Effective Instructional Strategies

Students With Disabilities

Yes, Foreign Language
Instruction Is Important!
Harold L. Kleinert
Elizabeth Cloyd
Molly Rego
Jina Gibson

One Toacher's Story

Seiioiiid Rego! Senorita Rego!
Hola!"
"Hola Andrew, ;C6mo estas?
"Bien, "cause I got to spend the nighi
with Josh this weekend! Are we having
Spanish class today?"
"No, Andrew, manana. Hoy es mi^rcoles, I see you on jueves." I start to
walk away when Andrew says, "Wait,
wail, Sehorita Rego, how do you say
'have a good day' in Spanish?"
Andrew was often the first student I saw
each day as I walked in the doors of the
elementary school where 1 taught
Spanish. His mom would drop him off
early in the office where he would wait
until tlie school day started. Andrew
loved to greet me in Spanish with a hig
smile on his face and hold the door
open for me. Andrew was Indeed one of
my most eager students. He did not
learn the vocabulary as quickly as some
of the other third graders, but he was
excited to be in Spanish class and excited to use whatever he did learn.
Andrew is also a student with autism.
24 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

As the example illustrates, it is possible

for students with disabilities to be
included successfully in foreign language instruction, even from a young
age. This article shows why such
instruction can be important and how it
can be done effectively.
Access for All to the Genercd
Curriculum
Wiih the provisions of both the
Individuals with Disabilities Educaiion
Act of 1997 and the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Improvement Act
of 2004 (IDEA 1997 and 2004), educators must ensure that all students have
the opportunity to participate and
progress in the general curriculum.

These requirements are further bolstered by the No Child Left Behind Act
of 2001; all students between Grades 5
and 8 are to be tested annually in math
and language arts {and in science in
selected grades beginning in 2007J, and
students are to be tested in these subjects at least once during their high
school years as well. Clearly, teachers of
students with disabilities are devoting
considerable effort to how their students with disabilities can be included
in the general curriculum and achieve at
high levels [Clayton. Burdge. Denham,
Kleinen, & Kearns. 2006; Spooner &
Browder, 2006).
Yet one area of academic content
instruction that has received little atten-

tion for students with disabilities is that

of foreign languages. In this article, the
authors
Present a rationale for why foreign
language instruction can be valuable
for all students.
Provide strategies for successful
inclusion of students with disabilities
in foreign language classes, with
examples of students with mild and
significant cognitive disabilities.
Why Teoch Foreign
LanguogesWa Can'l Teach
Our Siudents Everyfhing Else
They Need T Know!
"Language and communication are at
the heart of the human experience."
This opening statement of the Standards for Foreign Language Learning in

the 2lst Century (1999, p. 1] describes

the basic truth that we cannot survive
without language. It is our lifeline to
othersa powerful bridge that connects
us to other people. Our effectiveness in
communicating with others, however, is
inevitably limited by our ability to
understand one another, and this is
where second language learning
becomes so valuable for all students.
There are several compelling reasons
for the inclusion of foreign language
instruction for students with disabilities
as part of their participation in the general curriculum. First, for secondary
level students, foreign language instruction is frequently required for graduation (Education Commission of the
States, 2006) and for college admittance
[College Admissions, 2006). This is
especially critical as more and more students with disabilities apply and are
accepted for college and postsecondary
education. For example, from just 1988
to 1998, the number of students with
learning disabilities admitted to college
tripled (HEATH Resource Center, 2000J.
Data from the National Longitudinal
TVansition Study 2 (Wagner, Newman,
Cameto, & Levine, 2005) indicate that
this trend is contmuing for students
with disabilities in nearly all special
education categories. Once in college,
many students find that their college
program requires foreign language
courses for graduationfor a student

