Running head: APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

Applied Technologies for Students with Learning Disabilities

Hunter Somerville
Texas A&M University-Texarkana

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

Abstract
Individuals with learning disabilities can require accommodations for their work and
educational environments. Applied or assistive technologies are available to help an individual
complete a task or perform work on a daily basis. This review looks at the current definitions,
applicable laws, and technologies available to individuals with learning disabilities. Learning
Disabilities (LD) are those disabilities or disorders that affect learning but are not as significant
as developmental disabilities. Individuals can function in normal settings but may require some
modifications to text books, computer screens or keyboards, auditory modifications, and other
learning based changes to assist in completing daily tasks.

Keywords: Learning Disabilities, Postsecondary, Assistive Technology, Instructional

Technology, Specific Learning Disabilities, Adults, ADHD, Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity
Disorder, Instructional Design

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

Introduction
The purpose of this literature review is to examine available technologies to assist
postsecondary students and the adult learner who have learning disabilities. Numerous disorders
that have an impact on learning will be discussed in this review.. Technologies that can assist
these individuals with learning and work place success will be examined. A review of present
acts, laws, and definitions will show the divergence of thoughts about individuals with learning
disabilities. A recent change in the new published revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) by the American Psychological Association (APA) will be
included in this review of definitions. The review of the Federal laws will show the need for
postsecondary students and adults to advocate for themselves. After an examination of the
definitions, laws, and available technologies, recommendations will be made for individuals with
learning disabilities to be successful in school and work through the use of available
technologies.
Problem
The problem for students entering college, adults returning to school, and individuals in
the workplace is the lack of information about technologies to assist these individuals with their
daily lives. Many individuals with learning disabilities may require only slight modifications to
their environments to help them to be successful. Under the current laws, children with learning
disabilities are only protected until the age of 21. At this point, the Americans with Disabilities
Act is the only coverage for individuals with learning disabilities. Stigma is well known to result
in people not seeking help for disability and especially in the case of mild disabilities. There are
third party advocates but these are limited to cities that have funding. Regardless of specific
individual circumstances, living with a learning disability has the potential to be a major life

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

stressor (Mellard & Patterson, 2008), especially in situations involving formal learning
performance (Taymans, 2012).
Definition
Learning disabilities are defined by different organizations in different ways. These
significant differences in definitions can lead to confusion and how accommodations are handled
for an individual with a learning disability. The review of the definitions that follow are
necessary to show the inconsistencies within the government, education, and medical systems
within the United States. Definitions and laws from other countries are not included in this
literature review because of the continuation and variation in definitions of learning disabilities
around the world.
IDEA, Individuals with Disabilities Education Act states that and individual with a
disability is one with mental retardation, hearing impairments (including deafness), speech or
language impairments, visual impairments (including blindness), serious emotional disturbance
(referred to in this title as emotional disturbance), orthopedic impairments, autism, traumatic
brain injury, other health impairments, or specific learning disabilities (Public Law 108-446,
2004). With specific learning disability lying within the general definition there is a need to
draw more clarity. IDEA (2004), goes on to define specific learning disability as a disorder in 1
or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language,
spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think,
speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations.
The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities crafted their definition of learning
disabilities in 1990 and currently maintains the following definition: Learning disabilities is a

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant

difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or
mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to
central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in selfregulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities
but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Although learning disabilities may
occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment,
mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance), or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural
differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the result of those conditions
or influences.
The National Center for Learning Disabilities (2013) says that learning disabilities affect
the brains ability to receive, process, store, respond to and communicate information. LD are a
group of disorders, not a single disorder. Learning disabilities are not the same as intellectual
disabilities (formerly known as mental retardation), sensory impairments (vision or hearing), or
autism spectrum disorders.
The American Psychiatric Associations May 2013 release of the new DSM-5 has
changed the language to Specific Learning Disorder. "Specific learning disorder is now a single,
overall diagnosis, incorporating deficits that impact academic achievement. Rather than limiting
learning disorders to diagnoses particular to reading, mathematics and written expression, the
criteria describe shortcomings in general academic skills and provide detailed specifiers for the
areas of reading, mathematics, and written expression" (APA, 2013). There is also a need to
explain a group of disabilities that do not fit the learning disabilities definition and often get
confused. Developmental disabilities and intellectual learning disorders are disabilities,

