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Fist Econ 1952 Subsequent Editions and reprints 1960, 61,62. 64, 65 66,67, 8, 69,70, 71, 72, 73(twice). 74, 75, 76,77. 78, 79, 80.81, 82, 88, 4 Twice), 85, 86, 89,91, 93, 94.95, 90, 97, 8, 2000, 12001 2002, Theroughiy Revised Twenty-Third Eaton 2002, Reprint 2004 ‘ust umneotour Eaton 2008, eprint 2007, 2008, 2009 Revised Exton 2010 | Oter Parts Availabe Votre 1! Gite Becca Engines ISBN:81-219-2667-X Mekaoe |: Sil: Been Rip Code : 109A 205 Yetume It's Tarsrsion Dita & Uuzaion Dente WHOA | Combined Eton Also Available By Pajencra Ravincka Proters Pvt. Lid, 796, Rar Nagar, New Delhi -110 055 and published by S. Chand & Company Lid, 7361. Ram Nagar, New Delhi -110 056. Contents 51. Semiconductor Physics . 2017 — 2058 concerning Bohr's Atomic Mode|—Normal Excited and lonized Atom—Eleciron Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atom—Orbital (or azimuthal) Quantum Number—Electron Configuiation of Atoms—Orbital Magnetic Quantum Number Solids—Spacing Between Energy Levels of a Band—tnergy Bands in Lithium and their ‘accupancy—Valence and Conduction Bands— 1 Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductor Crysial Structure—Represeniation of Crystal Planes and Directions—Atomic Binding _in__Semiconductors—Types of _Semiconductors—intrinsic Semiconductors—Hole Formation in Semiconductors—Femi Level in an Intrinsic Semiconductors—Extrinsic Semiconductors Majority_and Minority Cartiers— Mobile Charge Carriers and immobile Ions—Electron Conductivity of a Metal— Conduciivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors~Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors—Conductivity when Intrinsic Charge Carrier Densities are Negiected—Conductivity of Pure and P-type-Germanium—Drift—Diffusion— Combined Drift and Diffusion Currents—Relation between D and jt— Recombination—Carrier Life Time—Total Carrier Flow—P-N Junction—Formation of Depletion Layer—Junction or Barrier Voltage—Energy Band Diagram of a P-N Junciion—Fonwatd Biased P-N Junction—Forward V/ | Charecteristic—Reverse Biased P-N Junction—Reverse V/ I Characteristic—Hall Efiect-Objective Tests. 52. P-N Junction Diode =. 2059 — 2086 PN Junction Diode—Derivation of Junction Resistance—unction Breakdown Jonsson ConecianeaEealnt Ceca EEN ‘Aller lunclon-Dllused inaction filial] finction Epitaxial junction—Point Contact junction—The Ideal Dinda—The Real Dinda—Diada Cieeuits with D.C and A.C. Voltage Sources—Diode Clipper and Clamper Circuits—Clippers—Some Clipping Circuits—Clampers—Summary of Clamping Circuits—Objective Tests, © 53. Optoelectronic Devices s+ 2087 — 2110 Fundamentals of Light—Light Emitting Diode (LED)—Use of LEDS in Facsimile Machines— Liquid Crystal Displays—P-N Junction Photodiode—Dust Sensor—Photoconductive Cell —Phototransistor—Photodariington— Photo voltaic or Solar Cell — Laser Diode— Optical Disks—Read—only Optical Disk Equipment—Printers using Leser Diodes— Hologram Scanners — Laser Range Finder— Lightactivated SCR(LASCR)—Optical Isolators—Optical Modulators—Optical Fibre Communication Systems—Optical Fibre Data Links—Objective Tests 54, Special Diodes... 2111— 2128 Zener Diode—Voltage Regulation—Zener Diode as Peak Clipper—Meter Protection—Zener Diode as @ Reierence Element—Tunneling Effect—Tunnel Diode—Tunnel Diode Oscillator—Varactor—PIN Diode—Schottky Diode—Step Recovery Diode— Gunn Diode—IMPATT Diode—Objective Tests, 55. D.C. Power Supplies 2129 — 2166 Introduction—Unregulated Power Supply— Regulated Power Supply—Rectfier—Single- phase Half-wave Rectifier—Equivalent Circuit of a HW Rectfier—Single-phase Fullwave Rectifier—Full-wave Bridge Rectfier-—Three- phase Half-wave Rectifier—Full-wave Rectification of S-phase Currents—Six-phase Half-wave Rectifier—Three-phase Bridge Circuit—Calculations with Resistive Load— Filters—Shunt Capacitor Filter—Effect of increasing Filter Capacitance—Calculation of Shunt Capacitor Filter—Series inductor Filter— The Choke Input of L-C Filter—The R-C Filte-—The CLC or Pi Filter—Bleeder Resistor—Voltage Dividers—Complete Power Supply—Voltage Multipliess—Half-wave Voltage Doubler—Full-wave Voltage Doubler—Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Circuits—Troubleshooting Power Supplies—Controlled Rectification—Output Waveform jor Different Firing ‘Angles—Output Voltage and Current Values in Controlled Rectifiers—Average Values for FW Controlled Rectfier—Silicon Controlled Rectifier—Pulse Control of SCR-90° Phase Control of SCR—180° Phase Control of SCR—SCR Controlled Load Circuit—UJT Controlled Load Circuit—Chopner—Inverters—Single Phase Invester—Push-pull Inverter—Objective Tests wi 56. Regulated Power Supply + 2167— 2186 General—Voltage Regulation—Zener Diode Shunt Regulator—Transistor Series Voltage Regulator—Controlled Transistor Series Regulator—Transistor Shunt Voliage Regulator—Transistor Current Regulator— Variable Feedback Regulator—BasicOP-AMP Series Regulator—Basic OP-AMP Shunt Regulator—Switching Regulators—Step-down Switching Regulator—Step-up Switching Regulator—Inverting Switching Regulator—IC Voliage Regulators—Fixed Positive Linear Votage Regulators—Fixed Negative Linear Voltage Rgulators—Adjustable Positive Output Linear Voltage Regulators—Adjustable Negative Output Linear Voltage Regulators—Use of Extemal Pass Transistor with Linear Voltage Regulators—Use of Linear Voltage Regulator as a Current Regulaior—Switchine Voltage IC Regulators—Objective Tests 57. Bipolar Junction Transistor 2187— 2218 Bipolar Junction Transistor—Transistor Biasing—Important Blasing Rule—Transistor Currents—Summing up—Transistor Circuit Configurations—CB — Configuration—CE Configuration Relation between a and B—CC—Configuration—Relation between Transistor Currents—Leakage Currents in a Transistor—Thermal Runaway-—Transitor Static Characteristics—Common Base Test Circuit— ye Common Base Static Cheracteristics—Common Emitter Test Circuit—Comman Emitter Static Characteristics—Common Collector Static Characteristic—Different Ways of Drawing Transistor Circults—Common Base Formulas—Common Emitter Formulae—Common Collector Formulas—The Beta Rule—Importance of V.,— Cut-off and Saturation Points—BJT Operating Regions—Active Region DC Model of BJT—BJT Switches—Normal DC Voltage Transistor Indcations—Transistor Fault Location—Solving Universal Stabilization Circuit—Notation for Voltages and ‘Currents—Increase/Decrease Notation—Applying AC 10 a DC Biased Transistor—Transistor ACIDC Analysis—Objective Tests. 58. Load Lines and DC Biased Circuits sss 2219 — 2236 DC Load Line—Q-Point and Maximum Undistorted Output—Need for Biasing a Transistor—Factor Affecting Bias Variations— Stability Factor—Beta Sensitivity—Stability Factor for CB and CE Circuits— Different Methods for Transistor Biasing—Base Bias—Base Bias with Emitter Feecback—Base Bias with Collector Feedback—Base Bias with Collector and Emitier Feedbacks—Emitter Bias with two Supplies—Voltage Divider Bias—Load Line and Output Characteristics—AC Load Line—Objective Tests 59. Transistor Equivalent Circuit and Models... 2237— 2276 General—DC Equivalent Circuit—AC Equivalent Circuit—Equivalent Circuit of CB Amplifier—Efiect of Source Resistance R, on Voltage Gain—Equivalent Circuit of a CE Amplifier—Effect of Source Resistance R.— Equivalent Circuit of a CC Amplifier— Small-signal Low-frequency Model or Representation—T-Model—Formulas for Tequivalent of a CB Circuit—Formulas for Teequivalent of a CE Circuit—Formulas for T-equivalent of a CC Circuit—What are h-parameters?—Input Impedance of a Two Port Network—Voltage Gain of Two Port Network—The hparameter Notation for Transistors—The h-parameters of an Ideal Transistor—The hyparameters of an Ideal CB Transistor—The h- parameters of an ideal CE Transistor—Approximate Hybrid Equivalent Circuits— Transistor Amplifier Formulae using h-Parametets—Typical Values of Transistor h-parameters—Approximate Hybrid Formulas—Common Emitter h-narameter Analysis—Common Collector h-parameter Analysis—Conversion of hyparameters— Objective Tess, 60. Single-Stage Transistor Amplifiers ww 2277 — 2314 Classification of Amplifiers—Common Base (CB) Amplifier—Various Gains of a CB Amplifier—Charactetistics of a CB Amplifier— ‘Common Emitter (CE) Ampliier—Various Gains of a CE Amplifier—Characteristics of a CE ‘Amplitier—Common Collector (CC) Amplifier— Various Gains ofa CC Amplifier—Characteristics of a CC Amplifier—Comparison of Amplifier Configurations—Ampiifier Classification Based on Biasing Conditions—Graphic Representation—Class-A Amplifier—Power Distribution in a Class-A Amplifier—Power Rectangle—Power Efficiency— Maximum AC Power in Load—Transformercoupled ClaswA Amplifier—Class-B Amplitier—Power Relation for Class-B Operation—Maximum Values—Class-B Push-pull Amplifier—Crossover Distortion—Power Efficiency of Push-pull Amplifiess—Complementary Symmetry Push-pull Class-B Amplifier—Class-C Amplifie-—Tuned Amplifier—Distortion in Amplifiers—Nor-linear Distortion— Intermodulation Distortion—Ftequency Distortion—Phase or Delay Distortion— Noise—The Decibel System—Other Expressions for Power Gain—Voltage and iti) Current Levels—Characteristics of the Decibel System—Value of 1 dB—Zero Decibel Reference Level—Variations in Amplifier Gain with Frequency—Cause of Amplifier Gain Variations—Millor Fffect—Cutoff Frequencies of Cascaded Amplifiers—Transistor Cutoff Frequencies—Alpha Cut-off Frequency—Beta Cut off Frequency —The fof a Transistor—Relation between ff, and. {, —Gain- bandwidth Product— Objective Tests 61. Multistage and Feedback Amplifiers + 2315 — 2342 General—Amplifier Coupling—RC-coupled Two-stage Amplifier—Advantages of RC Coupling—Impedance-coupled Two-stage Amplifier—Advantages of Impedance Coupling—Transformer-coupled Two-stage Amplifier—Advantages of Transformer Coupling —Frequency Response—Applications —Direct-coupled Two-stage Amplifier using Similar Transistors—Directcoupled Amplifier Using Complementary Symmetry of Two Transistors—Darlington Pair—Advantages of Darlington Pair— Comparison between Darlington Pair and Emitter Follower—Special Features of a Differential Amplifier—Common Code Input—Ditferential Amplifier —Objective Tests 62. Feedback Amplifier +++ 2343 — 2362 Feedback Amplifiers—Principle of Feedback “Ampliiers—Advantages of Negative Feedbeck— Gain. Stability—Decreased, Distortion— Feedback Over Several Siages—Increased Bandwidth—Forms of Negative Feedback— Shunt-lerived Series-fed Voltage Feedback— Curtent-series Feecback Amplitier—Voliage- shunt Negative Feedback Amplifer— Current shunt Negative Feedback Amplifier— Noninverting Opamp with Negative Feedback—Effect of Negative Feedback on R,,and R,,—R,, and R.. of Inverting Op-amp with Negative Feedback—Objective Tests 63. Field Effect Transistors 2363 — 2388 What is a FET—Junction FET (FET)—Static Characteristics of a JFET—JFET Drain Characteristic with V;,= 0—Characteristics with External Bias— Transfer Characteristic—Small Signal JFET Parameters—D.C. Biasing of a FET—DC Load Line— Common Source JFET Amplifier—JFET Amplifier co Gains—Advantages of FETs— MOSFET or IGFET—DE MOSFET—Schematic Symbols for a DE MOSFET—Static Characteristics of a DE MOSFET—Enhancement only N-Channel MOSFET—Biasing F-only MOSFET—FET Amplifiers —FET ApplicationsMOSFET Handling—Objective Tests, 64. Breakdown Devices w+» 2389 — 2406 Whet are Breakdown Devices?—Unijunction Transistor—UJT Relaxation Oscillator— Programmable UJT(PUT)—Silicon Controlled Rectifier—Comparison between Transistors and. Thyristors—Transient Effects in an SCR—Phase Control—Theft Alarm— Emergency Lighting System—Light Activated SCR (LASCR)— The Shockley Diode—Triae—Diac—Silicon Controlled Switch (SC3)—Objective Tess. 65. Sinusoidal and Non-sinusoidal Oscillators... 2407 — 2440 What is an Oscillator?—Comparison between an Amplifier and an Oscillator—Classification of Oscillators—Dampedl and Urdamped Oscillations — Oscillatory Circuit—Frequency of Oscillatory Current— Frequency Stability of an Oscillaior— Essentials of a Feedback LC Oscillator—Tuned Base Oscillator—Tuned Collector Oscillator—Tuned Drain Oscillator (HET)—Hartley Oscillator—FET Hartley Oscillator—Colpitts Oscillator—Clapp Oscillator—FET Colpitts Oscillator—Crystals—Crystal Controlled Oscillator— Transistor Pierce Cystal Oscillator—FET Pierce Oscillator—Phase Shift Principle— RC Phase Shift Oscillator—Wien Bridge Oscillator—Non-sinusoidal Waveforms— Classification of Non-sinusoidal Oscillators—Pulse Definitions—Basic Requirements ofa Sasstooth Generator UJT Sawiooth Generator—Multivibrators (MVi—Uses of Multivibrators—Astable Multivibrator—Monostable Muttivibrator (MMV)—Bistable Muttivibrator (BMV)—Schmitt Trigger—Transistor Blocking Oscillato-—Objective Tests 66. Modulation and Demodulation wo 2441 — 2470 Introduction—What is a Carrier Wave?—Raglio Frequency Spectrum—Sound—Need for Modulation—Radio Broadcasting~Modulation —Methods of Modulation—Amplitude Modulation—Percent Modulation— Upper and Lower Side Frequencies—Upper and Lower Sidebands—Mathematical Analysis of a i) Modulated Carrier Wave—Power Relation in an AM Wave—Forms of Amplitude Modulation—Generation of SSB—Methods of Amplitude Modulation—Block Diagram of an AM Transmitter—Modulating Amplifier Circuit—Frequency Modulation— Frequency Deviation and Carrier Swing~Modulation Index— Deviation Ratio—Percent Modulation—FM Sidebands—Modulation Index and Number of Sidebands—Mathematical Expressions for FM Wave—Demodulation or Detection—Essentials of AM Detection—Diode Detector for AM Signals— Transistor Detectors for AM Signals—FM Detection—Quadrature Detecior— Frequency Conversion—Superheterodyne AM Receiver—Standard Superhet AM Receiver—FM Receiver—Comparison between AM and FM—The Four Fields of FM—Objective Tests 67. Integrated Circuits 2471 — 2502 Introduction—What is an Integrated Circuit ? Advantages of 1Cs—Drawbacks of ICs—Scale of Integration—Classification of ICs by Structure—Comparison between Different ICs—Classification of ICs by Function—Linear Integrated Circuits (LICs)|—Manutacturer’s Designation of LICs—Digital Integrated Circuits—IC Terminology—Semiconductors used in Fabrication of Cs and Devices—How ICs are Made? — Material Preparation—Crystal Growing and Water Preparation—Wafer Fabrication—Oxidation—Etching—Diffusion—Ion Implantation—Photomask Generation—Photolithography—Epitaxy—Metallization and Interconnections — Testing, Bonding and Packaging—Semiconductor Devices and integrated Circuit Formation—Comparisan of ICs based on MOS and Bipolar Transistor Technology— Popular Applications of ICs—Objective Tests 68. OP-AMP and its App! ations 2503 — 2524 What is an OP-AMP? —OP-AMP Symbol— Polarity Conventions—Ideal Operational Amplifier—Virlual Ground and Summing Point—Why V, is Reduced to Almost Zero! — OF-AMP Applications—Linear Amplifier— nity Follower—Adder or Summer ~Subtractor— Integrator—Differentiator—Comparator—Audio Amplifier—OP-Amp Based Oscillator Circuits— OP-Amp Based Wien Bridge Oscillator—OP-Amp Based Crystal Oscillaior—A Triangularwave Oscillator—A Voltage-controlled Sawtooth Oscillator (VCO) —A Square-wave Relaxation Oscillator—High: impedance Voltmeter—Active Filters—Low-pass Filter—High-pass Filter—Band pass Filter—Notch Filter—Objective Test. wi 69. Number Systems and Codes a 2525 — 2554 Number Systems—The Decimal Number System—Binary Number System—Binary to Decimal Conversion—Binary Fractions— Double-Dadé Method—Decimal to Binary Conversion—shifting the Place Point— Binary Operations—Binary Addition— Binary Subtraction—Complement of a Number—1’s Complemental Subtraction— 2's Complemental Subtraction—Binary —— Multiplication—Binary Division—Shifting a Number to Left or Right—Representation of Binary Numbers as Electrical Signals—Octal Number System—Octal to Decimal Conversion—Decimal to Octal Conversion— Binary to Ocal Conversion—Octal to Binary Conversion —Usefulness of Octal Number System—Hexadecimal Number System—How to Count Beyond Fin Hex Number Systems ! Binary to hexadecimal Conversion—Hexaclecimal to Binary Conversion—Decimal to hexadecimal Conversion—Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion—Digital Coding—Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Code—Octal Coding—Heradecimal Coding —Excess-3 Code—Gray Code—Excess-3 Gray Code—Other Codes—ASCII Code—Objective Tests 70. Logic Gates s+ 2555 — 2584 Definition of @ Logic Gate—Positive and Negative Logic—The OR Gate—Equivalent Relay Circuit of an OR Gate—Diode OR Gate— Transistor OR Gate—OR Gate Symbolizes Logic Addition—Three Input OR Gate—Exclusive OR Gate—The AND Gate—Equivalent Relay Circuit of an AND Gate—Diode AND Gate—Transistor AND Circuit—AND Gate Symbolizes Logic Mubtiplication—The NOT Gate— Equivalent Circuits or a NOT Gate—The NOT Operation— Bubbled Gates—The NOR Gate—NOR Gate is @ Universal Gate—The NAND Gate—NAND Gate is a Universal Gate—The XNOR Gate—Logic Gate at Glance—Digital Signals Applied to Logic Gates—Application of Logic Gates—Combinational Logic Circuit—Sequential Logic Circuits—Adders and Subtractors—Half Adder—Full Adder—Parallel Binary Adder—Halt Subtractor—Full Subtractor—Odjective Tests 71. Boolean Algebra & Logic Families w+ 2585 — 2630 Introduction—Unique Feature of Boolean Algebra—Laws of Boolean Algebra— Equivalent Switching Circuits—DeMorgan’s Thearem’s—Dualt—Standard Forms of Boolean Expressions—The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form—The Standard SOP (aid Form—The Product-of Sums (POS) Form—The Standard POS Form—The Karmaugh Map— The Twowvariable KarnaughMap—The Three variable Karmaugh Map—The Four-variable Karnaugh Map—Square Adjacensy in Karnaugh Map—Mapping a Standard SOP Expression on the Kamaugh Map—Mapping a Non standard SOP Expression on the Karnaugh Map—Simplification of Boolean Expression using Kamaugh Map—Mapping Directly on Karnaugh Map from a Tauth Table — “Don't Care Conditions—Main Logic Families—Saturated and Non-saturated Logic Circuits—Basic operating Characteristics and Parameters of Logic Families—DC supply voltage—TTL and CMOS Logic Levels—Noise ImmunityNoise Margin-Power Dissipation—Power Dissipation versus Frequency—Propagation Delay—Speed-Power Product— Loading end Fan-out—RTL Cireuit—OTL Circuit—TTL Circuit—TTL Sub-families— ECL Circuit — P L Circuit MOS family—PMOS Circuit—NMOS Circui—CMOS Circuit—CMOS Sub-families and their Charecteristics—Objective Tests. 