ZOOLOGY 100 NOTES (4).

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SKELETAL SYSTEM

Osteology – study of structure, function and composition of bones

Chondrology – study of structure, function and composition of cartilages
Syndesmology – study of structure, functions, and compositions of joints.

Function Of Bones
 Support
 Protection
 Movement
 Mineral storage
 Hemopoeisis/hematopoiesis
 Leverage for locomotion
 Transduction of sounds

Gross Anatomy of Bones

I. Compact Bones
 Long Bones
Diaphysis
-tubular part
Epiphyses
-bone ends
Epiphyseal Plate
• Blood Vessel
-with nutrient arteries and veins
• Medullary cavity
-marrow cavity of bones
Membrane
Periosteum
-covers the entire outer surface of each bone except in epiphyses
Endosteum
- innermost covering of bones
Chemical Composition of Bones
1. Organic components
 Collagen fibers
2. Inorganic components
 calcium phosphate
 calcium carbonate
 Hydroxypatite ions

Microscopic anatomy of bones

The haversian system

Bone Development
OSSIFICATION – process of bone development
1. Intramembranous ossification
- direct bone development of membrane bones
2.Endochondral ossification
- development of bones preceeded by cartilages

Classification of Bones
1. Long Bones
Ex. femur, humerus
2. Short Bones
Ex. trapezoid
3. Flat Bones
Ex. Sternum, ribs
4. Irregular Bones
Ex. Hip bones, vertebrae
II. Cartilage
- specialized connective tissue in which fibers are laid down along the lines of stress in long, parallel arrays firm and
flexible
chondrocytes - cartilage cells that live within spaces (lacunae) within cartilage matrix
-CHONDRIFICATION – chondroblast- chondrocytes
TYPES OF CARTILAGES
BASIS HYALINE ELASTIC FIBRO-CARTILAGE

1.Matrix Fine collagenous Collagenous,elastic fibers Dense collagenous

fibers

2. Function Cover and protect bones,support Flexible strength Withstand tension & compression

3. Location Joints, trachea,costal ribs Ears,nose, larynx,audi-toryVertebral discs,pubic sysmphysis

canal

THE CALCIFIED CARTILAGE

 The cartilages replaced by bones
 Ex. Jaw, fins of sharks, fontannels of the fetal human skull

IV. ENAMEL
 Developed from ameloblasts
 Teeth – important for digestion
V. BONE REMODELING

PARATHORMONE AND CALCITONIN

 The hormones that influence or regulates the withdrawal of calcium to maintain calcification
 OSTEOBLAST – developing bone cells
 OSTEOCLAST – bone destructing cells
 OSTEOCYTES – bone-building cells

VI. CONNECTIVE TISSUES OF BONES

1. TENDON
2. LIGAMENTS
3. CARTILAGES

Frog’s skeleton
 AXIAL SKELETON
I. SKULL
*Fronto-parietals – 1
*Sphenethmoid -1
*Vomer -1
* Squamosal -2
*Quadrotojugals – 2
*Exoccipitals -2
* Prootics -2
* Nasals -2 *Mento-Meckelian - 1
*Maxillae -2 *Dentary -2
*Premaxilae -1 *Angulo-splential - 2
* Parasphenoid -1
* Pterygoid -2 II.VERTEBRAL COLUMN
* Palatine -2 10 VERTEBRAE
Lower Jaw • Cervical (atlas) - 1
 • typical vertebrae - 7 - Radiale -2
• Sacral - 1 - Centrale – 2
• Urostyle – 1 - Ulnare - 2
III. Hyoid - 1 * Ordinary Carpals - 2
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON * Metacarpals - 4 (2)
I. PECTORAL GIRDLE * Phalanges - 11(2)
* Suprascapula - 2 Ratio: 2:3:3:3 (2)
* Scapula -2  HINDLIMB
* Coracoid -2 * Femur -2
* Clavicle -2 * Tibio-fibula - 2
* Epicoracoid - 2 * Tarsals - 2(2)
II. PELVIC GIRDLE - Tibiale(astragalus)-2
* Ilia –2 - Fibulare(calcaneum) -2
* Ishium - 1 * Ordinary tarsals - 2
* Pubis - 1 * Metatarsals - 5(2)
 FORELIMB *Calcar -2
* Humerus - 2 *Phalanges - 14(2)
* Radio-ulna - 2 Ratio: 1:2:3:4:3 (2)
* Carpals - 3(2)

