.1)

Maxwellian v
,
.

, :

kT =

GM
R

(4.2)

T ,
. T 107 K ,
106 K
.
2.

dP (r)
GM
=
(r)
dr
R

(4.3)

P = nkB T = mp kB T

GM mp
dP (r)
=
P
dr
R kB T

dP (r)
= P
dr
= (GM mp /kB T R)

P (r) = P0 e(1R/r)

(4.4)

r , P = P0 e
P (r ) = 105 dynes/cm2

4.3

47

Pc = 1012 dynes/cm2 .

( )

,

dM = 4r2 (r)dr

M = 4r2 v(r)(r)
1AU n0 = 7 cm3 , 0 = n0 mp
= 31014 M /.
v(r = 1AU ) = 400km/sec M
.

4.3

1.

+ (~u) = 0
t

(4.5)

2.

+ ~u ~u ~u = P Ug
t

(4.6)

3.

P
GM
(E) + ~u E +

=0
t
1
R

(4.7)

E = 12 v 2 ,

.

. ,

48

1 d 2
(r v) = 0
r2 dr
dln GM
dv
= c2s
2
v
dr
dr
r

(4.8)
(4.9)

(4.8)

dln
2 dln|v|
=
dr
r
dr
(5.2)

(v 2 c2s )

2c2 GM
dln|v|
= s 2
dr
r
r

v > cs

r =

GM
2c2s

( r = 0.1AU . (4.7)
( )

2 GM
1
c
B(r) = v 2 (r) +
2
1 s
r

(4.10)

r = r , v(r ) = cs GM/r = 2c2s ,

( = 5/3), B(r = r ) = c2s .
B(r = R) = GM/R ( v(r ) >> cs )
B(r ) = v02 /2, B = B(r ) B(r = R) = 1/2v02 + GM/R

.
,

.
.

4.4

4.4

49

(compact object ) ,
.

M = 4r2 (r)v(r) = const.

(4.11)

(r) = (mp + me )n0 ( n0

) v(r)
.

( )
V

L = V n20

(4.12)

= T me c2 ( , T )
.

GM
1 2
v (r) =
2
r

(4.13)

(4.11) (4.13) n0

n0 =

M
4r2 (me + mp )(2GM/r)1/2

(4.12) (mp >> me ),

L=

4 3
r
3

"

M 2
(4r2 )2 m2p 2GM
r

#
T me c2 =

M 2 T me c2
12m2p 2GM

(4.14)

(4.14)
L Eddington

50

LE

4GM c
M 2 T me c2

T
24m2p GM

96 2 G2 M 2 mp
M E2 =
T me c

(4.15)

h
L
LG

T me c2
24mp GM

GM M
r

M 2

T me c2 r
24mp G2 M 2

4c M
M
M =
= 104
M E M E
ME

(4.16)

4.5

1
(r)
+ 2 (r2 (r)v) = 0

t r r
v
v
kB T
GM

+v
+
+
=0
t
r
r mp
r

(4.17)
(4.18)

(E)
1 2
GM
2 5kB T
+ 2 2 r
+E
= (, T )
t
r r
2mp
r

(4.19)

E = 12 v 2 + , (, T )
(, T ) = 2 T 1/2
(4.17), (4.18) (4.19)
v(r, t),(r, t) T (r, t).

4.6

4.6

51

1.
,
t = 0

() r

() r 1AU cs = 100km/sec
() r

2.
(heat flux)

F~ = T
= 0 (T /T0 )5/2 T0 , 0
.
~ = 0
() F

T = T0 (r/r0 )2/7
()
P = kB T

"

7r0
P = P0 exp
5H0

"

r
r0

5/7

##
1

H0 (scale height)
()
.
3. , Euler

+ (~v ) = 0
t
~v
+ ~v ~v + p = 0
t

p
+ ~v + ~v = 0
t

52

(vi ) =
(vi vj + ij p)
t
xj

1 2

1 2
( v + ) =
v + + p
vj
t 2
xj
2

(4.20)

.
4. ,
,

+
(vx ) = 0
t
x
vx
vx

+ vx
= c2s
t
x
x

(4.21)

() =
vx = v0
() 0 vx0 ei(kxt)
= (k).
() 0 vx0
x.
.
5. 4,

6. 4, .
7. ( )
, :
,
.