72. Flip-Flops and Related Devices o» 2631— 2694 Introduction —Flip-Flop (FF)—Latch—-NAND Gate Latch-NOR Gate Latch—Clocked Signals—Some Main Ideas Common to Clocked Flip-lops—Clocked S-C Flip-Flop—Clocked J- K Flip-Flop—Clocked D Flip-Flop—Parallel Transfer of Data Using D-Fip-Flops—D Latch (Transparent Laich)—Clocked J+k Flip-Flop with Asynchronous Inputs—Flip-Flop Timing Parameters—IC Flip-Flop Timing Values— Applications of _Flip-Flop—Flip-Flop Synchronization—Parallel Data Transfer—Frequency Division—Counting—Schmitt Trigger Devices—Types of One Shots—Retriggerable One-Shot—Actual One Shot Deviees—Clock Generator Circuits—Schmitt Trigger Oscillator—555 Timer Used as an Astable Mutivibrator 73. Electronic Instruments +» 2695 — 2736 Introduction—Analog and Digital Insiruments—Functions of Instruments Electronic Vs Electrical Instruments—Essentials of an Electronic Instrument— Measurement Standards—The Basic Meter Movement—Characteristics of Moving Coil Meter Movement—Variation of Basic Meter Movement—Converting Basic Meter to OC Ammeter—Multirange Meter—Measurement of Current—Converting, Basic Meter to DC Voltmeter—Multirange DC Voltmeter—Loading Eifect of a Voltmeter—Ohmmete:—The Multimete—Rectifer Type AC Meter—Electronic Voltmeters—Direct Current FET VM—Electronic Voltmeter for Alternating Currents—The Digital Voltmeter (OVM)—Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)— it) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)—Deflection Sensitivity of a CRT—Normal Operation of a CRO—Triggered and Non-triggered Scopes— Dual Trace CRO—Dual Beam CRO—Storage: Oscilloscope—Sampling CRO—Digital Readout CRO—Handheld Battery Operated Oscilloscope— Lissajous Figures—Frequency Determination with Lissajous Figures— Applications of a CRO—The Q Meter—Logic Analysers—Spectrum Analysers—Signal Generators—Audio Generators—Function Generators—Pulse _ Generators—RF Generators—Frequency Synthesizer—Other Signal Generators—IEEE-488 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) Instruments—Objective Tests. INDEX vi) (iv) (wi) VOLUME IV ELECTRONIC DEVICES & CIRCUITS (wi) charter EST Lean ing Objectives — SEMI- tecamewy ocrn'yy CONDUCTOR drogen Atom ich PHYSICS > Oibital Magnetic Quantum Number (m,) > Magnetic Spin Quantum Number (m,) > Pauls Exclusion Principle > Energy Bonds in Lithium and Their Occupancy > Valence and Conduction Bands > Insulators, Conductors ond Semiconductors Crystel Structure Types of Semiconductors Mobile Charge Carriers and immobile ions > Electron Conductivity of a Metal Combined Drift and Diffusion Currents vv y vY v > Relation Between D ond » > Cartier Life Time > P-N Junction a: Farmation of Deplation Layat; # A worker at a hydro-electric power station is > Junction or Barrier Vottage carrying out routine maintenance on a high- > Forword Based PN Junction voltage insulator made of a ceramic material > Reverse Biased P-N Junction 2018) Electrical Technology 51.1. The Atom Acconting to the model of atom proposed by Bohr in 1913, an atom is composed of a numberof electrons moving in circular or elliptical orbits around a relatively heavy nucleus of protons and nevtrons as shown in Bg. Si-1. Although, this simple model of an atom has been replaced by later models, yet it affords a convenient method Of understanding the working of semi-conductor devices. Electron has a mass of nearly 9.1 x 10°" kg and a charge of 16 x 10°” C. ‘The diameter of an stom is approximately 107" m and that of the nucleus about 10°" m, The number ‘of protons in the atom of an element gives its atomic number ‘while the atomic mass number is determined by the number ‘of protons and neutons present in the nucleus. 51.2. Bohr's Atomic Model Fig. 514 ‘The nuctear atomic model proposed by Rutherford ps in 1911 was found to suffer from two serious drawbacks conceming distribution of extra-nuclear electrons and stability of the atom as a whole, It was laier on super seded by atomic model proposed by Bohr in 1913. Using Planck's Quantum Theory, Bohr made the follow- ing postulstes 1. The alom has a massive positively charged nucleus; 2. The electrons revolve round their nucleus in circular orbits, the centrifugal foree being balanced by the electrostatic pull between the nucleus and electrons; 3. Anelectron cannot evolve round the nucleus inany arbitrary orbit but in just certain definite Uiscrete orbits. Only those orbits are possible (or permiued) for whick the orbital angular ‘momentum (i.e. moment of momentum) of the electron is equal to an integral muttiple of W2m ie. orbital angular momentum = nhI2x where n is an integer and his Planck's constant, Such orbits are also known as stationary orbits; 4. While revolving in these permitted stationary (or stable) orbits the electron does not radiate cout any electromagnetic energy. In other words, the permissible orbits are non-radiating paths of the electron; 5. The atom radiates out energy only when an electron jumps from one orbit to another. If E, and E, are the energies corre sponding to two orbits before and after the jump. the frequency of the emived photon is given by the relation E-E=6 ot AE=hf where fis the frequency of the emitted radiations. Explanation. If isthe moment of inertia of an electron and @ its angular velocity, then as per assumption (3) given ahove Gl = nh/2n or (mr) © = nhl2n ot (me wir = MhlK or nvr = nhle ‘Alternatively, since the momentum of the revolving eleeton is my, its moment about the nucleus is mvr (Fig. $1.2). Neils Bohr (1885-1962) Semiconductor Physics 20190 Hence, mor = nhl when n= 1, 2,3 ele. for the first, second and third orbits respectively. It is called the principal quantum number aad because it can take whole number values only, it fixes the size af the allowed orbits (also called Bohr’s circular orbits). Let the different permitted orbits have energies of E,, Ey E, ete. as shown in Fig. 51.3 (@). The electron can be raised from n= 1 orbit any other higher orbit if itis given proper amount of energy. Electron mitted \ “ump Radiation o Fig. 51.2 Fig. 51.3 When it drops backo n= | orbit afte shor interval of time, i gives out the energy diference AE Inthe form ofa radiation as shown In Fig, 31.3 (). The celation between the energy teased and frequency ofthe emitted dation i B-B=l of Ab=W 51.3. Calculations Conceming Bohr's Atomic Model The above posses concerning Boli's nomic model canbe ullzed to calculate ot only the rai of diferent electron orbits but also the velocty and orbital frequency possessed by diferent Now, ie ably of the atom requires thatthe centhfugal force acting onthe revolving elecuon be balanced by the electostac pull exerted by the positively charged nuceus onthe electron, my? __Ze-e rane, r Also, according to Robr's postulates, mvr = nh!2n. The above two equations may be used to find the radii of different Bobr’s circular orbits. (@) Radi of Orbits. Eliminating v ftom the above two equations, we get ae conte a. E e 1 mize Itis sen tht the radi ofthe permitted orbits vary asthe square of the principal quantum number rn Als, F, For hydrogen atom, r are forbidden. (b) Velocity of Revolving Electrons. The velocity of a revolving electron as found from the above equations is v= Ze'Re yuh =9 x10. 2nZe"Inh, 2020 Electrical Technology It shows that velocity is inversely proponional to m ie. we I/n. Hence, the electron in the innermost orbit has the highest velocity (nearly 1/37 of the veloety of light). (©) Orbital Brequency. The orbital rotational frequency’ of an electron is aA mize : f= em eis soon that fm Un tm dela ht (@) Electron Energy. The orbital energy of a revolving electron is of two types (0) Kinetic energy due to the motion of the electron. ts value i 2) mv". Ze? lb yp. ‘18 1 € of. —as represented by curve 2 in Fig. 51.4 As seen from above, my Hence, K.E. = (1/2) mv" Eliminating r ftom above, KE.=nZ‘e'e, n't, ) Potential energy—because the electron lies in the electric field of the postive nucleus. Now, the potential at a point distant r from the nucleus is V = One yy The potential energy of an electron (of charge ~e) is PE, = Zeltne yr curve I in Fig.51.4 —curve 3 in Fig. 51.4 mere curve 3 in Fig. 51 ‘illo point uaigy at wi doe aati Ifriseliminated from the above equation, the orbital energy is =nBeReg nk Bune» €tC for the energy states that is possible for the electron to have, It will be seen where. that E, = En 51.4, Normal, Excited and tonized Atom, Consider the case of the simplest atom ie, hydrogen atom, When its only electron is in its innermost orbit (1 = 1), then the stom is said to he in its normal (or unexcited) state. Generally, itis this condition in which most of the free hydrogen atoms in a gas are found to exist at normal room. temperature and pressure. However, if spark is passed through hydrogen gas contained in a vessel, then high-speed electrons produced by the spark collide with hydrogen atoms and may either com- pletely remove the n= 1 electron from them or rise i to higher pemnitted orbits having n= 2, 3,4 ete. When the electron js completely temoved from the atom, the om is sad to be ionized rediations ‘The negative sigs only indicates that this mueh ray is required W remove the electron fice the atom, conductor Physics 20210 excited (orin an excited state). The atom does not remain in the excited state longer than 10™* second because the electron under the attractive force of the nucleus jumps tothe lower permitted orbit. In doing 0, the electron loses the energy it had earlier gained during collision, However, the electron may return by several jumps, thereby emitting many different radiations of different frequencies, 51.5. Electron Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atom As seen from Art, 51.3, orbital energy of an electron revolving in ny, orbit or shell is E,=-m2 Regn In the case of hydrogen atom, Z = 1, hence met me* 217x109 EB, = i ‘e > joules Rea? Bed eo 27x10" 4 136 py -19 5 See (2 LeV = 1.6% 107 joules) ‘This expression gives the total energy of un electron when it occupies any one of the different ‘orbits (or shells) of the hydrogen atom. o @ Fg. 515 For Kshell, a = 1, E, =- 16 For L-shell, a = 2, Ey =~ 13627 =-34eV For M-shell, a = 3, E, = ~ 13013 =~ LSI eV ete. fous electron orbits to the Instead of drawing va Je of thei radi as in Fig, S15 (a), itis customary to draw borizontal lines to an energy scale as shown in Fig. $1.5 (b) and such a diagram is called energy level diagram (ELD) ofan atom. In this aray of energies the higher (ie. less negative) energies are atthe top while the lower (i.e. more negative) energies are atthe bottam. The various electron jumps between allowed orbits now become vertical arrows between energy levels. Greater the length ofthe arrow, greater isthe energy “A? ofthe radiated photon. 2022) Electrical Technology Example S11. Calculate the value of the kinetic, potential and total energy of an electron revolving in Bohs first orbit in a hydrogen atom. idiian ts Re oe 9.110" (1.6 107" )* fuerte eS Beh i BKBRSIXIO™) xT x6.625x10 21.7 x 107? joules = 13.6€V Wi) PE. = - F8a5 =-43.4x 10" joules = - 27.2 eV. ae, (it) Total enetgy = KE + RE. 5+ (272) 51.6. Orbital (or Azimuthal) Quantum Number Acconting to Bohr’s postulates (Art. $1.2), there is only one orbit and hence one energy level) corresponging to each value ofthe principal quantum number n, However, subsequent experimental exiderce revealed that all orbits (except m = 1 orbit) consist of more than one orbit called Sub-orbits, This group of sub-orhitsis collectively known as shell. For example, n = | shell or K-shell consists of only one orbit which may also be called its own sub-crbit or sub-shell. The n = 2 shell or L-shell consiss of two sub-shels. Similarly, n = 3 shell or M-shell consists of three sub-shells. In other words, the number of sub-shells is equal to the n-salue of the shell. The 2n’ electrons of the shell now get divided between these sub-shell In order to distinguish between different sub-shells belonging to a given shell, new quantum rnumber called orbital (or azimuthal) quantim number has been introduced. This quantum number ccan have integral values lying between zero and (n ~ 1) ie. 0S 1§ (n~ 1), Itis helpful in the following ways: = B.6 eV (@) Itgives the number of sub-shells which are contained in ene shell, The wuumber of sub-shells isequal to the number of values which / can have subject to the restriction 0 << (n~ I) as shown in Fig. 51.6 (a). nose bor $30 ea © oct 4? Ha aa iphad ahah ae wey Sar Ble w Pg. 918 (B) Tthelps to distinguish between different sub-shells of a shell by its different values for each sub-shell. Consider the following cases : 1. m= 1 shell, Here, {can have only one value ie. zero. Hence, K-shell has only one sub- shell with two quantum numbers of n = | and [= 0. Semiconductor Physics 2023 2. m=2shell, Here, /=0,1. Hence, this shell has two sub-shells® which are distinguish- able from each other by their different quantum numbers of n= 2,1'= 0 and (Fig. 51.6), 3. m=3shell. Here /=0, 1,2, showing that M-shell has three sub-shells which ifferin their ‘values. ‘The two quantum numbers forthe three sub-shells are = $0093, fe lynn 3, f= 2. (©) Ithelps to determine the shape of different sub-shells of a given shell. Some sub-shells are circular whereas others are elliptical in shape. If aand 6 are semi-major and semi-minor axes respectively ofan ellipse, and Lare its prineipal quantum number and orbital quantum ‘number respectively, then the relation between them is b _ Ll Consider the following cases 1. K-shell orm = 1 shell Here, 1= 0, hence b/a = (0 + I)/1 or W/a = 1 of b=a. In other words, the first shell (also, called sub-shell or K-shell) aeound the nucleus of an atom is eireular in shape as shown in Fig. 51.7 (a). 