The Human Skeleton

 The human skeleton
â 206 regular named
bones
 The axial skeleton
â Along the body’s axis
â 80 bones
â Skull, hyoid, auditory
ossicles, sternum, ribs,
vertebral column
 The appendicular skeleton
â “Hangs on” to axial
skeleton
â 126 bones
â Upper and lower limbs,
pectoral girdle, pelvic
girdle

The 14 Facial Bones

Vomer (1) Nasal Mandible (1) Zygomatic
ConchaeMaxilla Palatine Lacrimal
Virgil Can Not Make My Pet Zebra Laugh!
Organization of the skeleton
 AXIAL Thoracic(12)
1. Skull Lumbar(5)
a. Cranial Sacrum(1)
Occipital(1) Coccyx(1)
Parietal(2) 4. Thoracic cage
Frontal (1) Ribs(12 pairs)
Temporal(2) Sternum(1)
Ethmoid(1)  APPENDICULAR
Sphenoid(1) 1. Pectoral Girdle
Old People From Transylvania Eat Spiders Clavicle(2)
Scapula(2)
b. facial 2. Upper Limbs
Vomer(1) Humerus(2)
Conchae(2) Radius(2)
Nasal(2) Ulna(2)
Maxillary(2) Hand
Mandible(1) carpal(16)
Palatine(2) meta carpal(10)
Zygomatic(2) phalanges(28)
Lacrimal(2) 3. Pelvic Girdle
Virgil Can Not Make My Pet Zebra Laugh! Coxal bone(2)
4. Lower Limbs
c. middle ear Femur(2)
Auditory ossicles Tibia(2)
Malleus(2) Fibula(2)
Incus(2) Foot
stapes(2) tarsal(14)
2. Hyoid(2) meta tarsal(10)
3. Vertebral column phalanges(28)
Cervical(7)

HOMOLOGY OF APPENDICULAR BONES

 FORELIMB 3. Ulna
1. Humerus 4. Carpals
2. Radius 5. Metacarpals
 6. Phallanges 3. Fibula
 HINDLIMB 4. Tarsals
1. Femur 5. Metatarsals
2. Tibia 6. Phallanges

HOMOLOGY OF GIRDLES
PECTORAL GIRDLE  PELVIC GIRDLE
1. Scapula 1. Ilia
* coracoid process 2. Ischia
2. Clavicle 3. Pubis

Frog versus Human skeleton

BASIS FROG MAN

I. SKULL Platybasic Anapsid

A. Fronto-parietals Fused Separate

B. Sphenethmoid Fused Separate

C. Occipital 2 exoccipital 1 occipital

D. Premaxillae Present absent

E. Dentition Heterodont Heterodont

e.1 shape & size Pleurodont Thecodont
e.2 attachment 1V:1M:2P (2) 2I:1C:2P:3M (2)
e.3 dental formula 2I:1C:2P:3M (2)

II. Hyoid Cartilaginous Bony

III. Vertebral Column 10 vertebrae 26 vertebrae

1 atlas 7 cervical
7 typical vertebrae 12 thoracic
1 sacral 5 lumbar
1 urostyle 1 sacral
1 coccyx

IV. Ribs None (transverse processes) 12 pairs of ribs

(7 true, 3 false, 2 floating)

Appendicular Skeleton
BASIS FROG MAN

PECTORAL GIRDLE *Suprascapula - 2 * Scapula - 2

* Scapula -2 With coracoid process
* Coracoid -2 *clavicle - 2
* Clavicle -2
* Epicoracoid - 2

FORELIMB * Humerus - 2 * Humerus - 2

* Radio-ulna - 2 * Radius -2
* Carpals - 3(2) * Ulna -2
- Radiale -2 * Carpals - 3(2)
- Centrale – 2 Proximal – SLTP
- Ulnare - 2 Distal - TTCH
* Ordinary Carpals - 2
 * Metacarpals - 4 (2) * Metacarpals - 5 (2)
* Phalanges - 11(2) * Phalanges - 14(2)
Ratio: 2:3:3:3 (2) Ratio: 2:3:3:3:3 (2)