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

disorders, or physical or mental impairments, , that are usually severe and affect mental abilities.
Although these disabilities do affect learning, they are not a part of the learning disabilities
definition. These can be blindness, deafness, Downs Syndrome, Rett Syndrome, and other
disabilities that are life-long and incurable. These disabilities usually require other forms of
accommodations such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, speech therapy, and
psychological counseling.
Types of Learning Disabilities or Specific Learning Disorders
I. Dyslexia
a.
Language processing disorder
b.
Affects writing, spelling, and sometimes speaking
II. Dyscalculia
a.
Learning disability
b.
Involves math
III. Dysgraphia
a.
Writing disorder
b.
Affects spelling, handwriting, and thought patterns
IV. Dyspraxia
a.
Disorder that affects motor skill development
b.
Usually coexists with other learning disabilities
V. Executive Functioning Disorder
a.
Disorder that affects ability to plan, organize, and manage details
VI. Other disorders that affect learning
a.

Behavior Disorders
i.
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
ii. Attention Deficit Disorder

b.

Visual Processing Disorders

i.
Difficulty in distinguishing between similar shapes or objects

c.

Auditory Processing Disorders

i.
Difficulty in distinguishing between similar sounds

d.

Giftedness
i.
Exceptional talent may overshadow underlying disorder

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

Method
For the scope of this review, the DSM-V by the APA will be applied to the search results.
Searches were conducted using Google Scholar, EBSCO, and ERIC Institute of Education
Services. Key terms used in searches included: learning disabilities, postsecondary, assistive
technology, instructional technology, specific learning disabilities, adults, ADHD, Attention
Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder, instructional design, and specific learning disorder.
Criteria for Selection
EBSCO returned the most results. Results were filtered first by learning disabilities and
then applied adults and/or postsecondary students. The latter terms were used interchangeably
because postsecondary students are considered adults and many adults have returned to college
and become postsecondary students. Articles were scanned that included developmental
disabilities and intellectual disabilities and excluded from the results. Articles that focused
primarily on studies based on children were also excluded because learning styles in adults are
different than those found in school age children. Articles were selected that focused on adult
learning in the postsecondary education environment and in the work place. The articles were
then screened for any technology assistance or educational platform that would support
technology assistance in the learning environment.
Results
Results Search of EBSCO for learning disabilities initially returned 22,116 results
spanning years from 1934 to 2013. Scope was narrowed to 2004 to 2013 and resulted in 12, 913
articles, then narrowed to only peer reviewed journals with 10,726 results. Learning disabilities

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

postsecondary resulted in 19 articles. Learning disabilities assistive technology resulted in 2

articles. Learning disabilities adults resulted in 378 articles. Learning disabilities ADHD had 77
results. Learning disabilities Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder produced 93
results. Specific learning disorder produced 49 results. Learning disabilities instructional
technology and learning disabilities instructional design had no results. The following chart
shows the search results from EBSCO. This chart shows the trends in scholarly articles from
1976-2013. From 2008-2013, results returned 6,236 articles for peer-reviewed articles with the
keywords learning disabilities. Significant results that would warrant more research is the
number of results found for learning disabilities and postsecondary; only nine of the 6,236 peerreviewed articles from 2008-2013 were related to postsecondary students. Similar results were
found with learning disabilities and college/university with seven articles from the same time
period.