2. Leshell orm = 2 shell ‘As stated earlier and shown in Fig. 51.6, ithas two more sub-shells. First sub-shell with != Itis elliptical in shape as shown in Fig. 51.7 (b. ‘Second sub-shell with = 1. Here ae Ground 4d State 4p 4s acl aod pant Fo mS 2 Fle © o Fg. 517 ell bas circular shape as shown in Fig. 51.7 (6), 3. Meshell orn =3 shell ‘thas three sub shells with £= 0, 1,2. First sub-shell with (= 0, Here, 7a =(0 + 1/3 = 1/3. Itis elliptical in shape. Second sub-shell with = 1. Here, bfa= (1 + 1/3 = 2/3. Ibis also elliptical in shape ‘Third sub-shell with {= 2, Here, bv {, Opviously, this sub-shell is jar in shape. Fig. 51.7 shows shapes of different sub-shells as per values of from 1 t0 4. (@ Wdetermines the distribution of electrons in various sub-shells ofa shell ‘The maximum Different sub-shells have been shown circular for the sake of simplicity although, in practice, mostof them sa elliptical Electrical Technology ‘number of electrons which a sub-shell of any n-value can accommodate is = 2 (21 +1). Consider the following 1. Keshell. Here as 1s*elecirons, 2. Leshell. First sub-shell with f= 0 can have 2 (2x 041 designated as 25° ‘Total number of electrons in the wo sub-shells Is 2+ 2x2 8 3. Meshell. First sub-shell with 1 ectrons, ‘Second sub-shell with J= | can have a maximum of (2x 1 + 1) =6 electrons which are designated as 2p° electrons. designated as 3 electrons, ‘Second sub-shell [= I can have 6 electrons written as 3p° electroas, ‘Third sub-shell with / = 2 can accommodate a maximum of 2(2 ‘which are known as 3d" electrons. Again, it will be seen that total umber of electrons in the three sub-shells of m = 18 which equals 2 O can have maximum of two electrons designated as 4s shell +041 4. Noshell. First sub-shell with xe 8: electrons, Second sub-shell can contain 6 electrons known as 4p" electrons, ‘Similarly, third sub-shell ean have 10 electrons designated as 4d" el ‘The fourth sub-shell can havea maximum of (23-41) = is 4 f* electrons, O.nence itean have 2 (2x 0-+ 1)= 2 electrons. They are designated 2 electrons which are 8 which tallies with 21° has, as explained above, 2 electrons which are 2+ 1) = 10 electrons 4 electrons whosedesignation The total number of electrons is = 2 +6 + 10 + 14 = 32 which isin accordance with the number a a dxd= 2 Incidentally, it should be noted that different f values of 0, 1, 2,3, 4... ete. are Mentified ass, p, Gf Bun 0 ‘Phe different sub-shells and maximum number of electrons they ean accommodate are tabulated below. Shell ik L M N a 1 2 3 4 T a T ~o]!]2 2]3 sub-shell ws || p_|s |p la alr Maximum Nos oF electrons a) || 8 6 | 2] 6 |10 wo | 14 2141) Total No. of 2 5 18 32 electrons = 2n? (©) The orbital quantum number / also quantizes the orbital angular momentum p, associated with each sub-shell Py Lhlte where 3, However, quantum mechanical considerations indicate that p# Lh/27 as stated above but instead Pha where 1 % According to Botr’s theory. p, [rs Dn n. hide. conductor Physics 20250 51.7. Election Configuration of Atoms By electron configuration of an atom is meant the distribution of its electrons in its various sub- shells around the nucleus, Following three rules govern the electron distribution : 1. Maximum number of electrons a shell can have is = 2n" 2. Inthen™ shell, there are. sub-shells having different values of I suchas 0, 1, 2 3. Each sub-shell can accommodate a maximum of 2(2/ + 1) electrons. Consider the following stoms . (@ Sodium atom, Z = 11. It has 11 electrons. Hence, its electonie configuration is 1s°, 28, 2p", 38!. Opviously, Na has asingle electron in ts outermost sub-shell and hence is, sie tae monovalent. ‘Same property is possessed by other alkali metals Tike Li, K. RD and Cs. They have similar chemical properties and are, therefore, included in the same ‘group in the periodic table. ‘The electron in the inner sub-shell are very tightly bound to the nuclens and cannot be easily removed. In other words, they have high binding energy. (4) Copper atom, = 29, Ithas 29 elections. Its electronic configuration is 1s°, 26°, 2p", 3p", 3d. as! 51.8. Orbital Magnetic Quantum Number (m)) determines the spatial orientation of elliptical elect orbits with respect to an applied magnetic field. There are restrictions on the orientations ofthe electron orbits because of which they are said to be space quantized. Whereas | determines the orbital angular momentum, m, represents the magnitude of the component of angular momentum along the direetion of the magnetic field. Looked from a different angle, m, determines the number of sub-subshells ina given shell ‘This quantim number ean have any one of the (2/ + 1) values ranging from + [to ~ [including 2210 bby (E= Is (= Bhnene2s Is O6~ Ly = 2voenen = U= 2, = = Dab Eich sub-subshell can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons, so that maximum number of electrons in a shell becomes 2(21+ 1) as stated earlier in Art. 51.6 (d). 51.9. Magnetic Spin Quantum Number (m,) thas been found that an electton spins around its Own mechanical axis as i rotates in orbit around the nucleus. When the elestron is subjested to a magnetie Fel, its spin axis orientates itselt either parailel to oF antiparallel tothe direction of the field This quantum number arises out of quantization of the electron spin angular momentum, Iedetermines te spin orientation up ot down and hus correspondingly two values of + 12 and — 1/2. in~1). 51.10. Paul's Exclusion Principle ‘This principle which was enunciated by Pauli in 1925 states that in an atom, no two electrons can have the same set of values for its four quantum number n, l,m, and m,. In other words, n0 two clectrons can be described by an identical set of four quantum numbers. They may have at the most three numbers alike but at least one must be different. Consequently, it restricts the numberof electrons. ‘an atom can have. ‘Consider the case of He atom which has two electrons. These electrons occupy K-shell (n= 1) and are designated as 1s* electrons. Their four quantum numbers are as follows ” 1 m om, Ist electron 1 o 0 +12 2nd electron 1 o 0 1D [As seen, the two electrons have different sets of four quantum numbers (1.0, 0,-+1/2) and (1.0. ~ 1/2) as required by Pauli’s Exclusion Principle. 2026 Electrical Technology ‘This principle affords a very rational theoretical justification for the electronie shell structure of the atoms deduced experimeatly. auli’s Exclusion Principle may he used to find the total number of electrons an atom ea its various shells, Consider the following examples 1, K-shell 140, Ls sub-shell, mm = 0; Total n=2,L-shell ( [= 0,25 sub-shell, m, 2 electrons, i) 171, 2p sub-shell, m, =~ 1, 0,4 bs m, = U2 6 eleewons Total —Weleetrans 3, M-shell (@ 1=0, 3s sub-shell, m= 0; m,= 1/2 2 electrons: (i 1= 1, 3p sub-shell, my=—1,(, #15 m,= 12 6 electrons ii) 1=2, 3d sub-shell, my =—2,~ 1.0.41, 425, 10 electrons Total TR electrons 4, Neshell (i 1=0,4s sub-shell, m= 0, m,= 21/2 2 electrons (i) 1=1, 4p sub-sbell, my ==1, 0, 13m, = 412 6 electrons ii). 1=2, 4a subs, m, 1.0.41, 42,m,= 402 10 electrons (i) 1=3,4f sub-shell, m, =~ 3,~2,~ 1,0, + 1.42.43, m= 212 14 electrons Total “32 electrons 51.11. Energy Bands in Solids In the case of an isolated single atom, there are single energy levels as shown for a hydrogen atom in Fig. 51.5. But there are significant changes in the energy levels when atoms are brought close together asin solids Itis found that each of the energy levels of an atom splits into WV levels of energy where Nis the number of atoms in the crystal. Each original energy level becomes a band of very closely-spaced levels of slightly different energy. The individual energies within the bund are so close together that, for many purposes, the energy band miay be considered 10 be a continuous one Fig. 51.8 (a) shows the splitting of K, Land M levels asthe distance between different atoms is reduced. At first, only valence level or M-level is affected as shown by dotted vertical line marked A, then as separation is reduced. inner shells also become affected as indicated by dotted vertical line B. ‘Consider the ease of Na crystal which consists of an ordered array of many closely-packed Sectum atoms usally referred to as crystal lattice. Each Na atom has 1 electrons arranged in aitferent shells and sub-sheels as shown in Fig. 51.9 (a). AS seen, the Is. 2s and 2p sub-shells are filled but 3s sub-shell is incomplete and could hokd one electron more. The electrons in each sub-shell occurs specific energy levels as shown in Fig, 51.9(6), For a small sodium ¢rystal containing 10" atoms, the band formed by splitting of s-subshell has 2 electronic levels (one with spin up and the others with spin down). Similarly in a p-band there will be 6 x 10° closely packed levels because there are 6 electrons in a fitled p suoshel In general. in an assembly of N atoms. the number of possible energy states is N. Since only two electrons of opposite spin can oezupy the same state (as per Pauli’s Exclusion Principle discussed earlier, the maximum number of elecirons which these N states ean ozcupy 18 2N. Semiconductor Physics 2027 ‘Band Eneryy —b LLL 4 tneraumle Distance @ w Fg. 518 51.12. Spacing Between Energy Levels of a Band twill be quite interesting ns well as instructive to calculate the spacing between different enerey levelsin an energy band. A crystal weighing one milligram contains about 10” atoms. If we assume the valency band to bean s-band, i wll contain 2 x 10" levels. Suppose the width ofthe energy band 2eV. Then, itis obvious that 2 10" levels per milligram ate spread over an energy band width of 2eV. Hence, spacing between diferent levels = 2/2 x10") = 107 eV. It will be appreciated that even tough energy leves are discret, the picture of a band aa continuum of energy levels is avery {g00d approximation, This spliting of the single energy’ level of an isolated atom into band of Yatence Band TMM, \ o NS —— Rik os 43 Fo LL o » Fg. 519 ‘energy in the case of a solid is responsible for most of the electrical, magnetic and optical properties, ‘ofthat solid. It is worth pointing out here that in geses under nomnal conditions of temperature and pressure, the atomic spacing is so great thot there is no splitting of energy levels and hence no band formation. 2028 Electrical Technology 51.13. Energy Bands in Lithium and their Occupancy Consider the case ofithium metal—the simplest atom which forms solid at ordinary temperature. Its atom has three electrons, two of which have the same energy and the third one has higher value of ‘energy. Inan isolated single tom, two electrons move round the electron onbit with n= I wheteas the third occupies the orbit with n = 2as shown in Fig. $1.10 (a). Now, consider a piece of lithium metal containing 100 atoms. It will be found that the lower level (with n= 1) forms a band of 200 electrons ‘occupying 100 different energy states, The higher level (with » = 2) forms a wider band of 100 ‘energy states which could, as before, accommodate 200 electrons. Butas there are only 100 electrons available (one from each atom), this energy band remains half-filled (Fig. 51.10 (b)]- 0 OF vt ad 2 2 Ba 7 E-« Eg a yyy, 20 Elecwons 4 /e -10 Fig. 51.10 51.14. Valence and Conduction Bands ‘The outermost electrons of an atom ie. those in the shell furthermost from the nucteus are called valence electrons and have the highestenergy* or least binding energy. It isthese electrons which are most affected when a number of atoms are brought very close together as during the formation of a solid, The states of lower-energy electrons orbiting in shells nearer to the nucleus are litle. if at al affected by this atomic proximity “The band of energy occupied by the valence electrons is called the valence bend ands, obviously, the highest occupied band. It may be completly filled or partially filled with electrons but never empty. ‘The next higher permitted energy band is called the eonduetion band and may either be empty or ertially filled with elecitons. In fact, it may be defined as the lowest unfilled energy band In conduction hand, electrons can move freely and hence are known.as conduction electrons. ‘The gap between these two bands is known as the forbidden energy gap. Itmay be noted that the covalent force of the crystal lattice have their source in the valence band. Ita valence electron happens to absorb enough energy, it jumps across the forbidden energy gap and centers the conduction band (Fig. $1.12). An electron inthe conduction band ean jump to.an adjacent conduction bank! more readily than it can jump back to the valence band from where it had come catlier. However, if @ conduction electron happens to radiate too much energy, it will suddenly reappear in the valence band once again. When an electron is ejected from the valence band, a covalent bond is broken and 2 positively charged hole is left behind. This hole can travel to an adjacent atom by acquiting an electron from ® Inthe algebraic sense only. ‘Their binding energy isthe least. Semiconductor Physics 2029 Filed ; Conduction Band Empty or ‘ - MMM, Fs ao : ee j E> MUM Fs 3 mre {fer PANT |e Fig. 51.11 Fig 51.12 that atom which involves breaking an existing covalent bond and then re-establishing a covalent bond by filling up the hole. It is (0 be noted carefully that holes are filled by electrons which move fromadjacent atoms without passing through the forbidden energy gap. sua Itis simply another way of saying that conditions in the conduction band have nothin the hole flow. I: points to a very important distinction between the hole current and electron current— although holes flow with ease, they experience more opposition than electron flow in the conduction band. To summarize the above, it may he repeated that 1. conduction electrons are found in and freely flow in the conduetion band. 2. holes exist in and flow in the valence band ; to do with, 3. conduction electrons move amos: ewice as fastas the holes. Fig. 51.13 (a) shows the energy band diagram of an unexcited silicon atom (Z = 14) electronic distribution. When silicon erystal is given thermal or light energy from outside [Fig. 51 (H)}, some electrons gain sufficient energy © jump the gap from the valence band into the conduction hand thereby becoming free electins [Fig. 51.13 (c)]. For every electen which jumps to conduction band, a hole is created in the valence band, In this way, an electron-hole pair is crested. 51.15. Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors Tre electrical conduction properties of different elements and compounds can be explained in terms of the electrons having energies in the valenceand conduction bands. The electrons lying in the lower energy bands, which are normally filed, play no part in the conduction process. (@ Insulators. Stated simply, insulators are those materials in which valence electrons are Electrical Technology bound very tightly to their parents atoms, thus requiring very large electric field ‘o remove them from the attraction of their nuclei. In other words, insulators have no free charge carriers available with them under normal conditions In terms of energy bands, it means that insulators. 