.
()
. (,
)

4.6

53

d 1 2
p GM
( u +

) = (r)
dr 2
1
r
du
1 dp GM
u
=
2
dr
dr
r
dM
= 4(r)u(r)r2
dt

(4.22)

u , , p
, ,
(
) (
).
dM
dt = const. ( ,
)
() , (

)

1
= something
u
p
c2 =

(u2 c2 )

( u < c u > c
r ):

c2s

GM
1
=
+
2rs
2

u2s

r
u

s
( ) rs (
)
() ,

dM
|=
dt

rs

rm

4r2 (r)dr/

GM
5 3 GM
+1
+
+
rm
4( 1) rs
4

r
u

54

() r > rm FU V ,
FU V
(
,
). rm :

dr 1
rm

3 F
dM
4rm
UV
|=
dt
GM

.
(
)
8. r 0 = 3g/cm3
,
15km/sec. : = g ez/H ,
g = 103 g/cm3 , z
H = 10km (atmospheric
scale height). z = 0 1 bar(106 dynes/cm2 ).
H ,

.


.
()
. (
2)
() (
)
() , ,

.
(.. )
,
( ).
100-1000bar .

4.6

55

9.
:
.
R m .


.
(R0 , P0 )
(P V =)

= (3 1)

GM
R03

56

5.1

(
) .
,

GM m
= m2 (r)r
r2

2 (r) =

GM
r3

Kepler
(r) 1/r 3/2 , Kepler .

10Km M ,
, mc2 ,

GM m
GM

(mc2 ) 0.15mc2
a
ac2

.
.
57

58

m
,
m
E
Eddington .

4Gmp Mc
LE
1.3 1038
T

M
M

erg/sec

Gmm/r

Eddington

mE = 9.5 1011 r0 gr/sec

mE 1017 gr/sec.
m

, .

5.2
5.2.1
,
.
,
Virial , .

.
.

.
, ,

.
,

. .
R
R. ,
Stefan-Boltzmann, :

Lring = 2 2rT 4 R

(5.1)

5.2

59

m ,
Virial :

U = G

Mm
2r

(5.2)

,
M

, ,
,
. ,
:

GM M R
4RRTD4
2r
r

TD =

GM M 1/4

(5.3)

8r3

5.2.2 .
(5.3) :

T (r) =

GM M 1/4 R 3/4
8R3

= Tdisc

R 3/4
r

Tdisc .

:

Tmax Tdisc

(5.4)

= 1016 g s1 = 1.6
: M = 0.85MJ , R = 0.0095RJ M
1010 MJ yr1 :

Tmax 2.62 104 K

max 1110 A
Ldisc 8.55 1032 erg s1 = 0.22LJ

60

max Wien.
= 1017 g s1 =
: M = 1.4MJ , R = 10km M
9
1
J
1.6 10 M yr :

Tmax = 6.86 106 K

max = 4.23 A
Ldisc = 9.29 1036 erg s1 2400LJ
(5.5)

,
.

5.3
.
5.3.1 .
,
,
m1 m2
.
Kepler, :

= (GM/r3 )1/2

(5.6)

.
:

E=

GM m1 m2
(
+
)
2
r1
r2

(5.7)

, (5.6), :
1/2

J = (GM )1/2 (m1 r1

1/2

+ m2 r2 )

(5.8)

,

:
1/2

m1 r1

1/2

r1 = m2 r2

r2

(5.9)

5.3 .

61

(5.7)
r2 (5.9)
:

GM m1
m2
( 2 r1 + 2 r2 )
2 r1
r2

GM m1 r1 r1 3/2
(
)

1
E =
r2
2r12
E =

(5.10)

1
, 2,
r1 , 1
. 1
, (5.10) rr12 < 1
r1 , 1
.

,
,
. ,
.

,
,
,
.

.
.
,
(5.6),
.
, ,
. , ,
.

.

62

5.3.2 .
,
.

,
.
,
.
w
, .