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

Keyword-Primary

Research Data - Publication Searches - EBSCO Host

Scholarly
PeerInitial
reviewed 2013- 2007Keyword Secondary
Results Journals 2008 2002

Learning Disabilities

20011996

19951986

19851976

22116

18884

6236

6118

2021

1858

2014

Learning Disabilities

Postsecondary

53

52

16

11

16

Learning Disabilities

College University

37

32

11

Learning Disabilities

Assistive Technology

15

Learning Disabilities

Instructional Technology

Learning Disabilities

Adults

735

630

217

235

99

69

10

Learning Disabilities

126

111

44

46

14

Learning Disabilities

ADHD
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder

136

120

Learning Disabilities

Instructional Design

Learning Disabilities

Adults ADHD

Adults

ADHD
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder

1559

1348

941*

339**

60

1133

924

579

266

68

11

458

434

172

139

29

45

40

Postsecondary

Assistive Technology

Instructional Technology

14

14

32

23

11

Adults
ADHD
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disabilities
Specific Learning
Disorder

Hunter Somerville

Assistive Technology

Adults
ADHD
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder

Instructional Design

Adults ADHD

72

70

Sunday, November 17, 2013

20132011

20102008

20072005

20042002

526*

415*

227**

112**

Four year span subdivided

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

10

Applicable Laws
Adults with learning disabilities have only one applicable law that protects them. The
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) defines a disability as a physical or mental impairment
that limits one or more major life activities. The ADA defines major life activities as seeing,
hearing, learning, reading, concentrating, thinking, communicating, working, and other daily
tasks. The ADA also requires that there be a record of the impairment. By ADA regulations this
documentation comes from a healthcare or mental health authority. The ADA protects
individuals with learning disabilities as long as any of the major life activities are affected and
documented. The individual then has to ask for an accommodation to assist them with the life
function that is affected. Institutions of higher education are required to follow the guidelines of
the ADA because they fall under public accommodation section that lists nursery, secondary,
undergraduate, or post graduate private school, or other places of education as venues that are
protected.
Utilization of the ADA requires the individual to disclose to the educational facility or to
their employer of the learning disability. The individual must then have the documentation to
back it up or be able to obtain it. Many individuals may choose to not disclose for fear of
discrimination or not being allowed to participate in certain activities. A study conducted in
2012 showed that the majority of adults interviewed did not know what the ADA was and how it
could protect them. This study also showed that very little was done to prepare students leaving
secondary school to go to work or postsecondary education and how to continue their disability
protection under the ADA (Price, Gerber, Mulligan, 2012). Another study conducted by the
same authors showed, the participants believed that the ADA was solely for people with
physical disabilities. Of the 18 adults in the pilot, only 3 participants had learned about the ADA

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

11

before leaving high school or in a postsecondary setting, with only one receiving any type of
secondary transition assistance (Price, Gerber, & Mulligan, 2012).

Technologies
Learning disabilities or specific learning disorders are manageable and once understood
by the individual with the disability can ask for assistance. Modern technologies can help
students and adults in the workplace function better and be more productive. Assistive
technologies are those technologies that can be purchased or downloaded to assist the individual
see the computer monitor, enhance hearing, or change colors of documents to make them more
legible. Applied technologies are taking technologies that already exist an applying them in a
manner that helps the student to succeed. Applied to technologies could be utilized by adding
the technology to a curriculum that doesnt require the function for a student without a learning
disability. For example, a screen reader that is available on computer is an assistive technology
that becomes applied when used for the student with a seeing disability.
There are challenges to selecting the correct technology. Training is required for each
type of disability and the appropriate technology to assist the student. If a student has multiple
learning disabilities, it can be challenging to find the correct technologies and applying them to
the curriculum. As is pointed out by Smith, sadly, technology-based solutions designed to
address their (students) learning needs are often not considered and, thus, not implemented to a
regular degree in their educational programs (Smith, 2010). In addition to the ADA, the
government created the Assistive Technology Act of 1988. This act was passed to create a fund
for providing assistive technologies to persons with disabilities. It was designed to increase
technology and technology services to individuals with disabilities.