1. have a full valence band, 2. have an empty conduction band, 3. have a large energy gap (of several eV) between them and 4. atordinary temperatures, the probability of electrons irom full valence band gaining sufficient BY $0 a8 10 surmount energy gap and thus become available for conduction in the conduction band, is slight Em ‘Conduction Band yyy Conduton Bard Wd iy Conduction Band Sa Ea} Small En ie [ca Band Energy Band Energy ‘Valence Band Valence Band ‘Valence Band @ o o Fig. 51.14 This is shown in Fig. 51.14 (0). For conduction to take place, electrons must be given sufficient ‘energy to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Increase in temperature enables some <’lectrons 9 go to the conduction band which fact accounts for the negative resistance-temperature coefficient of insulators. Gi) Conduetors, Put in a simple way, conducting materi- als are those in which plenty of free electrons are available for electric conduction. Interms of energy bands, it means thatelectrical conductors are those which have overlapping valence and conduction bands as shown in Fig. 51.14 (6). In act, there is no physical distinction between the two bands. Hence, the availablity ofa large number of conduction electrons. Another point worthnoting is that in the absence of forbidden ‘energy gap in good conductors, there is no structure to establish holes. The soual currentin such conductors ts simply a flow of electrons. {tis exactly for this reason that the existence of holes ‘was not discovered until semi-conductors were studied thoroughly. (ii) Semiconductors. A semiconductor material Is one whose electrical properties lie in between those of insulators and ‘conductors. Examples are : germanium and silicon. In terms of energy bands, Semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have almost ind with a very narrow energy gap (of the order Insulators aan empty conduction band and almost filled valence: of 1 eV) separating the two, ALO*K, there are no electrons in the conduction band and the valence band is completely filled. However, with increase in temperature, width of the forbidden energy bands is decreased so that Semiconductor Physics 2031 some of the electrons are liberated into the conduction band. In other words, conductivity of semiconductors inereases with temperature. Moreover, such departing electrons leave behind positive holes in the valence hand (Fig. $1.12). Hence, semiconductor current is the sum of electron and hole currents flowing in opposite directions. 51.16. Crystal Structure Semiconductors like germ nium and silicon, have crystalline structure, That is the atoms are ar- ranged in three-dimensional peri- ‘odie fashion. The periodic arrange- ment of atoms in a erystal is called lattice, Ina crystal, an atom strays far from a single, fixed position 1 The thermal vibrations associated - + with the atom are centred about this position. For a given semiconduc- tor (silicon or germanium), there is 1 unit cell that is representative of the entire lattice. By repeating the unit cell throughout the crystal, we can generate the entre lati There are several different types of crystal lattice depending upon the symmetry and internal steucture, One of them is the eubie erystal lattice. There are th ‘crystal lattice. These are simple cubic (SC), base centred cubic (BCC) and face ventred exbie (FCC). Fig. 51.15 (a) shows a SC crystal, In this unit cell, each corner of the cubic lattice is occupied by an atom (indicated by a small sphere) thot has six equidistant nearest neighbouring atoms. The dimen. sion “a” is called the lattice constant. Only podium is crystallised into the simple cubic lattice. Fig. 51.15 (b) shows a BCC unit cell In this unit cell, each atom tas eight nearest neighbouring ‘alos, Crystals exhibitiag the BCC lattices include these of sodéiem and ungsten. Fig. 51.15 (6) shows a FCC unit cell. This unit cell has one atom at each of the six cubic faces in addition to the eight corner atoms. [n an FCC lattice, each atom has 12 nearest neighbouring atoms. A large number of elements exhibit the FCC lattice form. These include aluminium, copper, gold and platinum. Current condueten through semeonductor c basic types of unit cells ina cubic (@ sc (6) BCC Fig. 51.15 Fig. 51-10 shows the crystal structure of silicon and germanium—the element semiconducters. ‘This type of structure is called diamond crystal structure and it belongs to cubic crystal family. AI ‘lomsare identical in a diamond lattice. Note that each atom in diamond lattice is surrounded by four ‘equidistant neighbours that lie at the corners of a tetrahedron, 2032 Electrical Technology Fig. 51.16 51.17. Representation of Crystal Planes and Directions Referting to Fig. 51.15 (b) again, we note that the there are four atoms in the ABCD plane and five atoms in ACEF plane (four atoms from the corners and one from the centre), Moreover, the alomie spacing are different for the wo planes. Therefore the erystal properties along different lanes are different. The electrical and cther device characteristics are dependent on the crystal boientation, A convenient method! of defining or representing the various planes in a erystal isto use Miller indices. ‘These indices are obtained using the following steps : 1. Find the intercepts of the plane on the three coordinate axes in terms of lattice constant. 2, Take the reciprocals of these numbers and reduce them fo the smallest three integers having the same ratio. 3. Enclose the result in parentheses (fk 1) as the Miller indices for a single plane. For example, consider the plane ABC having the intercept ata, 2a and 2a along the three reciangular coowinote axes as shown in Fig. 51.17. Taking the reciprocal of these intercepts, we get |, 1 c)2a 122. Multiplying each fraction by the least common mul We find thatthe smallest three integers having the same ratio are 2, and 1. Thus the Miller indices from the plane are (211). The plane ABC can also be referred to as (211) plane. Fig. 51.18shows the Miller indices of important planes incubic Ay 28 crystal. It may be noted that fora plane that intercepts the X-axis on the negative side of the origin, the Miller indices are represented by (ik D, Similarly fora plane that intereepts the Y-axison the negative Fig. 51.17 side of the origin, the Miller indices are represented by (hk /) and so on. Sometimes it convenient to represent the Miller indices of the planes of equivalent symmetry by (kD, For example, in exbie crystal, the planes (100), (010), (01), (T00), (O70) and (O0T) have he samme symmetry. Therefore, these planes can be represented by Miller indices as {100}. Note that we have used the early brackets to represent a set af planes with equivalent symmetry. The line that originates from the origin ana passes through the plane aright angles oi called ‘rystal direction. The crystal direction is inicated hy enclosing the Miller indices in square brackets Semiconductor Physics 2033 ze ony Fig. 91.18, ice, [hk/]. For example, the direction idicated by [100] isa direction for the X-axis and itis perpen- dicular to (100) plane. Similarly [111] direction is perpendicular to (111) plane. It is possible 10 represent a set of equivalent directions by < bk/ >. Notice the use of carat signs. Thus < 100 > represents a set of directions for (100), [010}, [100} [00] and [007], 51.18. Atomic Binding in Semiconductors | ‘Semiconductors like germanium" crystalline structure, Their atoms are arranged in an ordered array known as crystal lattice, Both these materials are teiravalent.¢. each has four valence electrons in ts outermost shell, The neighbouring atoms form covalent bonds by staring four electrons with each other so as to achieve inert gas structure (i 8 electrons in the outermost orbit). A two- dimensional view of the germanium crystal lattice is shown in Fig. 51.19 (b) in which circles represent ‘consisting of the nuclei and inner 28 electrons. Each pair of lines represents a covalent bond. The dots represent the valence electrons. It is seen that each atom has 8 electrons under its influence. ind silicon, have Bonds in semiconductors Sie Ge) © Fig. 5110 © “Asingle germanium aiom has 32 elecronsout of which only Four electrons take pa in electrical properties. of germanium, the remaining 28 electrons being tightly bound to the nucleus. The four elecons revolve inthe outermost shell and are ealed valence ecto 2034 Electrical Technology ‘A 3- o> em op emt process of conduction by drift —<— $= Let, duction Fig. 51.29 WE tron charge (coloumb) vy = electron drift velocity (m/s) A= conductor cross-section (m7) n= numberof free electrons per unit volume of the conductor i.e.electton density (per m") 1 = length of the conductor (m) E = Vil—applied electric field (Vim) Now, electric current flowing in any conductor is given by the amount of charge which flows in ‘one second aeross any plane ofthe conductor (Fig. $1.30). The the plane P of cross-section A in one second = 1x0). al number of elections which cross ‘Semiconductor Physics 20 Charge carried by them per second is = envA, Hence, I= Vend. P Substituting the value of v, we get 1 = reap sien attr = eH tm Neonat = a, —— Trcideatally, it may he noted that conductivity ofa semiconductor differs from that of a metal in ‘one important respect ie. in a Semiconductor, charge cartiers are both holes as well as electrons whereas in metals, electrons are the only charge carers (Art. 51.27). Example $1.3. A copper wire of 2mm diameter with conductivity of 5.8K 10" Siemensim and electron mobility of 0.0032 m°/V-s is subjected to an electric field of 20 nV/m. Find (a) the charge density of free electrons, (b) ihe current density, (c) current lowing in the wire, (d) ihe electron drift velocity. (UPS.C. Engg, Services 2002) Solution. d= 2mm=2x10%m, 9 = 5.8% 107 Sim, He = 0.0032 m/V-s, = 20 Vin 6 x10” sa @ "= ea = Loxton xanga = hiS2xt0%m' @ J = OB = (58x10) x (20x10) = 1.16610" A/m? (©) Lett = current flowing through the wire. Area of cross-section of a wire, 3.14x10-Sm* 1.16x10°) (3.1410 °) (a) = HE=0.0032x(20x10") = 6.4 x 10° mis 51.27. Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductors In their case, current flow is due to the movement of electrons and holes in opposite directions. However, since their charges are of opposite sign, the current due to each is in the same direction, Even though the number of electrons equals the number of holes, hole mobility 4, is practically hall of electron mobility u,- ‘As shown in Fig. 51.31, the total current flow which is, oe due to the sum of electron flow and hole flow, is given by ead peoeen Ta leth — Lat Iift velocity of electrons sore tast Geto (mh) ‘elections Vj. = drift velocity of holes (m/s) ‘oMotes 1, = density of free elecirons in ® an intrinsic semiconductor <—§| 5 (perm) Fig 5131 2042) Electrical Technology density of holes in an intrinsic semiconductor (per m') A = eross-section of the semiconductor (mn) Since in an intrinsic semiconductor m,= p, ‘ 1 = nel, 4VpA=ne (ty +0) EA where , = electron mobility = vJE by = hole mobility = vy/E Since E= Vil where Fis the length of the intrinsic semiconductor, 1 = ne (y+ 4)AVI vf 1 pt T= Anus A wire p isthe resistivity ofthe semocondctor. It is given by 1 a me FH) The electrical conductivity which isthe reciprocal of resistivity is given by 6, = ne (uy, + u,) Sim Now, current density, J27A ws Je ne (uit H)E=0, E 2 GSE Obviously, conductivity of semiconductors depends on two factors (?) number of current carriers present per unit volume and (i) the mobility of the current carriers. Itis found that with increase in temperature, nas well p, increases ie. resistivity decreases. 51.28. Conductivity of Extrinsic Semiconductors “The general expression for current density (derived above) in the when an electric field is employed is J = (ney, + pede 0) (@) fit san N-type semiconductor, hen the above expression becomes Jy = € (nd, + PME where n, and p, represent the electron and hole densities in the N-type semiconductor after doping. (@) Irivisa Paype semiconductr, then Jy = ee Py) E where n, and p, represent similar quantities in a P-lype semiconductor after doping. The conductivity is given by = JIE “ om new + per, ncrease and correspondingly, the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors of an extrinsie semiconductor or 6, = e(nu + Pty) — for N-type and 6, = e(n he + 7,,) — for P-type (0) In Naype semiconductors, electrons form the majority carriers although holes are also. available as minority carriers. The current density in such a semiconductor is given by Eg. () above, However, since electron density in such extrinsic semiconductors is much more than hole density ie. 2, » py. the above expressions are simplified to Jy = Nye, E and Oy = My € He a) (di) In P-type semiconductors, conduction is by means of holes inthe valence band which form ‘majority carriers in this ease although electrons are available as minority carriers. Since in such extrinsic semiconductors, 1, « pp, the above expressions become Py ty E and. 6, =P, e My itt) conductor Physics 2043 51.29. Conductivity when Intrinsic Charge Cartier Densities are Neglected In case density of charge carriers available intrinsically is negligible as compared t0 the added impurity atoms (whother of donor oF a aecepter type), then the formulae for conductivity given by Eq, (i) and (iii) above will be changed as follows. (a) For N-type semiconductor As seen from Ey, (i) above, the conductivity is given by 0, = mye , where n, isclectron density after coping. In hisrelation, intrinsic hole density has already been neglected, The remaining electron density is also made up of the following two components: 1. intrinsic hole density due to holes available in a pure semiconductor ; 2 electron density N, contributed by added donor impurity. However, if we further neglest the intrinsic electron density, then 0, (b) For Paype semiconductor ‘As seen from Eq, (i) above, the conductivity is given by 6, = pe 4, where p, represents hole density. Again, in this relation, intrinsic eleetron density has been clready neglected. This hole density further consists ofthe following two components : 1, intrinsic hole density due to holes available in @ pure semiconductor ; 2. hole density (N,) contributed by added acceptor impurity. However, if we further neglect the intrinsic hole density, then 6, = Nye by, 51.30. Conductivity of Pure and P-type Germanium [As shown in Aa. $1.27, the condsetivity of pure germanium is given by © = ne (uy, + 4y)= De (+H) When germanium isdoped bya trivalent impurity like indium, it becomes a Pype semiconductor. ‘After doping, its conductivity depends on the number of charge carriers available in it. The law of Mass Action can be used for finding this number. For aeceptor impurity, the law may be stated as follows : Nye Be Mp Pp = Pm nape where mand p, represent the ree’ electron and hole densies respectively in the semi-conductor after doping and n, and p,, the electron and hole densities before doping i. in an intrinsic semiconductor. Patinanother way simply means tha, at constant temperature, tbe product ofthe number of election carriers and the numberof hole carrer is independent ofthe density of acceptor atoms, In physieal ters, it means thatthe introduction of P-type impurity fills some of the electron levels produced by thermal action BY calculating a, ad p from above and knowing and fi, conductivity after doping can be found out as illustrated by the following example (a) Pure Germanium 6 = mele Hy) =Pe bet Hd) p22 10" perm’, yy, = 0.36 mi/V-s My, = 0.17 m?/V-s and e= 16x10 6 = 2x10" x 16 x 10" (0.36 +0.17) = 169 Sim. Lat, (6) Paype Germanium here, 9, = #0, Bet Py th) ‘Suppose. we add 10°” atoms/m’ of indium and that n, ‘or holes) per m’ Then, p= m: ‘ P,— 4% 10%, 10!” charge carriers (ether electrons, (2x 10"F=4x10™ and p,~n, 10 or p10" p, (4x 10°) 0 0 2044 Electrical Technology Solving the above quadratic equation and taking positive value only 04x10" and n, = 0.04 x 10” Gp = 1.6% 10"! (0.04 x 10” 0.36 + 104 x 10” x 0.17) = Itis seen that conductivity is almost doubled Example 51.4. Whot length ofa round copper wire of diameter I mm will have @ resistance of 16.22 copper conductivity is 60 MS. A cylindrical piece of silicon having a diameter of 1 mm is ‘taped with 108m atoms of phosphorous which ae fly ionized. Wht length of this sicon would be required 10 give resistance of 1 kif electronic mebiltyin silicon is 0.1 m' / Ves ? (Electronic Devices & Circuits, Pune Univ. 1994) 1 Sh Solution. 