R-/2 ,
R+/2 .
, :

Jin = (R /2)2 (R /2) = (R /2)2 [(R) (/2)(d/dR)] (5.11)

:

Jout = (R + /2)2 (R + /2) = (R + /2)2 [(R) + (/2)(d/dR)] (5.12)

R ,
:

w[(R/2)2 (/2)d/dR(R+/2)2 (/2)d/dR] = wR2 d/dR

(5.13)

.
g , R,
, :

g = 2RR2 d/dR

(5.14)

: = w.
d/dR

5.4 .

63

,
, .

. ,
, ,

.
, ,
.
w, .

5.4

5.4.1 .
,

. ,
,
.
,
, ,
.
R R , :
2RR : 2RRR2 .
:

(2RR) = UR (R, t)2R(R, t)UR (R+R, t)2(R+R)(R+R, t)

t

+
(RUR ) = 0
t
R

(5.15)

(5.15) R .
UR
,
,
.
:

64

(2RRR2 ) = UR (R, t)2R(R, t)R2 (R)

t
UR (R + R, t)2(R + R)(R + R, t)
g
(R + R)2 (R + R)
R
R

1 g
R (R2 ) +
(RUR R2 ) =
(5.16)
t
R
2 R
5.4.2 ,
.
(5.15) (5.16) UR :

(RUR )
R
1
1
g
=

R R 2(R2 )0 R
1
3 R3 (GM )1/2
1
=

R R ((RGM )1/2 )0 R 2
R5/2

3 1/2
=
(R1/2 )
R
R R
R
=

(5.17)

(5.6). (5.17)
.
,R,t .
(5.16),(5.17) :

1 g
(R2 ) +
(RUR R2 ) =

t
R
2 R

1 G

+
(RUR )] + R (R2 ) + RUR (R2 )0 =

R2 [R
t
R
t
2 R
1 G
RUR (R2 )0 =
(5.18)
2 R
R

t = 0. (5.14) (5.18)
UR :

5.5 .

UR =

[R1/2 ]
1/2
R
R

65

(5.19)

(5.19) , (5.17),
.

, :
, M

M = 2RUR

(5.20)

,
,
.
, (5.17) .
,
,
R :

tvisc R2 /

5.5

5.5.1 .

.
,

,


.

.
,
, .
,
.

66

5.5.2 .
, ,
,

.

.
,

.
, :

2 = 2 + c2s k 2 2G|k|

(5.21)

( Kepler = ). 2 ,
.
= 0. :

Q=

cs k
<1
G

(5.22)

(5.10)
.

(5.10),
.
, ,
.
,
.

, R,
R R.
:

FG =

GM
GM
R

(1 2
)
(R R)2
(R)2
R

(5.23)

5.5 .

l R2

67

(5.24)

R
l
(1 + 2
)
2
(R R)
R

(5.25)

R
u02
02 (R R) 2 R(1 + 3
)
2
(R R)
R

(5.26)

,
, (5.23),(5.26) :

GM R

(R)3
32 R > 2GR/R
2G
R >
32

32 R > 2

(5.27)

, Jeans (.
(5.22), k 1/DeltaR ) :

R <

c2s
G

(5.28)

(5.27),(5.28) :

32 c2s
>1
2(G)2

(5.29)

, , (5.22).

68

5.6
5.6.1



M
.

(z = 0).
2h :

dz 2h

(5.30)

, h(r) r .

.

:

M = 2rU = .

(5.31)

(GM r)1/2
J+ = M
(GM rI )1/2 rI
J+ = M
|| 6 1,
.

, f
r :

(f )(2r 2h)(r) = M (GM r)1/2 (GM rI )1/2

(5.32)

.
f M

:

F (r) =

rI 1/2 i
3M GM h
1

(
)
8r2 r
r

(5.33)

5.6

69

F (r)
.

:

1 dP
GM z
= 2
dz
r r

(5.34)

z r . P P z h :

P 1/2 r3 (1/2) c
s

GM

(5.35)

,
.
f P (Black holes, white dwarfs and neutron stars, Shapiro and Teukolsky . 437).
:

f = P

(5.36)

1.


.
-.