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

12

References
American Psychiatry Association. (2013). Specific Learning Disorder Fact Sheet. Retrieved
from: http://www.psychiatry.org/File%20Library/Practice/DSM/DSM-5/DSM-5Specific-Learning-Disorder-Fact-Sheet.pdf
Cortiella, C. (2011). The State of Learning Disabilities. New York, NY: National Center for
Learning Disabilities. Retrieved from: http://issuu.com/ncld/docs/state_of_ld/1?e=00
Fichten, C. S., Ferraro, V., Asuncion, J. V., Chwojka, C., Barile, M., Nguyen, M. N., Klomp, R.,
& Wolforth, J. (2009). Disabilities and e-Learning problems and solutions: An
exploratory study. Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 241256. Retrieved from:
http://search.ebscohost.com.dbproxy.tamut.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=44
785112&site=ehost-live
Gregg, N. (2011). Increasing access to learning for the adult basic education learner with
Learning Disabilities: Evidence-based accommodation research. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 45(1), 47-63. doi: 10.1177/0022219411426855
Holmes, A., & Silvestri, R. (2012). Assistive technology use by students with LD in
postsecondary education: A case of application before investigation? Canadian Journal
of School Psychology, 27(1), 81-97. doi: 10.1177/0829573512437018
Klemes, J., Epstein, A., Zuker, M., Grinberg, N. & Ilovitch, T. (2006). As assistive computerized
learning environment for distance learning students with learning disabilities. Open
Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance, and e-Learning, 21(1), 19-32.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02680510500468062

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

13

Learning Disabilities Association of America. (2012). LDA Position Statement: What are
learning disabilities? Retrieved from:
http://www.ldaamerica.org/about/position/papers/LDA-Position-Statement_What-AreLearning-Disabilities_Oct-2012.pdf
Martnez-Marrero, I., & Estrada-Hernndez, N. (2008). Assistive technology: An instructional
tool to assist college students with written language disabilities. TechTrends: Linking
Research & Practice To Improve Learning, 52(1), 56-62.
doi:10.1007/s11528-008-0113-5
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities. (1990). Retrieved from:
http://www.ldonline.org/pdfs/njcld/NJCLDDefinitionofLD.pdf
Parker, D. R., & Banerjee, M. (2007). Leveling the digital playing field: Assessing the learning
technology needs of college-bound students with LD and/or ADHD. Assessment for
Effective Intervention, 33(1), 5-14. doi: 10.1177/15345084070330010201
Price, L. A., Gerber, P. J., & Mulligan, R. (2007). Adults with learning disabilities and the
underutilization of the Americans with Disabilities Act. Remedial & Special Education,
28(6), 340-344. Retreived from:
http://search.ebscohost.com.dbproxy.tamut.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27
616049&site=ehost-live
Taymans, J. M. (2012). Legal and definitional issues affecting the identification and education
of adults with specific learning disabilities in adult education programs. Journal Of
Learning Disabilities, 45(1), 5-16. doi:10.1177/0022219411426857

APPLIED TECHNOLOGIES FOR STUDENTS WITH LD

14

Letter to Reviewers
I want to thank each of the persons who took the time to review my paper. Your thoughts and
comments were taken very seriously and the following changes have been made. I appreciate the
time you spent reading, researching, and giving me feedback. This feedback has been useful in
developing the manuscript and will continue to do so in further revisions.
Sincerely,
Hunter Somerville
Reviewer

Change

Page #

What is the difference between

Assistive and Applied Technologies?

Definition of each was expanded.

11

A&B

Is this study limited to postsecondary?

Defined to clarify scope of individual

being studied.

Are you referring to adult students or

adults in general?

Clarified in statement of problem

paragraph.

A
A

What about 3rd party advocates?

What country is IDEA from?

Addressed in problem statement

paragraph.
United States and stated in definition.

3
4

What Country is National Joint

Committee on Learning Disabilities
from?

Clarified in definitional statement

paragraph.

Recommendation to paraphrase
definitions.
Other disorders?

Because the definitions are distinctly

different, paraphrasing would reduce
the dissimilarities between them.
Disabilities and Disorders Defined

4&5
6

Because APA changed defintion, you

need to review all definitions?

Yes! Each of the definitions is standing

definitions and has variations. The
differences must be compared.

Definitions are technical, why are the

differences significant.

The definitions lead to the ADA and this

is explained in the applicable laws
paragraph.

10

Clarification about developmental

disabilities vs. learning disabilities.

Clarified in definitional statement

paragraph.

5&6

How did you decide what articles to

use?

Created a methods and criteria for

selection paragraph.

A
B