1k Q= 1000 2, 6= 60 x 10° Sin, A= mld = mx (1 x 107)? Wo 6 AR= 60 x 10° x (x 104) x 1000 = 47,123 m= 47.1 km, For Silicon Wire 9 Sim neve = 10x 1.0 x 107" x 0.1 = 1 = GAR =1.6 x (x 1074) x 1000 26% 107" = 1.26 mm Example S1S. Calculate the inirinsic conductivity of silicon at room temperature ifn = 1-1 X10! m7 y, = 0145 mPMs, 1, = 0.05 m?N-s and e = 1.6 x 10 C. What are the individual contributions made by electrons ond holes ? (Electronic Engg., Nagpur Univ. 1991) Solution. As seen trom Art. 51.27, the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor i given by Hee Hy mn by electrons = 0.325 x 107 Sim byholes = 0.112 x 107 Sim Example $1.6. Caleulate the donor concentration in N-type germanium having resistivity of 100 Gm. Derive the formula you use. Take & GH, = 036m V's". (Electronics ; Nagpur Univ, 1990) Solution. As seen from Art $1.23, = UNH, 100 = 1N, x 16 x 10" x 0.36 Ny, = 1.74x 10" atoms/m* Example $1.7. An N-nype silicon has a resistivity of 1560 2m at a certain temperature Campate he ectronhale concentration given that n= 182610 mo, 0.05 m'NV-s and e = 1.6.x 10" C. Solution. Being Nype silicon, itis assumed that n» p O14 wWWV-s, p, In x 1.6 x 10"! x0.14 or n=2.97x 10" irl = (1.5 x 10°)102.97 x 10!) = 7.87 x 10" me Example 51.8. A specinen of pure germanium at 300° K has a density of charge carriers of 2.5 x10". itis doped with donor impurity atoms atthe rate of one impurity atom for every Il ‘loms of germeaium. All impurity atoms may be supposed to be ionized. The density of germaniam ‘atom is 4.2 x 10°" atoms/m’. Find the resistivity ofthe doped germanium if election mobility is 0.36 mV-s. Solution. Density of adied impurity atoms is Ny = 4.2% 10"/10° = 4.2 x 10 atoms/a* Ttis the new name forthe old unit of mhoim. conductor Physics 2045 [As seen, itis very lage as compared tothe intrinsic charge carrier density of 2.5 10m’ which will, therefore, be neglected. Now, as seen from Ant $1.29. 2 107? 1.6% 107 0.36 = 2.42 % 10" Sin 12.42 x 10° = 0.413 x 107 Qn. Example 51.9. Compute the relative concentration of silicon atoms and electron-hole pairs at 300° K. Also, calculate intrinsic resistivity of silicon. Given Avogadro's number = 6.02 X10" atoms/ g-atom, density = 2.33 x 1 gn atomic Wi. = 28.1, intrinsic carrier density = 1.5 x 10! m™, 114 me /V-S, by, = 0.05 mv /V-s, ny = Avogadro's No. x density’atomic Wt = 6.02 x 10 x 2.33 x 1028.1 = 5 x 10 atomsfm* Since intrinsic concentration n, i., eloctron-hole pairs/in’ is 1.5 « 10!° my _ 5x10" m 15x10 Itmeans that there are 3.3 x 10'? Si atoms for each electron-hole pair Since in a pure semiconductor, n 1» intrinsic conductivity is given by 6, = Me (ie + Hy) = 1S % 10! 1.6 x 10" (0.14 + 0.05) = 0.456 10° Sim 33x 10" Hence, intrinsic resistivity is given by 9, = V6, = 0.456 x 10"*= 2193 Q-m Example 51.10, Silicon is doped with acceptor atoms to a density of 10° m™. If itis assumed that all acceptor centres are ionized, calewlate the conductivity of the extrinsic silicon. Given that intrinsic density is 1.4 X10" m™, 1, = 0.145 m™ and py = 0.05 m™. (Electronic Devices & Cireuits, Pune Univ. 1992) Solution, ‘The minority carrier density can he found from the equation given in An. $1.30, ie np si 1652 pm? Now, 1? mx (4x W's n= 1.96% 10% Now, me Ue + Pe by, . = 1.96 x 10! x 0.145 x 16 x 107 + 10°? x 0.05 x 1.6 x 107" = 80 Sim 51.31. Drift Directed motion of charge carriers in semiconductors occurs through two mechanisms : () charge drift under the influence of applied electric field and (Gi) diffusion of charge from a region of high charge density to one of low charge density Consider the drift phenomenon first. When no electric fiekl is applied to the semiconductor ‘which is above 0° K, the conduction electrons (as well as holes) move within the crystal with random. motion and repeatedly collide with each other and the fixed ions. Due w randomness oftheir motion, the net average velocity of these charge carriers in any given direction is zero. Hence, no current exists in the erystal under this condition of no field. ‘Now, consider the ease when an electric field is applied to the erystal. Under the influence of this field, the charge carriers attain a directed motion which is superimposed on their random thermal motion. This results in a net average velocity called drift velocity in the direction of the applied elecirc field. OF course, electtonsand holes move in opposite directions but because of thelr opposite charges, both produce current in the same direction. In extrinsic semiconductors, this current is essentially a majority carrier flow ‘The drift velocity is proportional o elecue Feld strength £, the constant of proportionality being called motility. The exact relation between the two is V = wE. Electrical Technology Lotus find the value of drift current ina semiconductor, () current dersity due electron drift is J,= qu, nE where pis electron mobility, ais electron ensity and E isthe electric field strength i) current density due o hole dif is J, = ¢ w, pE where pis hole density. Total current density due to electron and hole dit is Jom J.4J,~ en nE + on, pE= em, + pay) E = ey(p+OME — where b= ply, 51.32. Diffusion Itis gradual flow of charge from a region of high density to aregion of low density. It isa foree- free process based on non-uniform distribution of charge carriers in a semiconductor crystal. It leads to.an electric current without the benefit of an applied field. This flow or diffusion of carriers is proportional to the carrier density gradient, the constant of proportionality being called diffusion ‘constant or diffusion coefficient D which bas a unit of m’is. Current density due to hole diffusion isJ, =~ eD, dpide. Similarly, current density due to electron diffusion is J, = eD, dni. where D,,.D, = electron and hole diffusion constants respectively dnd = density gradient of electrons dpldx = density gradient of holes. It is obvious that diffusion depends on charge in tomogeneity or on the presence of a space ‘gradient of charge density. I'can occur in regions free of electric field. On the other hand, drift current isa function of both electric field and charge density. Incidentally, it may be noted that, gererally, diffusion leads to redistribution of charges which further results in the development of potential difference between different parts of the semiconductor. ‘The electric Fiekd due to this potential difference sets up drift earrent in opposition to diffusion current, Final equilibrium is achieved when the potential difference developed becomes sufficiently large so as to create a drift current equal and opposite tothe diffusion current thus resulting in zero net flow of current 51.33. Combined Drift and Diffusion Currents In semiconductors, drift and diffusion processes may be present simultaneously. The expressions for total electron and hole densities become. Je = ei +eD,dniéx Aim? — aad J,= et, pe eD,dpldx Nim 51.34. Relation Between D and y Both diffusion constant and mobllly are stastical thermodynamic phenomend and ae related to ccch ether by the following equation, > >, w= ED, and y= ED, or ae Ts The relationship is known as Einscia’s equation Att=27C. T= 300°K, hence Dla = 300/11,600 = 1/39 or Example SLL. Calewlate diffision constants for electrons and holes at 300°K in silicon if. 1H, = GIS Ws and jh, = 005 mV Solution. According 1 Einstein's equation, kTle or D = W39 miis — 21 300°K 1/39 = 0.15139 = 3.85 x 10° mis conductor Physics 2047 Example $1.12. Find the diffusion coefficients of holes and electrons for germanium at 300 K. The carrier mobitites in em'/volt-see at 300 K Jor electrons and holes are respectively 3600 and 1700. Density of carriers is 2.5 x 10!. Boltzmann constant, k = 1.38 x 10 (UPS.C. Engg, Services, 1996) Solution. According to the Einstein’s equation, Dom wktle or Dom p39 mls ~ a 300° K D, = 4/39 = 3600 (cm°/V-5)/39 = 0.36 (m?/V-s)/39 = 9.2.x 107 mis Dy = 444/39 = 1700 (m7/V-3)/39 = 0.17 (mn°/V-8)/39 = 4.36 10 m/s 51.35. Recombination ‘Apart from drift and diffusion, a third phenomenon which occurs in semiconductors is called recombination that results from the collision of an electron with a hole. The process is essentially the return of a free conduction electron to the valence band and is ‘accompanied by the emission of energy. Obviously, the recombination rateis directly proportional to the carrier concentration forthe simple reason that larger the number of carriers, the more likely isthe ‘occurrence of electron-hole recombination. This phenomenon is important in describing minority cartier flow. Asis well-known, in a semiconductor, thermal generation of sleetron-hole pairs also takes place continuously. Hence, there is net recombination rate given by the difference between the recombination and generation rates, 51.36. Carrier Life Time Itis defined as the time for which, on an average, a charge cartier will exist before recombination with acarrier of opposite charge. Its value varies from nanoseconds( 10) to hundreds of microseconds (us) and depends on temperature and impurity concentration in the semiconductor material 51.37. Total Carrier Flow The total carrier flow in a semiconductor is the sum of the three flow phencmena discussed above. Bach type of earrier has tobe treated separately and the number of electrons or holes leaving the sample being accounted for by drift or diffusion or net recombination. The current in the semiconductors then the sum of the election and hole currents 51.38. P-N Junction Its possible to manufacture a single piece of a semiconductor ‘material half of which is doped by P-type impurity and the other half by Naype impurity as shown in Fig. $1.32. The plane dividing the £ Ny two zones is called junction. Theoretically, junction planeisassumed [+ + + +|—— to lie where the density of donors and acceptors is equal. The PV | + + +) ~~ Junction is fundamental to the operation of diodes, wansistors end [+ + + +) ~ — other solid-state devices Junction Letussee if anything unusual happensat the junction, It is found that following three phenomena take place Fig 51.32 1. Athin depletion laser oF region (also called space-charge region or transition region) is established on both sides of the junction and is so called because itis depleted OF free charge carriers, ks thickness is about 10~° m, 2. A bartier potential or junction potential is developed across the junction, 3. The presence of depletion layer gives rise to junction and diffusion capacitances (Art. 525). 2048) Electrical Technology 51.39. Formation of Depletion Layer Suppose that a junction has just been formed. ‘At that instant, holes are still in the P-region and ‘electrons in the Neregion. However, there is greater concentration of holes in P-tegion than in N-region (whete they exist 38 minority carriers) Similarly, concentration of electrons i greater in Neregion than in P-region (where they exist as ea) minority carriers). This concentration differences establishes density gradient across the junction resulting in carrer diffusion. Holes diffuse frem P to N-region and electrons from N-0 P-region ‘and terminate their existence by recombination [Fig. 51.33 (a)]. This recombination of free and mobile electrons and holes produces the narrow region at the junction called depletion layer. It is so named because this region is devoid of (or depleted of) free and mobile charge carriers like elecirons and holes—there being present only positive ions which are not free to move. Mobile Fixed Mobile Charges tons Charges bt N P N +++3lQ---] fe = e+ = tg be +++ E ++ pS = +e4p----| ieee el = Diffusion “Derieton Taye & % © Fig, 61.33 Itmight seem from above thet eventually all the holes from the P- side would diffuse to the N-side and all the electrons from the N-side ‘would diffuse to the P-side but this does not occur due to the formation ‘of ions on the two sides of the junction. The impurity atoms which pro- vide these migratory electrons and holes are left behind in an ionized state bearing a charge which is opposite to tha of the departed carrier. Aso, these impurity ions. just like germanium atoms. are fixed in their positions in the crystal lattice in the P- and N- regions of the diode. Hence, as shown in Fig. 51.33 (b), they form paralle| rows or “plates” of ‘opposite charges facing each other across the depletion layer. Obviously. row of fixed positive ions in the N-region is produced by the migration ‘of electrons trom the IV-to P- region. Similarly, the row of fired nega- tive ions in the P-region is produced by the migration of holes from the P.t0 Neregion. Ifa majority carrier (either an electron or a hole) tries to cross into depletion layer, it can meet either of the following two facts (0 either it can be tapped or captured by the row of fixed impurity ions of opposite sign which guard its own region. For example, aahole ying to approach the depletion layer may be neutralized by the row of fixed negative ions situated in the P-region itself conductor Physics 2049 atthe edge of the depletion layer. So will be the case with the electron trying to approach the depletion layer from N-region [Fig. $1.33 (c)}; or Gi, itmay succeed in entering the depletion layer where it willbe repelled by the row of Similarly- charged impurity ions guarding the other region. But its life will be cut stort by recombination with a majority carrer of opposite sign which has similarly entered the depletion layer from. the other half of the diode Utimately, an equilibrium condition is reached when depletion layer has widened to such an extent that no electrons or holes can cross the P-N junction. 51.40. Junction or Barrier Voltage Even though depletion layer i cleared oF charge carters I has oppostely-charged fIxed :owsof ions on its wo sides. Because of ths charge separation, anelectic potential difference V, isestablisbed across the junction even when the junction is externally isolated (Fig. $1.34). Its krownas junction or barrier potential Wi wops further Now of carters across the Junction unless supplied by energy from an external source. At rom temperature of 30]°K. Vp is about 0:3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si The value of barier voltage is given by Vp= Vlog,N, N,/ 7 where N,,Nj.mand Vz have the ‘meanings expliined in Art. 51.29 and 34, The value of Vat fom temperature OF 300°K Is given by ir _ 1.38107 300 € 1 6x10” : Vy = 26/08, (N,N, 03) mV Barter volage depends n doping deat electronic charge and iemperature Fora given junction; the fist two factors are constant, thus making V, depencent on temperature. With increase in temperature, more minority charg carriers are produced leading to their increased drift across the junction. AS a result, equilibrium occurs ata lower barrier potential. Iti found that both for Ge and Di Vesey aboot 2 mV AV, = 000241 where Ais the rise in temperature in ‘The sirong field set up by Vp causes drift of carriers through depletion layer. As seen from IFig. 51.35 (b), under the influence of this field, holes drift from N-to P-region and electrons from P-to-N region. This drift current must be equal and opposite to the difusion current [Fig. $1.35 (a) because under condition of equilitrium and with no extemal supply, net current through the erystal i vy; 1 = Vy 0) =26mV zer0, P P = Hleeie Electrons Feld Dituse + Holes * Dai Dilfusion Potential ie Barer © Fig, 5134 Fig. 5135, To summarize the main points of Art $1.39 and S1.40, we have : 1. As soon as P:N junction is formed, free electrons and holes start diffusing across the junetion and recombining Electrical Technology 2. Their recombination feads to the appearance of a depletion layer across the junction which Contains no mobile carriers but only immobile ions. 3. Theseimmobile ions set up aarrier potential and hence an eleette field which sets up dift current that is equal and oppesite to the diffusion current when final equilibrium is reached. Example $1.13, Calculate the barrier potential at room temperanee for P-N junction in silicon which is doped to a carrier density of 10°! mon the P-sde and 10° nm on the N-side. The intrinsic ccerrier density for silicon is 14 10! m™, (Electronics-T, Bangalore Univ. 1992) Solution. Using the relation given in Art 1.40, we have Vg = 260g, (N, Ny/1,2) mV 26 log, {10 x 1041.4 x LO "} = 641 mV = 0.641 V Example $1.14. Calculate the change in barrier potential of a P-N junction at 300°K ifdoping (on the N-side is increased 1000 times while keeping doping on P-side unchanged. Solution. As seen from Art. 51.40, at 300°K Vp = 26108, (N,My/1°) mV Vay = 26 108, (Nyy Nyylt?)s Vpp Van~ Var = 26108, (Na NWN Np) 26 log, (Nyy Neo?) 20 108, (Nan! Nay 10 log, 1000 = 179.6 mv 51.41. Energy Band Diagram of a P-N Junction Now, let us consider the operation of a P-Njunciion in terms of its energy bands. At the instant of junction formation, energy tunds of the tivalent impurity atoms in the P-region are at a slightly higher level than these of the pentavalent impurity atoms in the N-tegion as shown in Fig. 51.36. I'is