,
1M :

kabs ' 0.64 1023 ([g cm3 ])(T [K])7/2 cm2 g 1

(5.37)

T homson
:

kscatt ' 0.40 cm2 g 1

(5.38)

70

T )
. k(,
:
1
1
1
T ) kabs + kscatt
k(,

(5.39)

.
:

P (, T ) '

2kT
1
+ aT 4
mp
3

(5.40)

. (
) ,
.
:

cT 4
F (r) , (r) > 1
k

(5.41)

. :

F (r) h(, T ), (r) < 1

(5.42)

(,) (erg s1 cm3 ) .

(5.30) (5.40) (5.41) (5.42)
9 9 : (r ), h(r), (r ), ur (r),

.
P (r), T (r), f (r), k(r)
F (r) r , M M
1973 Shakura and Sunyaev
Novikov and Thorne.
,
M
r . :

5.7

71

1. , r ,

.
2. , r ,
,
.
3. , r ,

.

5.7

.
.

.

,
.
, .
,
.


.

5.8

1.

2 = 2 + c2s k 2 2G|k|
( (5.21
2.
(r, , z)
.

72

(r, ) =

(r, , z)

~u = ur er + (u + r)
e
3. Navier-Stokes
( )
() (
R)

c2s << R2 2
cs
.
()
() u
ur ,
Kepler .
4. Lynden-Bell and Pringle, 1974, M.N.R.A.S,
168, 603

G = 2r3

d
dr

6.1

, .
, (, ) ,
.

.

,
.


.
.

. ,
. :
.
, ,
, ,

( ).
,
73

74

(
) ()
( ).

6.2

.

. 6.1
.

6.1:
.
,
.
Faraday .
.
~
B

B0 .
.

CGS
Gauss .
1.

6.2

75

(Gauss)

HD 215441

10- 1000
10
0.6
32000

1012

6.1:
, .
,

:

, .
, ,

.
,
, . Ohm

"

~
~ + ~v B
J~ = E
c

#
(6.1)

v
.

~
~ = ~v B
E
c

(6.2)

. ,
.
.
. v
.

76

q , ,
~ = q(~v B)/c
~ ,
F
( Lorentz).
v B V olt/m (
m/s Gauss).


. :
;
,
.
, .


.

.


.

.
(3 105 G) 400Km/s,
1.2 103 V /m.
- 1.8 108 V .

.
,
400 Km/s 3 106 V .

.
. .

.
.
,
,
. .
,

.

6.3 ;

77

.
.
,

. ,
.

.

6.3

. Zeeman.
.

,
.


.

6.3.1 Zeeman

"
#
~ r, t)
~
v

B(~
d~v
~ r, t) +
= q E(~
m
dt
c
m , c .

~ = B0 z)
(B

qB0
vy
c
qB0
=
vx
c
= 0

mv x =
mv y
mv z

78

B =

qB0
mc

(6.3)

Larmor.
Coulomb
.
0 .

m
x = m02 x
m
y = m02 y
m
z = m02 z
~ = B0 z
B
Lorentz ,
e
m
x = m02 x + B0 y
c
e
2
m
y = m0 y B0 x
c
m
z = m02 z
z .
x = aeit y =
beit .

eB0
b = 0
mc
eB0
b(02 2 ) + i
a = 0
mc
a(02 2 ) i

i
,

(a ib)(02 2 ) (a ib)B = 0

(6.4)

6.3 ;

79

02 2 B = 0. B << 0 ' 0
= 0 B .
(x, y)

x = acos(0 B )t
y = asin(0 B )t
:

0 , z

0 + B 0 B ,
, (x, y)
(
) z ,
0 B .
z (Zeeman triplet) 0 B (
), 0 ( ) 0 + B ( ).

( 6.2)

6.2:
. 4000G.

80

Zeeman
( ).

E = B0 Jz g

g =1+

J(J + 1) L(L + 1) S(S + 1)

2J(J + 1)

Lande (Lande factor).

L
S spin
J

Jz
( J )
(g, Jz ) (g 0 , Jz0 )

B =

e
4cme

Jz g2 B0

Gauss

B = 4.67 105 g 2 B
g = Jz g . (S = 0)
g = 1. S = 0
Jz = (1, 0, 1) Zeeman (Zeeman triplet).
,
.
.