with a disability who has not had prior

foreign language instruction in high
school, beginning a foreign language as
a college student can seem like a daunting, even insurmountable, task.
Second, for students at all age levels,
studying a foreign language can actually help with acquisition of a student's
native language. Understanding the use
of tense, syntax, and sentence construction in French, for example, can help
the student see how these elements fit
together in his or her native language.
One of the authors of this article found
that her knowledge of English, her
native language, was greatly enhanced
as she continued taking French courses
throughout her schooling.
Third, studying a foreign language
instilis a sensitivity toward cultural and
diversity differences in students, while
enabling them to understand the perspectives and value of the other culture.
The primary mechanism that defines a
specific culture is the language unique
to that culture (Curtain & Dahlberg,
2004). Foreign language instruction,
besides teaching students about the
vocabulary, syntax, and conversational
structures of a language, also enables
them to explore on a much deeper level
the history and culture of the people
who speak that language. The opportunity to broaden one's own world view,
so essential to an effective education in
a global society, is one that unfortunately has been missing in the education of
many students with disabilities.
Fourth, the study of a foreign language can provide students with a sense
of intellectual wealth from tackling
something perceived as difficult by most
people. A sense of mastery is important
for all students, but especially for those
students whose educational experiences
have been focused often on what they
cannot do. The acquisition of a foreign
language proves to the students themselves, to their peers, and to their educators, that students with disabilities do
have the ability to learn intellectually
challenging material.
Fifth, foreign language classes can
provide an environment of acceptance
of students with disabilities by their
peers. The study of language is an excellent vehicle for encouraging students to

be accepting of both cultural and individual differences. This acceptance can

carry though into the daily activities of
the classroom. Students who are sensitive to difference will be open-minded
and likely to both befriend and to learn
collaboratively with their fellow classmates with disabilities. Such acceptance
will facilitate studying together, peer
tutoring, and group activities in and
outside of class. These activities can
extend to formal extracurricular activities, such as Spanish Club or French
Club. Opportunities for extracurricular
participation have often been very limited for students with disabilities, especially for students with such disabilities
as mental retardation, emotional disturbance, multiple disabilities, or autism
(see Wagner. Cadwallader, Garza, &
Cameto. 2004). and foreign language
participation can increase those important opportunities.

The opportunity to broaden

one's own world view, so
essential to an effective education
in a global society, is one that
unfortunately has been missing
in the education of many
students with disabilities.
Finally, because the material and
often the structure of foreign language
courses are often different from other
courses, this instruction will prepare
students with disabilities both mentally
and academically for the challenges and
experiences of postsecondary education. It is precisely in learning something new [beyond the typical content
strands of language arts, math, and science) that students are prepared for the
new studies they will encounter in postsecondary education. Yet, entry into an
introductory foreign language class does
have at least one advantage for students
with disabilities. In other content classes, students without disabilities may
have prior knowledge or more advanced
skills in the subject material, and there-

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

JAN/FEB

2007 25

fore have a "leg up" on students with

disabilities who might have difficulties
in organizing or retaining that information. In foreign language classes, all students are starting at the beginning. In
foreign language classes, perhaps for
the first time, students with disabilities
can be on an even playing field with
their classmates.

A sense of mastery is important

for all students, but especially for
those students whose educational
experiences have been focused
often on what they cannot do.

Barriers to Effective Language

Instruction for Students WHh
Disabilities
Yet despite these important reasons for
the study of a foreign language, there
are a number of sigmficant barriers to
the inclusion of students with disabilities in foreign language classes. The first
barrier is a general sense that students
with disabilities either do not have the
skills to learn foreign languages or that
foreign language is not important for
their education. This is a barrier of attitudes held, in part, by general educators, special educators, and even parents and students themselves.
Second, difficulties in acquiring foreign languages are often related to basic
language learning problems in native
language: decoding/comprehension and
basic phonemic awareness (Arries.
1999). Students with reading disabilities
who lack phonemic awareness might
not fully grasp how spoken words are
comprised of sound segments (Sparks &
Ganschow, 1993), and this problem in
decoding within their native language
will affect their ability to learn the second language.
Third, students with disabilities need
to learn not only academic content but
functional life skills essential to an independent life. There may be a sense
among educators that time spent in a
foreign language class can detract from
needed opportunities for life skill
26 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

instruction. Yet there are examples, for

even students with the most significant
cognitive disabilities, that students can
learn important functional or life skills
in the context of grade-level academic
content instruction (see Clayton et al.,
2006; Collins, Kleinert. & Land, 2006).
Strategies
The vast importance of human communication is emphasized in the introduction of the Standards for Foreign
Language Learning in the 21st Century.
"to relate in a meaningful way to another human being, one must be able to
communicate" (1999; p. 11). In recent
years, grammar and repetitious exercises have been deemphasized in foreign
language classrooms, with efforts now
focused on hands-on communicative
methods. Grammar thus takes on a supportive role as students learn to converse with one another. Role playing,
the acting out of scenarios, and informal conversations between the students and teacher or between the students themselves encourage communication and ensure that students have an
active role in their own learning. These
strategies also promote the inclusion
and active involvement of students
with disabilities.