so because core attraction for valence electrons (+3) in a irivalent atom is less than the core attraction for valence electrons (+5) in a pentavalent atom. Consequently, trivalent valence elecitons are in slightly higher orbit and. hence, at a higher energy level. However, there is some over-lap between respective bands of the two regions. Due to this reason, some high-energy electrons near the top of N-region conduction band diffuse into the lower part of the P-region conduction band. Soon after, they recombine with the holes in the valence band as shown in Fig. $1.36 (a). As diffusion continues, depletion layer begins to form, Another side-effect of this electron diffusion is that energy bands in yp Pepleon tik N P N A Conduction ind ce ees < Gap Valence Band Enerey—p Energy —> @ Fig. 5136 conductor Physics 2051 the Nsegion shift downward due to Toss of high-erergy electrons. When the top of the conduction band in N-fegion reaches the same level as the bottom of the conduction band in P-tegion, further iffusion ceases and equilibrium condition is reached as shown in Fig. 51.36 (4). To an electron which might stil try to diffuse across the junction, the path looks like a steep energy hill It cannot climb this energy hill unless it receives energy from an external sour. 51.42. Forward Biased P-N Junction Suppose, positive battery terminal is connected to P-region of a semiconductor and the negative battery terminal 10 the W-region as shown in Fig. $1.37 (a). In that case the junction Is said to be biased in the forward direction decause it pemits easy flow of current across the junetion. This, current flow may be expiained in the following two ways: Holes Electrons: v ae i esa mae Eales >i eee | ES) ees ' a Fa == hk +44)||--- {I eae E== v lo Negected {k On @ 0) wo Fig. 5137 (@ As soon as battery connection is made, holes are repelled by the positive battery terminal ‘and electrons by the negative battery terminal with the result that both the electrons and the holes are driven towards the junction where they recombine, This en masse movement of electrons to the left and that of holes o the right ofthe junction constitutes a large current low through the semiconductor. Obviously, the junction offers Zow resistance in the forward direction A mote detailed picture of carer flow is as under As ree electrons move to the left, new free electronsare injecied by the negative battery terminal into the N-tegion ofthe semiconductor. Thus, a flow of electrons is Set up inthe wire connected to the negative battery terminal. As holes are driven towards the junction, more holes are created in the Pregion by the breakage of covalent bonds(Art.51.21), These newly-created holes are driven towards the junction to keep up continuous supply. But the electrons so produced are attracted to the left by the positive battery ierminal from where they go to the negative terminal and finally to the N-region of the crystal Incidentally, it may be noted that though there ismovement of both electrons and holes inside the crystal, only free electrons move in the external circuit i.e. in the battery-connecting wires. Note, Theres abo present an extremely smatt amount of current , due minority eaers on eter sie ‘ofthe junction, But its negligibie as compared forward current which is due to majority carriers. This current J, depends on temperature but is lmost independent of applied voltage. i). Another way to explain current flow in forward diteetion is to say that forward bias of V volts lowers the barrier potential to (V— V,) which now allows more current to flow across the junction [Fig. 51.37 (6)] 2052 — Electrical Technology Incidentally, it may be noted that forward bias reduces the thickness of the depletion layer as stown in Fig. 51.38 nergy band diagram for forward biasis shown in Fig. 51.39. By comparing tis figure with Fig. 51.36 it is seen that energy hill has been reduced. Because of this reduction, conduction electrons "N-region are able o cross over to P-region. After reaching there, each electron falls imo a hole (path A) and becom a valence electron. In this way, it is able to eontinac it jouney towards the leit end of the crystal \ vB Fig. 51.38 Fig. 51.39 51.43. Forward V/I Characteristic Atypical Vifcharaeteriste fora forward- biased PN junction is shown in Fig. $1.40, It is seen that forward current rises exponentially with the applied forward voltage. However, at ordinary room temperature, a pd, of about 0.3 Vis required before a reascnable amount of forward curreat starts flowing in a germanium Jjuetion. This voltage is known as threshold voltage (V,) oF cut-in voltage or knee valtage Vp Itispractcally thesame as harrier voltage Vg Is value For silicon junction is about 0.7 volt. For V < Vy, current flow is negligible, But as applied Voltage increases beyond the threshold value, the forwart current increases sharply. If forward voltage 9 eB Forward Cutten Ip & s S) is increased beyond a certain safe value, it a will produce an extremely large current which Forward Voltage ‘may destroy the junction due to overheating. Fig. 51.40 Ge devices can Stand junction temperatures around 100°C whereas Sf units can function upto 175°C, Obviously, the fornard-biased junction has a low resistance. For point B in Fig. 51.40, the forward resistance for Si is Ry = O8V20mA= 40. Similarly, for point A on the Ge carve, R= 0.36 V20 mA. In practice, this static forward resistance is not used. Instead, the dynamic resistance or incremental resistance of ae resistance of the juncion Is used. It Is given by the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristic. Here, 51.44. Reverse Biased P-N Junction When battery connections to the semiconductor are made as shown in Fig, 51.4 (a).the junction is said to reverse-biased.In this case, holes are attracted by the negative battery terminal and electrons by the positive terminal so that both holes and electrons move away from the junction and away from. ‘each other. Since there is no electron-bole combination, no current flows and the junction offers high resistance. Another way of looking at the process is that inthis case, the applied voltage increases the barrier potential to (V+ Vj), thereby blocking the flow of majority carriers. fos Hays a v . 7S : lis ie vi to v ot) fos. @ o © Fig. S141 it may be noted that under reverse bias condition, because of increased barrier potential as shown in Fig. 51.42. Although, in this case, there is practically no current idthof depletion layeris increased wow ‘due 10 majority carrier, yet here is small amount of rwoN Lae a current (a few 4A only) due to the flow of minority TI77=~ =| FE I77- =) carers across the junction. As explained earlier in Art. bat Ze = =| Ft 3777= = =| 51.24,auer0 thermal energy, thereare always generated No Bias ReverseBias some holes in the Netype region and some electrons in the P-type region of the semiconductors shown in Fi Fg 5142 51.26, The batery ceive tow minor ares are the junction thereby producing a small current called reverse current or reverse saluration current 1,0r Js, Since minority carriers are thermally-generated, J, isextremely temperature dependent. For the same reason, forward current is also temperature dependent but to a much less degree because ‘minority current forms a very small perceniage of the majority current, The name saturation has been used because we cannot get minority current more than what is produced by thermal energy. In other words, I, does not increase with increas. J,is found to increase approximately 7 percent per 0*C rise in temperature both for Ge and Si Since, (1.07)"" = 2, it means that reverse current doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. It is ‘worth noting that reverse saturation current is also referred te as leakage eurrent of the P-N junction diode, With reverse bias, energy hill becomes to0 steep for majority carriers to go up the hill and cross over. in reverse bie 2054 Electrical Technology 51.45. Reverse V/I Characteristic As sai earlier the reverse saturation current i also pec referred to as leakage current of the PV junction. Fig 51.43 shows Vil characteristics ofa reverse-biased P-N Jmetion. It is seen that as reverse voltage is inereased from zero, the reverse current quickly rises to its \ maximum or saturation value, Keeping temperature Mirky constant asthe reverse voltage is increased, I, i found to increase only lightly. This light increase is due to the impurities on the surface of the semiconductor which OF behaves as a resistor and hence cbeys Ohm’s law. This gives rise avery small current called surface leakage Fig, 5149 ‘enrrent, Unlike the main leakage (or saturation) current, this surface leakage current is independent of temperature but depends on the magnitude of the reverse voltage, Ateverse-biased junction can be represented by avery large resistance. As seen from Fig, 51.43, inthe ease of Si, fora reverse voltage of about 5 V,fy= 10 pA. Hence, reverse resistance is Ry V0 yA =1.5MQ 51.46. Halll Effect fa specimen (whether ofa metal ora semieonduetor) carying a current is placed ina (ransverse ‘magnetic field of flux density B, an electric field is developed along a direction perpendicular to both Band I. This phenomenon is known as Hall effect snd is used for the following purposes : 1. (© determine whether a semiconductor is of N-ype or Paype; 2. te find carier concentration: 3. tomessure the conductivity of the material Forward Voltage 2520 15 10 9] 19 20 75a 5. to detect and measure magnetic fields one million times smaller than that of earth with the help of Hall-effect magnetometers {As shown in Fig, 1.44 (a), acurrent is flowing through the semiconductor in the direction MN under the influence of an external applied electric field E,. Obviously, ‘electrons comprising thiseurrent movealong [NM with a velocity of vz Consider one such electron shown in the figure. The direction ‘ofthe forceexerted on it by the magnetic field Bean be found by using Pleming’slefchand ruleandisas shown. The magnitude of force is Be y, Under the influence of this force, ‘electrons will tend to crowd towants the lef side of semiconductor This collection of electrons to one side gives rise o electric potential difference V, (called Hall voltage) and hence to an elect field This field begins o prevent additional elections fromarriving here. Force exerted by this eld on the electrons i eB, Equilibrium isestablished when he two onpositely-tirected magneticand electric forces acting on the electron become equal in magnitude. o, Fig. 51.48 and not along the direction of eletronie eurent ie. along NM. Semiconductor Physics 2055 En “ he, Bey or By, Also Bue, = By or B,D Eye, Hence, knowing &, and Bani measuring £,,. we can find electron mobility. Now, current density J = WAznes, A= nev, Substituting the value of v, from (i) above, we get J = nek y/B o n= JBI ey ‘This equation may he used to find electron density Now, Hall coefficient, Ry = I/eharge dem Asshown in Art 51.26. p= Line p= Rylp where p isthe resistivity of the semiconductor Itmay be noted thatthe above treatment is equally applicable to P-type semiconductors where current flow is made up of hele movement. If holes were to move in the same direction as that ofthe ‘electrons in Fig $1.44 (a), then polarity of Hall voltage £,, would be reversed as shown in Fig. S144 (}). In fact, it was the observation of the polarity of Hall voltage associated with P-type material ‘which fed 10 the concept of a positive hole Example S118. The Hull-coeficient of a specimen of doped semiconductor is 3.66 % 10~4 i and the resistivity of the specimen is 8.93 x 10” Q-m. Determine the carrier mobility in Solution. Using equation pu, = Ryip - = 26610" Saeaaie 8.93 x 10 Example 51.16. A sample of N-type semiconductor has a Hall coefficient of 160 cm'/Ceutomb.. If is resistivity i 0.10 S-cm, estimate the electron mobility in the sample, Solution. Using the relation, 1, = RyP. we have 160, Be = 0.16 Example S1.17. A current of $0 A is passed through a metal strip, which ix subjected to 4 magnetic flux of density 1.2 Whim’. The magnetic field is directed at right angles to the current direction and the thickness of the strip in the direction of magnetic field is 0.5 mm. The Hall voltage is found to be 100 V. Calculate the nunber of conduction electrons per cubic metre in the metal J ely Since J = IA = Ild. where dis the distance between the two surfaces between the ends across Which the clecrie field is measured, The above equation ean be rewritten as, Ine oF Ry = EyfJB Bee = 1000 m/Volt-See. Solution. We know that on = Bi (tA) B_ (11a) B Ey gd Vy E, Cs Ey= Vil) Substituting the values of Vip 1 B, Fand e, we get . 1.250 (15 x107P) x 100 x(0.5 x10") Example $1.18. An N-type semiconductor has a resistivity of 20 x 10° olm-m. The mobility of electrons through a separate experiment was found to be 100 x 10 m? v's". Find the number of electron carriers per m’. Solution. Using the equation, }1,= Une p, we have 751 x 10m? 2056 Electrical Technology 2 -—t = Guo ~ 16x10 x (100% 1) x (29 x 0) 3x 10m" Bxample 51.19. The Hall-coefcent of «specimen of doped slcon is fund o be 366x107 mC the ressvty ofthe specimen is 83X10" Lm. Find the mobitiy and density of charge cartes assuning single carter conduction (UPS. Fngg, Services 2002) Solution. — Ry, = 366 x 10*m'C; p= 8.83 x 10° O-m, 1 WH =ORy Bos xd9 3% 36x10" = 0.041 /Vs 1 0 Bn g93%1 t 1 1 a = 1.710%? BH ne "Rye ~ [Rex 10") x(toxcie™) =" Example 51.20. Resistivity of a sample semiconductor is 9mm. lts holes have mobility of 0.03 m'/Vs. Calculate the value of Hall-coefficiens of the sample. (U¥S.C. Engg, Services 2002) Solution. —p 9x10" Om, 1, = 0.088 105 mi/V-sande = 16 x 10-"C. Also calculate the individual contributions from elactrons atl holes. {0.497 x10" Sim ; 0325 x 10° Sim ; 0112 x 10° S/n} Find (9 conductivity and (i) resistance of br of pute ican of length 1m and cross-section area 1 mm? at 300°K, Given, = 5 x 10” pet m’, p= 0.13 mis, y, = 005 m/s and e= 16x10" {09 43210" Sim i) 23.15 MO] 3. Aspecimen of scons doped with accep inpuy ta density of 10" ans pen Given hat = 14 10" per mp, = 0.145 mi /V-s, yy = 0.05 ms = 16 x 10-"C. All impurity atoms ‘may be assumed o be ionized. Calculate the conductivity of extrinsic silicon. [carly 80 Si] 4. Calculate the conductivity of a specimen of pure $i at room temperature of 300°K for which 5% 10" 05 m'Ns,e= 16% 10°C. ‘The Si specimens now doped 2 parts per 10° of donor impurity. I there are 5x 10" Si atomsin’, caloulae its conductivity. By what factor has the conductivity increased ? [4.32 107 Sim 520.8 Sim ; = 48,148} 5. Mobiliies of electrons and holes in a sample of intrinsic germanium at room temperatre ace (0.36 mi /Vs and 0.17 m/ Vs respectively. Ifthe electron and hole densities are each equal to 25 x 10" per m’ caleulate the conductivity [2.12 Sim|ectoniet, Bangelore Unis.) 6. Apa. of 10-V is applied longituinally toa rectangilar specimen of intrinsic germanivm of length 25 em, widhh 0.4 em and thickress.15 em. Calcul a room temperature (@) elton and hole drift velocities Gi) the conductivity of ininsie Ge 5x10" trinsic carrier density is conductor Physics 2087 (Gi) the total current. Given, p,=0.38 m? V's, yy = 0.18 mV"'S 38 x 107" Seg e = 16x 10C Tu) 152 mvs, 72 ms i) 2.24 Si (i) 5.38 mA] (Applied Elecironies & Circuits, Grad. LET. 1987) ‘The resistivity of a dopoed silicon material is 9 x 10°0-m, The Hall coefficient is 36 x 104m" Coulomb". Assuring single earer conduction, find the mobility and density of charge carriers. = 115 « 10" Coulomb 10) 04 mVV.S, Gi) 1.74 « 10% 'm'] (UPS. Engg. Services 1904) Consider an intrinsic Ge bae with material time constant of 100 see aeress a cross section of Imm? ard length | em. One side of the bari illuminated with 10° photonvsec. Assume that each incident photon generate one electron hole pair and these are uniformly distibuted throughout te bar. Find the bar resistance under constant excitation at room temperature. (lectronie Devices and Circuits, Nagpur Univ: Summer, 2004) 9. Find the concentration of holes and electrons in a p-type germanium at 300K, if the conductivity is 100 per ohm-em, Also find these values for m-ype silicon, ifthe conductivity is 0.1 per ohm-cms. Given that fo germanium n = 25x 10!