6.3 ;

81

,
Jz = 0 ,
.

.

Doppler .

.

0.15T . , Zeeman
,

.
.

6.3.2

.
(v ' c) (
vk ' 0)
(1/),
( 6.3(.

6.3().

(m0 c2 )
6.4.

(

.)
,


(
).

82

6.3: ()
. ()

.

6.4:
.

fb () p
p .
n(p1)/2 .

Iv

6.4 (M HD)

83

,
f ()
f () = fM + fb , fM Maxwell
, .
f ()
6.5.

6.5:
.


(optically thick) I 5/2
(optically thin).
,
s = Rs /r, (Rs r
1/2 5/2

) Fm B0
m s2 . m , s Fm
,
.

6.4

(M HD)

(
MHD )
().
.

84

.

~
B
V

~
~j B
F~m =
c

(6.5)

~j . . (6.5)
Maxwell

~ =
B

4 ~
j
c

~ =
E

(6.6)

~
1 B
c t

(6.7)

~ =0
B

(6.8)

( ),
Ohm:

~
~ + ~u B ]
~j = [E
c

(6.9)

(6.5) (6.6)

Fm

~ B
~
( B)
1
1
2
~ )B
~ B
=
=
(B
4
4
2

~ .
B = |B|
(6.6), (6.7) (6.9)

~ =
( B)
=
=

4
[ ~j]
c
~
4
~ + ( ~u B )]
[ E
c
c
4
B
~

+ (~u B)
c2
t

(6.10)

6.4 (M HD)

85

~ = B(
~
~ 2 B
~ = 2 B
~
( B)
B)

.
~
B
~
= (~u B) + 2 B
t

(6.11)

c
.
= 4

6.6: 4S
u.

4S (. 6.6),

R
~
~ .
m = B dA
~
u m
Z
m =

~B
~ +
dA

~ B.
~
dA

(6.12)

,
(c2 /4)2 B ' 0,

~
B
~ (~u B).
~
=
t

(6.13)

86

~ = ~u d~l
(6.13) (6.12) dA
( . 6.6)
Z
m =

Z
~ (~u d~l).
B

~ (
~ (~u B))
~ +
dA
S

(6.14)

Stokes

~ (B
~ C)
~ = (A
~ B)
~ C
~
m = 0,
A
(frozen in),
(collisionless plasma).

6.5 V irial


.

Virial

.
. (1.17) ~
r

Z
dm~r

d2~r
=
dt2

Z
dm(~r f~)

~r P

dm

f = F/ .

d2~r
d~r
d~r d~r
d2 r 2
d
~r 2 =
~r

= 2
u2 .
dt
dt
dt
dt dt
dt
2

Z
I=

r2 dm

Z
2 < T >=

u2 dm

6.5 V irial

87

Z
dm~r

d2~r
1 d2 I
=
2<T >.
dt2
2 dt2

~r P

(6.15)

Z
(~rP )dV 3 P dV
I
Z
~ 3 P dV
=
P (~r dS)

dm

( (

(P ~r) = ( ~r)P + (~r )P ~r = 3)

Virial

1 d2 I
2 dt2

= 2 < T > +3
I
~

P ~r dS

P dV +

(~r f~)dm
(6.16)

3
U=
2

Z
P dV

U

,

1 d2 I
= 2 < T > +2U +
2 dt2

Z
(~r f~)dm

(6.17)

~
r f~ .


(fg )
(fm ).

Z
f~g =

dV

G(r)~r
|~r|3

88

Gm(r)dm(r)
= Ug
|~r|

(f~ ~r)dm =

Ug .

Z
Ug = G
=

R 4 r 3
3

0
16 2 2

3
3 GM 2
=
.
5 R

r
R

4r2 dr

r4 dr =

16 2 2 R5
3
5
(6.18)

Z
(f~m ~r)dm =

dm
Z

=
=

dV
Z

1
4
Z

~r (~j B)
c
~
~r (~j B)
c
~ B]
~
dV ~r [( B)

dV
~ )B
~ 1 ~r B 2 ]
[~r (B
4
2
2

Z
dV B
B2
~
~
=
+ [B(B ~r)]
~r
4 2
2
Z
~ dS
~ Z
~
B
~r dS
~
= m + (B ~r)

B2
4
8
S
S
=

m . (
Gauss.) Virial

1 d2 I
2 dt2

Z
= 2 < T > +2U + Ug + m +
Z

~ I
~r dS
~
B2
P ~r dS
8
S

~ ~r)
(B
S

~ dS
~
B
4
(6.19)

Virial.