In foreign language classes,

perhaps for the first time,
students with disabilities can be
on an even playing field with
their classmates.
In the well-designed foreign language classroom, the target language
(that is, the second language ihat is
being learned) is emphasized in a variety of ways. The classroom rules, schedules, charts, objects, and so forth are all
usually posted in the target language.
These visual representations are helpful
to all learners. Other effective strategies,
with a strong research base for students
with disabilities, include;
Using graphic organizers for vocabulary, syntax, or for comparisons

between features of languages

(Curtain & Dahlberg, 2004). The
value of graphic organizers for presenting academic content in decodable chunks is well documented for
students with disabilities (Deshler et
al., 2001), and can be easily adapted
for foreign language instruction. For
example, graphic organizers can be
used to chunk vocabulary into food
groups, clothing groups, and so forth
to aid acquisition.
Using explicit scoring rubrics for
assignments (e.g., conveying a clear
message, appropriate use of grammatical forms, vocabulary, etc.) to
assist students in developing metacognitive and study skills, while
improving their ability to self-evaluate their own performance (Arries,
1999). Curtain and Dahlberg (2004)
present several excellent examples of
rubrics for students to monitor their
own learning of a foreign language.
Using a mnemonic, color-phonics systems (flash card practice with colorcoded vowels) to assist students who
have decoding problems. Studenis
can even learn to construct their own
vocabulary cards with the use of the
color-coded system (Arries, 1999).
Student practice can be further
enhanced through a variety of
instnictional formats, including a
classwide peer tutoring program and
paired learning activities, in which
students with and without disabilities are paired for structured practice
(Arries; Heward, 2006^.
Assigning read-aloud paragraphs the
day before so that students can practice. This can be especially helpful
for students who are fearful of a new
language or in their abilities to "perform" in front of their classmates.
Having explicit instruction in plionology, syntax, and semantics or comprehension (Downey & Snyder,
2001). Although foreign language
instruction is increasingly emphasizing interactive, "hands-on" language
learning, studenis with disabilities
often need highly explicit, carefully
designed instruction that provides
clear models of proficient perform-

ance, precise instructions, active student responses, and immediate and

positive feedback (Heward, 2006). In
areas of foreign language instruction
in which students may be struggling,
explicitly structured, small group
work around newly introduced language structures (tenses, conversational forms) may be necessary to
ensure sufficient practice and mastery.
Reviewing already-learned information. This helps students acquire a
sense of mastery, while quickly moving students into a mindset for new
learning [Downey & Snyder. 2001).
Student response cards, dry erase
boards, or other tools that enable all
students to make individual responses in a large group format enables
the teacher to quickly ascertain how
well the whole class has retained the
previous lesson, while pinpointing
quickly those students who may
need extra help (Heward, 2006).
Modeling think-alouds for students in
the class (Curtain & DahJberg, 2004).
With this approach, the teacher
models aloud the use of language to
self-direct his or her own behavior.
For example, as the teacher gets
ready to check attendance, she might
say in Spanish. "Now, I need to get
out my attendance book to make
sure that all of the students are
here." The use of think-alouds, or
self-instruction has proven very
effective in teaching students with
learning and intellectual disabilities
to talk through the steps of a task
and to monitor their own learning
(Agran, King-Sears, Wehmeyer, &
Copeland, 2003).
Reducing the amount of material
expected to be learned for some students. Although many students with
disabilities may be able to master a
foreign language with the same
expectations for learning as students
without disabilities, content goals
can be individualized (e.g., reducing
the number of conversational forms
to be learned, or the number of
vocabulary words to be mastered
within each unit). This strategy may