¥em* M, = 3800 em?/V-, M, = 1800 em'/V-» foe silicon, 1 = 15% 10! per em! 1M, =1300 em?/V.s and M, = S00 em?/V-s A germanium P-N junction at 300 K has the following parameters; N,, 5x 10"em’, Calculate the minority election density in the P-region and the 10 N= 6% 10m minority hole density in the N-region. (Blectronics Engg: Bangalore Univ, 200%) x 10m", (Electronics Engg. Bangalore Unis. 2003) ii OBJECTIVE TESTS - 51 ‘The jotal energy of a revolving elestron in a atom ean 6 ‘The maximum number of ekcwoas whieh the valence shell of an atom can have is (a) haveany value above zero @ 6 ws (b) never be positive © 18 we (©) never be negative 7. Silicon has Z-= 14, Is outermost orbit is (A) ot be caleulated. (@) panially filled {An alom i sad 10 be ionised when any one of (®) half filled its orbiting electron (©) completely oveupied (a) Jumps ftom one oxbit to another @ empty (6) is raised to a higher orbit 8. Major part of the current in an intrinsic (©) comes to the ground state (@) is completely removed, ‘The maximum number of electrons which the M-stell ofan atom san contain is (@ 32 ws semniconducter is due to @ ©) © ‘conduction-band electrons valence-band electrons holes inthe valence band () themally-genersted electron © 18 @ 30 9. Conduction electrons have more mobility than Eleetoniedistibution ofan Si atom is tok because they a) 2.10.2 ) 2.8.4 (@) arelighter © 24s @ 248, (0) experience esllsions les frequently Semiconductor materials have (6) have negative charge ‘bonds. (d) need less energy to move them. (a) ionie (0) covalent 10, Doping materials ate called impuitiesbecanse (©) mutual (metalic. they 2058 Electrical Technology (a) decrease the number of charge carriers (b) change the chemical properties of semiconductors (©) make semiconductors less than 100 percent pure (A) alter the crystal strwetures of the pure semiconductors (©) germanium ——(d)_ intrinsic. 19, Any voltage that is connected across a FN Junstion is called voltage. (a) breakdown (b)_ barrier (©) bias (d) reverse. ‘The area within a somivondictor diods whore no mobile carrent carriers exist when it is 11. Current flow ia a semiconductor depends on formed is called... region. the phenomenen of (a) depletion (b) saturation (a dite (©) ittusion (©) potemial baer (a) space charge (©) recombination (a) allot the above. 21, The depletion region ofa semiconductor diode 12, The proces of aking impurities toapanesem- ‘ede conductor sealed (a) reverse biasing (a) mixing () doping (6) forward biasing (©) sitfusing (4) ening. (©) erytal doping 13, The most widely used seniconuetng material (a) migration of mobile change caries. in electronic devices is 22. If an inirinsic semiconductor is doped with a (@) germaniam —— (silicon ‘very smal atountof baron, then a theextesie (©) copper (@) carbon Jenniconductr so formed, the numberof ele 14, Elecion-hole prs ae produced by trons an hoes wil, (a) recombination (2) thermal energy (a) decrease (©) ionization (@ doping (b) increase and decrease respectively 18. Recombination takes place when (0) increase (a) am eleteon falls nto a hole (a) decrease and increase respectively. (&) apostive and anegative ion bond together 2%. Two italy identical samples A and B of pare (0) avalence electron becomes a conduction sane ae pacer leabaed (@ acrysal is formed the hole concentration in A is 9 x 10", then the 16, Whea a PL juaction is formes, fusion eur ok coucetanon In B it te and tempea. rent causes ‘an wnts (@) mixing of cure carriers Gane errr (0) forward bias: () x10" (d) 27x10" m* (0) reverse bias 24. Hall effect is observed in a specimen whea it (a) bacier potenti (oneal ofa semiconductor) is caring curent 17, The leakage current of a P.N diode is caused ands phacedin a magnetic Feld, The resultant ty ‘lect Field inside the specimen willbe in (a) beatenersy (0) chemical energy (a) direction normal to both current snd (©) barrier potential (d) majority carers. magnetic ek 18. Electronic components which are made of a (8) the direction of current semiconductor material are often called (6) ditectionantparale! tothe magnetic ‘devices. Held (@) solidstate ——(®) soon (a) an abitrary dimction depending wpon te conductivity of the specimen, ANSWERS A. (b) 2d 2 A (b) & 6 (by 7. (b) 8 (a) % 10, (dy we dy 12 (b) AR (by 14, (b) B@ 6M 2@ Ko Bo Mm@ nw 2 Aw ww curser ED Learning Objectives > act P-N JUNCTION Resistance Sectwacom DIODE tunction Capacitence Equivalent Circuit of PA uncon Diode Fabrication ‘Grown Junction ‘Alloy Junction Diffused Juncton ’ ’ ’ Epitenial Juncton Point Contact Junction The Ideal Diode The Real Diode Diode Circuits with D.C. ‘end A.C, Voltage Sources Diode Clipper and Clamper Circuits tippers Some Cligping Circuits ‘Clampers summary of Clamping Circuits vyVYY YY YY ’ vey @ Chemist led the research for the molecular diode (In the zemiconductor industry, ‘allied p-n junctions) 2060 Electrical Technology 92.1. P-N Junction Diode ) Construction @ otr{wlhe {nis wo-terminal device consisting ofa P-N juretion formed either in Ge or Si crystal. ts cireuit symbol is shown in Fig. $2.1 (a) The Pand Naype regions are refered 10 gy asannde and cathode respectively. In Fig. $2.1 (b),aerow- Pie head indicates the conventional direction of curren flow Anode ae ‘when forward-biased. isthe same direction in which hole flow takes place. ; 2 Soe, ‘mears t0 indicate which lead is P and which lead is N. Sean ee cnc caay Oe . “rsh 24 ond 120, Hee 2a fost 7 a | aries tow ae i SE os be diodes having variety of physical structures whereas Fig. a = ‘ $23 (0) Motes ha en A te ‘the psetureot two commercial diodes shown in Fig S2.1(. Fig. 5821 Fee? nae ents i __ _ i Anode’ Cathode = =. ae oi Fo. 522 ‘The low-current diodes whose body is about 3 mm long can carry a forward current of about 100 mA, have saturction eureat of S yA at ecom temperature (25°C) aed can withstand a reverse voltage of 75 V without breaking down, The medium-current diodes can pass forward current of abou’ 300 mA ad ean withstand reverse voltage of 250 V. The high-cutent didesor power diodes can passa forward current of many amperes and can survive several hundred velts of reverse voltage. () Diode Mounting ‘Low snd mediun-current diodes are usually mounted by soldering their leads 19 the connecting © P-N Junction Diode 2061 terminals. The heat generated by these diodes (when operating) i small enough ‘0 be carried away by ar convection and conduction along the connecting leds. Howover, high-current stud-mounted diodes generate largeamoants of heat for ‘which ar convection s totally inadequate, For cooling, they need hea sinks made of meta veh ae Gopperoe alrinitm which are good conductors of heat. The sink absorbs heat from the device and hen lransfers it to the surtounding air by convection and adaton since ithas large =} surface ata, (e) Working @ A PAN junction diode is one-way ee device offering low resistance when forward-bsed [Fig. 52.3 (a)] and tehaving almost as an insulator when reverse-bssed (Fig. 32.) ()], Hence, seh diodes ae mostly used a rectifiers, for converting alternating curren into direct Gd) VM Characteristic Fig. S24 shows the satie voltage-cument characterises fr a low-power P-N junetion diode |. Forward Characteristic ‘When the diode is forward-biased and 1 applied voltage is increased from zero, nary any current Flows through the devise — ame ‘nthe beginning. Is so because the exte- + ‘al voltage is being opposed bythe inter- ral barter voltage V, whose value is 0.7 V for $: and 0.3 V for Ge, As soon as Vp 8 od caren hough the diode increases rpily with Increasing applied batery volage, Is found thats litle a voltage as 0 V prodacesa forward current of shout 50 mA. A burnout i ikely to occur forward voltages increased Heyonda certain sa it. 2. Reverse Characteristic + — ‘When the diode is reverse-iase, majoiy carrer at locke nd ory a small cureent (ie ‘0 minority carers) ws through the diode. AS the ererte.rollage i netted From reo, the overt euro racy ulehiy ross ie ot saturation value, which salsoknown a leakage current It isof the order of nanoampees (nA) for Sand mieroamperes WA) for Ge. The Value otf (or 7,)isindependent ofthe aplie reverse voltage but depenis on (a temperature, (b) degree of doping and) physi sizeof the junction 'A seen fom Fig. 824, when reverse voltage exceeds eran valu elle break-down voltage Vg (oF Zener voltage V), the leakage erren suddenly and sharply increases. the surve inating ‘ze esstnce at thispoint Any further ineeaseinvotag' ikl to prode uoutuness preted by acareatlimitingresisor ‘When P-N junction diodes re employed primarily because of tis breakdown property as voltage eguitors, they ae called Zener diodes (Ar. 54.1) everse asec code 2062) Electrical Teshnotogy 3. Equation of the static Characteristic ‘The voltampere characteristics desrihed shove are called stati characteristics because they \eserie te dc. hehaviou a the diode. The forward and reverse cheracterstics have bees combined wo a single diagram of Fig, 324, Break Dow Canentdue ‘Mine Caries ea Chararsic Fg. 524 Thesecharactensties can hedescrinedy the analytcalequation called Bolloman diode equation aiven helow 1 ity ene where J, = diode reverse ssturation current = voltage across jnction ~ positive for forward bas ans negative for reverse bias 2 = Boltmann constant = 138% 10°73 T= crystal temperaure in*K asl ~for germanium 72 = sco Hence, he above die equation becomes T= he" -0) for germanium 1 = e™—1) foe stcon Now, ck = 11,600 and puting 7/11,600 = Vp the above equation may be written as Fe ie") = 1 (oF ~1) ampere 205K. V,=293V11,600/=0.125 V=25 mV. Substiuting Now, atrocm temperture of (273+ 20) -N Junction Diode the value of, we have foe Ge Hit V> 1 volt ~tor Si if V> I vol ‘We may also write the above dide equation asunder Pe asi y = Forward bins ce lett) reverse bias (©) Diode Parameters “The dine parsers of grate interen 1 Bulk resistance (rg) ici the sum ofthe resistance valves ofthe P-type and N-ype semiconductor materials of which the diode is made of e asunder : ne thy ~Fig. 525 Usually ts very small It's given by ty = Wp Voy Its the resistance offered by the diode well above the harrier voltage. when current is large. Obviously: this resistance is offered in the forward direction, 2. Junction resistance (7) =a seas Is value for forwand-biased junction depends (—p = . = ‘on the magnitude of forward de current. oe oN Le, ny = 2Smvitp(mA) = tee Ge bi SOmVilp(mA) —— for Si Obviously. tis mruble resistin. oh 3. ynamle or ne restatance 4 Te 8 t= th, For aye values forward curtent,r.is neg lige, Hence, r= fj» For small values of fy yi negligible as compaed tr, Hence 4. Forward voltage drop Lip given by the relation wrard voltage diop = Powerdissipated_ fomard voage drop = ES Reverse saturation current (y) I has already been disewsed in An. S144 Reverse breakdown voltage (Vy) tis discussed in Ar. 52.3, Fig 52 Reverse de resistance Ry = versevoltage veneer Applications ‘The man applications of semiconductor diodes in moder eleconie cic ae as under 1. Aspower ofrecer diodes. They convert ae cucrent int de eurent for de power supplies of eleetone iets 2. Asia! dodes in eimmuniation circus for modulation aad damodslaten of small rae 2. AL Zener dodes in vleige abisng cic ‘4. -ASvamctor diodes-fr use in voliagecontolled tuning cults as may be found in radio. td TV rccvern For thin prpore, te Gods edly ems to ve acertan ng of juntcn capacitance. The expicitnce ofthe reverse-tased diode is given by C= K/WVq ‘where Vp ihe reverse vole. 2064) Electrical Tesnnotogy 1 loge eieults wsed tn computers, 2.1, Usins approximate Boltemann’s diode equation find the change in forward bias {for doubling the forward current of a germanium semiconductors at 250°K.. (Gacie Blectronies, Osmania Univ: 1993) Solution. The approximate Bolzmann’s diode equation is given by I= J, exp (eVIKT) 1, = hexp (evil) and b= fyexp (eV JED, 1 Fo [Fu-»] [rs foe Gen= or (Wy-¥) = Since WY, 0.593 = 17.3 mV Example £22. A certain germanium P-V junction diode has a leakage curren of 10°" A at ‘room temperature of27*Cand 0” 4 at 125°C, The diode isforward-biased with a constan-eurren source of | mat room temperature. Ifeurentis assumed 0 remain constant, calc late Be jurction barrier voluge at room temperature and at 125°C. Solution. As given in Ar $2.1 1s Toexp(eVnkT—1) Since or Ge = 1 2. (il) + 1= ex (eV) “Tokng logan of bo side and sling for Vs we gt i (t Ean v= Fu(i") Now, a 27C oF (273427) = 300°K AD Ie = 138 3107 5300) 16% 10° = 26 mV At 213 +125) = DR"K, Ale = 138 x10" 398 / (1.6 x10") = MmV 5 “ 660 nv = 0.66 Hens a 27°C, Vy = 258 | 10" AUIS, Vy sn (Wot) anv nV bw 52.2. Derivation of Junction Resistonce Junction resistarce is also knowns incremental or dynamic resistance and isan important parameter particularly in connection with small-signal operations ofthe diode, r= Widt org = dluv Now, 1 (a) Reverse bias Whenteverse bias is greater thar a few tenths ofa volte. when! Vinyl then gs extremely small so that r,s very large. That high value isalso represented hy iy () Forward bias Again fora forward bias greater an afew tenths of avo,» Now, at rom teriperture of 295°K, V= 7/11 00 = 295/11,600 2 fori hence, = UV and = WV. = 25mV.Also = for Geand 25 mv mA for gormanium S0mV mA ~for silicon -N Junction Diode 2065 ia a Se ORR RTH Ta VR ORT Wena oar nen coeey te ene Runa Caer Biel ee ae ewe ase Giincratend alin a 28 wm feed) ry EM veils =10VtpA Ras eee ae oe plese pede 0 Khe aed tee wee att Se mais 70 Solution. 1 For Gey 1 for forward bias 1>>h, T= exp (eVIKD) ney i Jy lexp (eVikT) 1) ae Eble avs Sav av _kr_ 25x10 ~ Fin ampere SmA=5x10°A 3 fy = BANOO Example 825, Find the cxrrent through the 20.0 resistor shown in Fig. 526 lah. Bach silicon diode has a barrier potential of 0.7 V and a dynamic resistance of 2 & Use the diode equivalen: ‘ireui echnigue Gemiconductor Devies, Gujarat BTE, 1993) Solution. In Fis. $2.6 (6) each diode has been replaced by its fquivalentcircut 1s seen that diodes , and Dy are forward-biased by 5 V battery whereas D, and Dare verse biased. Hence, the current wil flow from point AWB, ten to € vit 20.8 resistnce and then back tothe negative temminal of the $V bate. The net voltage in the equivalent by circuits Vyq=5=07-07 =46V ‘Total resivance seen by this net voltage e oi Ry=2+20+2=240 Fig sa The choult surent 1 = Vq/Rp= 3.624 = 0.5.8 52.3. Junction Breokclown IF the reverse bia applied to a P-V junction is inereased, point is reached when the jusetion breaks down and reverse current ries sharply to a value limited only by the extemal resistance 2066) Electrical Tecnnctogy connectein series with the jonetion (Fig. $2.7) Ths eral ‘vale of the voliage i known as breakdown valtage (Vy). I 4s found that once breakdbwn bas occurel, very ite fuer increase in vole i requied increase the cert 10 wl tively high values, The junction sl offer lost 0 resi tance this pon The bieakdown voltage dependson the wiih ofthe deple- sion region whieh, in turn, depends en the doping level The following two mechanism are responsible for breakdown under increasing reverse voltage: 1. Zener Breakdown ‘This form of breakdown occurs in junetions which, being heavily doped, have narrow depletion layers. The breakdown voltage sets up a very strong electric field (about 10° V/m) across this narrow Zever es Uyer Tht is tong emus rea ma Or rapture the eanaten bonds Shred) promingcerotske pat Bona far ine = rolage ea a8 utr ince in revere ologe epbl ST recog age numero eet T carers, That is why the junetion has very Jow resistance in the break-down region 2. Avalanche Breakdown ‘This form of breakdown occurs in junctions which being lightly-doped, have ‘wide depletion layers whee the eletre Held {is not strong enough to produce Zener breakdows. Instead, the minority caries ‘accelerated by this Field) collide with the semiconductor atoms in the depletion region. Upon collision with valence Reverse Voltage 25 0 2-10 lecttons, covalent bonds are broken and 100pA, clecton-hole fairs are generated. These Fig. 227 rnewly-gererated charge