6.6 Alf ven

89

Alf ven

6.6

3.2
.
.
MHD

~u
1 ~
~
+ ~u ~u = c2s (B 2 /8) +
(B )B
t
4

+ (~u) = 0
t
~
B
~
= (~u B).
t

(6.20)
(6.21)
(6.22)

= 0 + 1
~u = ~u1
~
~ 0 + B
~1
B = B

u~1

= c2s 1
t

B0 B1
8

1
+ (0 ~u) = 0
t
B~1
= (u~1 B~0 ).
t

1 ~
(B0 )B~1
4

(6.23)

(6.24)
(6.25)

1 = 10 ei(k~rt)
~

B1 = B10 ei(k~rt)
~

u1 = u10 ei(k~rt)

~ = B0 ez ,)
z (B
(~k = k
ez ) u1 =
(u1x , 0, 0) B1 = (B1x , 0, 0).
. (6.23) (6.25)

90

iu1x = ikB1x

B0
80

(6.26)

iB1x = ikB0 u1x

(6.27)

B1x . (6.27) . (6.26)

( 2 k 2 (B02 /(40 ))u1x = 0.

(6.28)

u1x ,

2 = k 2 u2A
(6.29)
p
uA =
B02 /(40 ) Alfven.
Alfven uA .

Alfven
.
(
)
Alfven
(~
u1 ~k ).

6.7

(B 106 Gauss),

.

M =

B2
V (106 )2 (10pc)3 > Ug
8

(6.30)

,

. . (6.7) )

6.7 91

6.7:

(P =

B2
8 )

.

.
.

.





.

6.7.1

.
(6.11)

~
B
~
= (~u B) + 2 B.
t
6.4
(
( 0) ). ,

. (6.11)

92

~
B
~
2 B.
t

(6.31)

~ r, t)
~ r, t)
B(~
B(~

t
Rc2
Rc .

~ r, t) B(~
~ r, t)et/D
B(~
2 /.
D = RC
.

6.7.2 V irial
Virial ( . (6.19) )
, . (3.24)

Pext

1
GM 2
2m
32 M
=
4 + 4 + 3
4
R
R
R3

(6.32)

2 = kB T /mH , = 1/(6 2 ), m = BR2 ,

.

GM 2
2m

R4
R4

Mcr

G1/2 m

Mcr 103 MJ

B
30G

R
2pc

2
(6.33)

6.8

93

MJ . . (6.32)

Pext

1 G 2
2 M
2
=
Mcr M + 3 3
4 R4
R

(6.34)

M < Mcr ,
M >> Mcr
.
2 < T > .
(6.16)
.

6.8

.
1. (. 1.19 )

+ (~u) = 0.
t
2. (. 1.17)

D~u
= P + F~ .
Dt

3. (
)

P = C
P = RT
.

~ ( )
4. F

1
1 ~
~
F~ = Ug
B 2 +
(B )B
8
4

94

5.

2 Ug = 4G

~
B
~
= (~u B) + 2 B.
t



.
Virial

.

.


.


[1] , . , ., (1994),
, , ( 1,
7 )
[2] , ., , . , ., (1996),
, 2000. (
4
. !)
[3] , ., (2000), , . ,
.
[4] Bowers, R. and Deeming, T., (1984), Astrophysics I, II,
Jones and Brtetlett Pub., Boston. (
.
. 1, 21, 22 23
)
[5] Carroll, B.W. and Ostlie, D.A., (1995) Introduction to
Modern Astrophysics, Addison Wesley, 2nd Ed.
.
10, 11 12
[6] Mandle, F., () , . , .
[7] Shu, F., (1992), The Physics of Astrophysics, Volume II:
Gass Dynamics, University Science Books, Mill Valley, California.
[8] , . (1986)
( 1 2
.)

95

96