PELVIC GIRDLE * Ilia –2 * Ilia -2

* Ishium - 1 * Ischia - 2
* Pubis - 1 * Pubis - 2

HINDLIMB * Femur -2 Femur - 2

* Tibio-fibula - 2 * Tibia -2
* Tarsals - 2(2) * Fibula -2
-Tibiale(astragalus)-2 * Patella -2
- Fibulare(calcaneum) -2 * Tarsals - 7(2)
* Ordinary tarsals - 2 Proximal - CTN
* Metatarsals - 5(2) Distal - 3 C 1C
*Calcar -2 * Metatarsals - 5(2)
*Phalanges - 14(2) *Phalanges - 14(2)
Ratio: 1:2:3:4:3 (2) Ratio: 2:3:3:3:3 (2)

The Articular System

Joints/articulation
-places where the rigid elements of the skeleton meet.
TYPES OF JOINTS ACCORDING TO FUNCTION:
1. Synarthroses
-fixed or immovable joints
2. Amphiarthroses
-slightly movable joints
3. Diarthroses
-freely movable joints

TYPES OF JOINTS ACCORDING TO STRUCTURE:

1. FIBROUS JOINTS
a. Structures -minimal connective tissue
b. Syndesmoses -connected by ligaments
c. Gamphoses -peg-in-socket joint
2. CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS
a. Synchondrosis -hyaline cartilage
b.Symphyses -fibrocartilage
3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
-most movable joints of the body
-diarthoroses
Features of Synovial joints
1. Articular cartilage
2. Joint cavity/ synovial cavity
3. Articular Capsule
2 LAYERS:
a. fibrous capsule-strengthens joint so that bones are not pulled apart
b. synovial membrane-cover enternal joint surfaces
4. Synovial fluid-a filtrate of blood which contains glycoproteins
5. Reinforcing ligaments
-thickened parts of fibrous capsule itself
a. Extracapsular ligament
b. Intracapsular ligament
6. Nerves and Blood vessels

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANE

Types of Synovial joints

1. Plane joints
-nonaxial joint
2. Hinge joints
-uniaxial joint(flexible)
3. Pivot joints
- rotatory, uniaxial joint
4. Condyloid joints
- biaxial joint
5. Ball and Socket joints
-multiaxial joint

Types of angular movements of synovial joints

1. ABDUCTION
2. ADDUCTION
3. FLEXION
4. EXTENSION
5. ELEVATION
6. DEPRESSION
7. PROTRACTION
8. RETRACTION
9. INVERSION
10. DORSIFLEXION
11. EVERSION
12. PLANTARFLEXION
13. SUPINATION
14. PRONATION

TYPES OF GAIT
 PLANTIGRADE
- EX. Man, primates, bear
 DIGITIGRADE
- ex. Cats, dogs
 UNGULIGRADE
- Ex. Horses, cows, carabao, pigs, goats

LOCOMOTION OF LIMBLESS VERTEBRATES

1. SERPENTINE OR LATERAL UNDULATION – movement forming irregular loops
2. CONCERTIVE OR RECTILINEAR
- move from place to place by gliding using the cervical ribs
3. SIDESWINDING
- occupy territory or sandy dessert
- rattlesnakes
Examples

Phases of Healing of Fractures

 Hematoma Formation
 Fibrocartilaginous Callus Formation
 Body Callus Formation
 Bone Remodeling

FRACTURE HEALING
Clinical Problems: Spina Bifida
 Spina bifida is a congenital defect
 failure of the vertebral laminae to unite
 nervous tissue is unprotected
 possible paralysis and other complications

Curves of the Vertebral Column

 There are four typical regions of curvature in the vertebral column
 cervical curve
 thoracic curve
 lumbar curve
 sacral or pelvic curve

Clinical Problems: Abnormal Curvature

 Abnormal curves of the spine
 scoliosis (lateral bending of the column)
 kyphosis (exaggerated thoracic curve)
 lordosis (exaggerated lumbar curve)
Clinical Problems

KYPHOSIS

Scoliosis
LORDOSIS

OSTEOPOROSIS

Osteoporosis
 Decreased bone mass resulting in porous bones
 Those at risk
 White, thin, menopausal females
 Athletes who are not menstruating due to decreased body fat &
decreased estrogen levels
 People allergic to milk or with eating disorders whose intake of calcium is
too low
 Smoking, drinking, & family history increase risk
 Prevention or decrease in severity
  Adequate diet, weight-bearing exercise, & estrogen replacement therapy (for menopausal women)
 Behavior when young may be most important factor

OSTEOMALACIA
BURSITIS

OSTEOMYELITIS

ARTHRITIS