be especially helpful for students

with more significant cognitive disabilities.
Using Total Physical Response (TPR;
Curtain & Dahlberg, 2004). This
strategy incorporates activity and
movement to make language learning more meaningful, interactive,
and even fun! Instead of feeling as
though they are learning a tool
unconnected to their lives, with TPR
students identify a foreign language
with everyday language, purpose,
and use. For example, a middle
school French teacher may employ a
whole-class activity of playing
"Simon Says" to help students learn
body parts. The teacher might stand
in front of class and say "Simon dit;
touchez le nez." The students will
hopefully comprehend this command and touch their nose. For students who have not learned all of
their body parts in French, this activity provides the opportunity to learn
through modeling. For students who
have limited physical mobility and
who do not communicate orally,
they could perhaps communicate
"nose" or other body parts through
their augmentative comtiiunication
systems. Eventually, of course, all of
the students in (he class could learn
to play the role of Simon themselves.
Using role playing, including money
transactions. This strategy is good
for practicing numbers and math.
and enables the teacher to integrate
knowledge across subject areas,
while embedding more functional
skill instruction into the lesson for
students who need to learn those
skills. For example, students who
need practice in making purchases
can practice these money skills while
also learning a new language!

naturalistic or incidental leaching

(see Kaiser & Grim, 2006). For example, whenever students need to use
the restroom, run an errand, or ask
for something, the teacher prompts
them to ask in multiple ways (in the
new language!) thai are all correct,
but they must respond correctly
every time before permission is
given.
Using authentic assessments. For
example, Duvall (2006) suggests the
use of student portfolios, which
could include both written and oral
language samples, the use of journal
writing in the targeted language, or
the development and presentation of
individual or group cultural projects
for the targeted language. This
allows students multiple ways of
demonstrating their knowledge of
the language.
Looking for ways to bring the community into the classroom. In many
cases, it is possible to bring foreign
language resources directly from the
community into the classroom, to
teach hands-on lessons related to
cultural themes [e.g., cultural festivals, foods, dress, and social customs). This is especially true for the
teaching of Spanish. For siudents in
special education who themselves
are learning English as a second language (ESL learners), this may be a
very positive strategy for involving
their communities and their families
in their education!

Giving students their names in tlie

target language. This enables all students to feel they have a role and
that they belong. This strategy also
promotes practice in pronunciation,
as students are required to address
each other by their "given" name.

Using sentences at the level of the students. Tbachers should begin with
short sentences (three to five words)
and move to longer sentences; similarly, teachers should begin with
grammatically simple sentences and
work toward more complex structures (Boudreaux, as noted in
Curtain & Dahlberg. 2004). This
enables all students to develop an
"ear" and gradual comprehension for
the language, while permitting students with listening or language processing disabilities the opportunity
to keep up with their classmates.

"Sneaking" in learning. In special

education, we refer to this strategy as

Presenting new vocabulan' just prior

to introducing a new lesson (Bou-

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN JAN/FEB 2007 27

memory "trick" with her other classes

across the different grades! Sam had a
natural talent for foreign language,
despite struggling in other areas. For
Sam, Spanish represented an opportunity to excel and to help students without
disabilities hone their skills in this new
subject.
For older students, and especially for
students with more significant disabilities, educators may express concern
that foreign language courses will
detract from or even take priority over
more important learning needs, including functional skills targeting increased
independence in activities of daily life
and preparation for adult living. Yet, as
Spooner and Browder (2006) have
emphasized, academic achievement is
not incompatible with instruction in
functional skills.
dreaux, as noted in Curtain &
Dahlberg, 2004). This strategy can
work as a basic advance organizer of
what is coming next, prepare students for what they are about to
learn, and create excitement for what
is to be learned. Effective for all students, this strategy can especially
help prepare students with disabilities for full participation in the
upcoming lesson.
Two Examples of How Sfudenfls
Can Be Includod
The following experiences are taken
directly from our work with students
with disabilities; they illustrate the possibilities for students for whom foreign
language instruction may never have
even been considered a meaningful curricular option. First, consider the inclusion of Sam, a fourth grader with a
learning disability and a behavioral disorder, in his school's elementary
Spanish program. By the time his
school's Spanish teacher came to his
classroom at 11 a.m. each day, he was
often close to getting his last warning
for "bad behavior" that daythe last of
which would send him out of the classroom and into the in-school suspension
program. Yet, Sam excelled in Spanish
in tact, he was the brightest Spanish
student in the classroom, Unlike the
28 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHIUSREN

other students, he often would not write

down his new wordshis teacher gave
up trying to force him to take notes after
a couple of months when she realized
that he remembered everything! His
teacher used partner conversation practice to reinforce learning for all of her
students. With this strategy, each pair of
students would first match written
phrases on printed strips together, then
practice saying them aloud and then
using their new phrases in role play.
This gave Sam the opportunity to practice both his Spanish and his peer interaction skills.
The teacher also used TPR as a primary vehicle to teach new words. She
would often let the students come up
with their own signal or movement so
that they had a sense of ownership in it,
they remembered it better, and they
understood an effective way to learn a
foreign language. Sam's teacher also
used language games, where the teams
competed against one another with
vocabulary phrases. If she noticed that
teams were consistently getting a certain phrase or word wrong, she would
"freeze" the class and give each group I
min to come up with a way to remember that word (i.e., sounds like, rhymes
with, etc.). Sam did the best in the class
in creating these mnemonic devices
(Uberti. Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 2003),
and his teacher would share Sam's

Our second example of Keith illustrates this blending of functional and

academic skills. Keith is a high school
sophomore with significant, multiple
disabilities who attends a rural high
school; his educational program
includes general education classes,
community-based instruction, and participation in a self-contained classroom
for more individualized instruction.
Keith is nonverbal and communicates
using augmentative communication
devices, communication boards, and
signs. While in Spanish class, peer
tutors assisted Keith with his class
work. Keith's fine motor skills limited
his writing abilities; however, he found
unique methods of relaying his responses to assigned tasks [e.g., picture symbols through multiple choices, using
manipulatives to identify the meaning
of words in Spanish, and communicating through use of signs). During class,
the Spanish teacher and peers included
Keith by asking him to sign Spanish
vocabulary terms relevant to the discussion topic. When the class broke into
work groups, Keith's peers took turns
tutoring him on new Spanish terms with
the use of photographs and actual
objects. Keith matched the printed
Spanish word to the appropriate picture
or object to demonstrate comprehension of his new vocabulary.
Keith is very popular and has several
friends in and out of school. He leads an

active life, including traveling to Mexico

in the summer with his family, participating in additional Spanish classes
once a week at a local church, and dining out [where else . . . El Camino . . .
a local Mexican restaurant!). Keith
understands basic Spanish terms and
enjoys listening to people speak
Spanish. Keith's family plan to learn
Spanish together for their future travels
to Mexico. The benefits for Keith in
attending Spanish class included the
opportunities to meet new friends,
enhanced social skills, increased recognition of Spanish sight words, generalization of learning objectives across setlings, and interaction with the general
curriculum, li has also been exciting for
both teachers and peers to see Keith's
interest in Spanish cuUure. It is also
important to note that Keith's expanded
social and community networks, his
enhanced communication and social
skills, and the opportunity to pursue his
own interests represent educational outcomes fundamental to all students
lliese outcomes are truly functional for
him, both now and for his future.
Conclusion
Learning a new language has benefits
for all students, including students with
disabilities. Although it is possible for
students with disabilities to learn foreign languages in the context of
resource room instruction, inclusion in
general education classrooms is essential for students with disabilities to truly
receive the full benefits of that instruction. Participation in general education
foreign language classes allows students
to be fully immersed in a language and
its cultures and to receive the assistance
and support of their peers who are also
learning that new language. Students
with disabilities should have access to
all curricular and extracurricular activities that form the basis of a challenging
school experience, and that includes
foreign languages. Foreign language
opens doors for M students, and for
some students, these doors can lead lo
newfound skills, to a renewed literacy in
their own language, and even to unexpected life experiences!

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Copyright 2007 CEC.

TEACHING ExCEPTiONAt- CHILDREN a JAN/FI:B 2007 29