carriers are also fceelerated by the electric field resulting in more ealisions and herce further production of charge carriers. This leads tan avalanche (or Hood) of charge carriers and, consequently, to 2 very low reverse resistance. The to breakdown phenomena are shown in Fig. 52.7 52.4. Junction Capacitance Capacitive effets areexhitited by P-W junctions when they ate ether forward-biasedor reverse: biased. a) ‘Tramstion Capacitance (C,) oF Space-charge Capacitance ‘When Pi junction is reverse-based the depleion region acts lke an insulatoror asa dicketie ‘material essential for making a capacitor. The P- type and N1ype regions on ether side have low resistance and eta the plates. We, therefore, have allthe components necessary for making parallel plate capacitor. This junction expactance is called ranstion oF space charge capacitance (Cy Ot Cp)-ltmay be calculated by the usual formula C= e Ald is typical value s 40 pF. Since thickness of rg. 528 a se ‘When used in such ale, tne diodes ate called taractors variegps or vltucaps, The symbol of these diodes when used inthis roe is shown in Fig. 52.8 along with ts equivaint cireuit ‘When used in @ resonant circuit, vanictor acts a8 a variable capacitor and allows the resonant frequency o be adjusted by a variable voluge level. In Fig. 52.8, two varactos have been used to provide xl yarlable capuettance in a parallel resonant ect, Here Vi variable de voltage tht Contras the reverse has and hence the eapactance ofthe diodes (6) Diffusion or Storage Capacitance (C,) ‘This capacitive effect is presont whon the junction is formand-blased It is calld diffusion cupacitanceto account forthe tine delay is moving charges across the junction by diffusion process. © Due 1 this fact, this capacitance cannot be identifi in terms of a dietetic and plates. I aries irecly with the magnitude of forward cutentas explained below in more devils Consider a forward-biased junction which is catying a forwand curent [> Suppose the applied voltage is sudently reversed, then J, ceases suddenly hut leaves lot of majority charge caiersin the depletion regio. These charge carriers must get ou of the region which, to thir baa luck, becomes wider under the reverse bis, Hence, itis seen that when a forward-biased PN junction i suddenly reverse-biased, a reverse curren flows which is large initally but gradually desteases to the level of saturation current f, This effect can be likened to the discharging current of a capctor ad 4s, therelore, rightly represented bya capacitance called diffusion capacitance Cy Since the umber of charge cariers left in depletion layers proportional forwardcurtent, Cis etecly proportional to 1), ls typical value is 0.02 MF which s 500 times C, The expacizance assumes great significance in the operation of devices which are required to switch rapidly from forward to revere bis, It Cys lage, this switchover cannot be eopid. will delay both the switch-on an the switch-of. This efect of Cis variously known as recoxery time ot carrer stomge Taiko cue offorward bin tho diode sure! vamos entirely dust difision rift caren being nope) 2068) Electrical Tesnnotogy 1T ismear lifetime of charge carriers, then a flow of charge Q yield a diode cureert of (oy z he Qa teeth e™ at y= ath core gt anv, 52.8. Equivalent Circuit of a P-N Junction We have seen fom above that a forward-biased junction offers ac ye Re teiatince rand postestes diffision Pw capacitance C, (which comes into re the picture only when frequency of the applied voltage is very high) ene, it ean be represented by the & G equivalent circuit of Fig. 52.10 (a. et é ‘An opposing battery bas been 0 connected in deriea with ry to ‘account for the junction hanrier Fig 52.10 potential AAs seen fram Fig. 52.10 (b) a teverse-biased junction can be simply represented hy a reverse resistance Ry connected in parallel with acapacitance Cy oF Cy Example $2.6, Calculate the barrier potential for Si junction at fo) 100°C and (b) 0°C value at 25°C is 0.7 Solution. As seen from An. $1.40, lz a y 4 =. AV = ~0002 r= 0.002 (4,1) f@) Ar = (100-25) =75°C Vpat 10°C = 07 + 0.5) =p-55 ¥ © Ar = -28)=-25¢ VpaltrC = 074003 = 0.8 V Rxcample $2.7. A germaniam dinde draws 40 mA wit ford bis of 28 MThe junction is «at room temperature of 283°K. Caleaate the reverse saturation curren ofthe diode. Solution. T= h(e™=1) oF 40x10 =1,(e"*"* 1) 2 4, = 4b x 197722027 - 1) = 182 WA Example $2.8. Calcalae forward current in Ge diode at 20°C whe forward voltage is 0.3 V. Compare tis valu with that afer a temperature rise of 50°C Assume that reverse sturaton current doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature. (Elestronis-1, Mysore Univ. 1991) Solution. Accowing to Batzmann’s diode eqution fay = hte =1) = Bye = 1) = fe? 1) = 162755 h a 1 = (0450) =70C or T=704+273= 49K Vz, = 343/11,900 = 0.0296 V'= 003 V, hence, Vin Vy= 0.41 x03 = 10 “The value of fy at 70° Is f= 29x fy=82 J becase it doubles for every LOC rise in temperature Iyy = Mg (@!~ 1) = 32, (22,026 ~ 1) = 704,800 fy 1 means that fy, = (TP480) + 162,755) fy = 4.3 fy Le. Forward curtent has inereased only 4:3 times whereas ha inereised 32 tines forthe same risen tempersture PAN Junction Diode 2069 Example 529. The capactance af a varactor varies from 1030p Two sch varector odes are wedi the tring circ of Fig 5211. 1fL= 10 mH, determine the wing range ofthe ect. ition, It should he noted that the two varactor capacitances are connected in series (Fig. 52.11). e Coniy #52 * 25 PF: Cu = 5072 ® 25 pF Somers = WER NEG =1/2eft0x107 25x10 e cor gions 1 MHz (approx) ae In \ixi0 «25x10 = 318 KE Sane 52.6. Diode Fabrication ‘The electrical characteristics of a semiconductor diede depend on wo factors (the material employed and (i) the ‘ype of PW junction use. ‘The two most commonly-used materials are germaniam (Ge) and sticon (Si. Since Ge has higher eleereal conda ‘ion than Si, its often used in low-and mediam-power di- ‘odes. On the other any, Si hax boon found more mui for high-power applications because it can be operated st higher emperatutes hen Ge. Anew mstertal called gauny-arsenide (GaAs) is found to combine desirable features ofboth Ge and Si and is finding ever-increasing use in many new applica ‘The PAN jmetion may be prodaced by any one of the following methods Poterytaline strctires 1. grownjunction 2. alloy junetion 3+ aiused junction 4 epltaval grown |S. point contaet junction ‘The frst sep in the manuiacture of any semiconductor device isto obtain the semiconductor ‘material in an extremely pure form. The accepted impurity level is less than one poet of impurity in ‘one billion (10° pars of the semieoedictor material. To begin with the raw material is sibjeced to {series of chemical reactions ard then 193 zone refining process which employs induction heating to reduce the impurity evel ofthe polyerystalline structure, Next, the Crachalski or fleating zone technique is used to form single erysls of Ge of Si for fabrication of diodes, These crystals are then ‘ut into wafers as thin as 0.025 mm (nearly one fourth the thietness ofthis paper). Now, we will briefly disewss the four basic processes commonly used in the manufacture of semieonductor diodes 52.7. Grown Junction ‘Such junctions are produced hy employing eitter the Czochralski or Floating zone technique ‘The apparatus ssed for Crochralski tecique is shown in Fig. $2.12. A single erystal seod of the 4esired impurity level is immersed in the moken semiconductor material contained in a crucible ‘Then. it i gradually withdrawn while the shaft holding the seed is slowly turing. When erystal is being pulled our, impurities of P-type ant N-ype are altemately added 10 preduce a P-V junction. ‘This large are crystal is then ex into a large mamber of smaller diodes 82.8. Alloy Junction “The alloy process produces junston diodes thst have high PIV and current ratings but which 2070) Electrical Tesnnotogy have larg junction capacitance due io thei larg junetion area In this process. a tiny dot (or pellet) of indium (or any other P-type impurity) is placed onthe eneble Fig. 22 Fig. 5213 fart of an Aeype leon wer tid We ors ated ell above HE meng einperitre ‘nium (about 150°C) as shownin Fig. $2.13 (o, Casequent, inim mets and dissolves sme of the silcon. The temgerstre i then lowered und sileon vfrezes to form a single crystal having & PW junction as shown in ig, $2130) 52.9. Diffused Junction ‘Tedifusion process employs eer solid o gas cous diffusion. This proces takes more time thin al loy process buts telaively cheaper and more acet= rately contollable. In this process, partic from an arcaof high consentration drift surounding of leser enncentration, © Sol Dittuson Fo. 5216 ‘The solid fusion process srt: with the ‘painting’ of a Paypelmpurity Gay, indium) on an W. type substate and heating the 10 until he impurity difuses a short distance into the substrate to form Paype layer (Fig 52.14). (i) Gaseous Diffusion In the gasenus ciffasion process, an N-type material is heated in a chamber contaixing « high concentration of an sseepior impurity in vapour form (Fis. $2.15). Some ofthe aseeptor atoms are diffuse (or absorbed) into the #-sype substrate form the P-ype ayer hus creating a P-N junction, By exposing only par of te V-type material during the cifusion process the remaincer beng covered by atin coating of SiO,), the size ofthe P-region can be controlled, Finally, metal contacts at elecoplted on the fone surface ofeach repio for connecting the eats Si0, Dif ‘The diffusion technique enables simaltancous fabrication of many tundeds of diodes op One smal ase of a semiconductor materia. That is why i s the most frequently-sed techique not only for the manafactre of semi-conductor diodes but ako forthe production of transistors and integrated circus et Fla. 52.15 PAN Junction Diode 2071 92.10. Epitaxial Junction ‘This junction differs from the dffuslon junction only isthe manner in which the junction is fabricated. Such junctions are grown om op ofan N-type wafes in a high temperature chamber, The {graveh prececds ator by stom and hence exactly similar to the erst lattice of the wafer on Which itis grown, Such junctions have the advantage of low resistance 52.11. Point Contact Junction Ik consists of an N-type germaniam or silicon wafer about [.25 rim square by 0.5 mam thick, one face of which is soldered to a metal base by radio-frequency heating as shown in Fig. 82.16 (a) The bither face has a phosphor bronze (or tungsten) spring (called cat's whisker) presse aginst it, The P-N junction is forved by passing & large curent for a second or two through the wire while the ‘rysal face with wire pout i kept positive. The heat 30 produced dives away some of the leetromt {rom the atoms in the small region around the poin: of contact thereby leaving holes behind. This Rite or es [ ee {D> a SFT NEope @ ® Fig 52.16 smnall region ofthe Netype material is, consequently, converted imo P-type material ws shown in Fig 52.16 (a, The small area of the P-N junction results in very low junction capzcitanve as mentioned cater 52.12. The Ideal Diode ‘There is no such thing as an ideal diode or perfct diode. The existence of such a diode is visualized simply asan aid in analysing the diode circuits ‘An ideal diode ty be defied 0 a ino-tenal vibe wih (@) conducts with zero resis- tance when forward-biased. and (©) appears aan infinite re- sintanee when reverse-insed. nother words, such a device acts as a short-circuit in he forward diection and 3s an open-circuit inthe reverse diection as shown in Fig, $2.17, Also, inthe forward direction, there is no voltage drop (even tough ‘cerrentis there) since a shor has ser resistance. On the other hand, there ino reverse curent berause reverse resistance i infin, 11 {sbetpfu 10 mink ofan deal diode as aistable switch Which deal diode Js closed inthe forward direction and open in the reverse dire: tion. Hence, it has two stable states : ON or OFF Fig. 52.17 2072) Electrical tesnnotogy Example £2.10. Calculate the circuit current and power dissipated in the (a) deal diode 6 0 resistor of the circuit shown in Fig. 52.18 (a). Solution. (a) The diode isan ideal one and is forward-biased. Hence, it can be replaced by & sort (closed switch) as shown in Fig. 32.18 (b). The erent current. as given by Ohm's lv, is T= 16 =2A Since there is ne voltage drop across the diode, power consumed by itis zero. As weknow, thet is no power when cther he vllageor eurentisze0. Inthe frward dieetion, there is euent but no voltage drop, hence power dissipated by the ieal Gode is er. Inthe reverse direcion, there's voltage but no curtent. Hence, power dissipased by the diode s again zero. Infact an ideal dinde never dissipates any power (6) power consimed by 68 resitor= 7x 6= 24 W. Example S211, Calewate the curreat in the circuit of Fig. 52.19 (a) tae le > > » ot 2 (i ee ny oz avon or sw aw © ° ° ° Fg 528 fig 5219 Sotation. Ae con em te polarity ofthe tty emis th dod seven Hence tacts ian open site as shownin Fi, $218 (2) Obvious, crrentin sha cru Example 52:12. Find the 2 ae cure fling he eof Fig. $2.20 (a) which wies two A 5 a onporitely-onnected ideal diodes in orale =v hy Solution. Tho diode D, is tevere-bined and at san open sotien as sown in Fg. 52.20) So there ino caret through D, ° ® and te 8B resstor, Fig. 2220 However, Dy i forward: biase andact likes shorten or closed switch The caret drawn is = [1024 4)= 24. Example, S213. A sinusoidal voltage of peak wal SOV i applied toa dade cx show in Fig, 32.21 Skowh the waveform of voltage Vi treating the dade 0am ion oe. Soliton. First, conser ke postivehalf-eyele ofthe inp sgl, Te doe sts shor in the forward distin andthe monet V, exceeds try vale of 10, erent wll tet Hawn thro the crit. The vale of Vo wil main steaty at 10 the lance of 40 V dropping sero 5K resistance, tis seen hat veo Vi Seth the batty vols P-N Junction Diode Va. he Wa. i irae A Mi Wy 10%) = wg “20 0 » © Nex, consider the negative inpathaifeyee, Now, the diode at like an open swith, Conse quently, there is no circu current and this no voltage op across $ K ressor. Hence, V «qual sours vollge of posk vale SCV. Is teresting © now tha the above cieuit ats as a postive clipper witha eipping esl of 10 V te. equal to batlery volage. All positive pats of V, above IU) V have been clipped of! (Fis. 52.21) Example $2.14. Steich the wavejorm of the ouput voltage Vy of the circuit shown in ig, 32.22 a) considerig dies 4s det dod, Solution. 1s obvious tht diode D, and is 10-V hater act as postive clipper with postive ctiping lve +10 V. Siar, Dandi 10V ary act as negative cipper witha clipping level aid. eis clear that output voltge V, would be clipped daring hoth the positive an negative hall cycles as sown in Fg. $222 0), sy so Fig 5222 Incidentally, the above example represents one way of obiaining an appreximete square wave: form froma sine wave. Infact slipping takes pice w +10 Vand 10 V regardless ofthe shape of the Input wave Le. whether itis trimgularor sawtooth ee. Example $2.18. Jn Fig 52.23 draw input and ouput waveforms to scale. Consider diode fore ward ressiance of 30 ofms. (Negpur Unk Winter 2003) Reik Fig. 5223 2074) Electrical Tesnnotogy Solution. It is cbvious that the diode D and its 10V volt- age drop across the 10k variable resistor act as positive clipper. Since the value of ROR, (ie, forward resistance of a diode), therefore, the output voltage is clipped st 1OV as shown ia Fig 52.24 52.13. The Real Diode A teal diode neither conducts inthe forward direction with Fg. 5224 oro resiatinee nor it offers infinite resistance in the reverse airecion (a) Forward Direction In this case, we have o take two factors into account. Ones that forwad curent doesnot star flowing uni the voliage applied tothe diode exceeds its threshold or knee voltage V0.3 V forGeand 0.7 V fori), Hence, real diode 1s shown as equivalent t an ileal diode in Series with a small oppositely-connected baltry of em Vas shown inFlg. S2.25(@), =p ow ‘The scond acer wo be considered i the oh Jr—0 oH Wo forward dynamic orac resistance (offered Heal ae. by the citeuit. So far, we considered this o ® tesistnce to be zero implying that forward Sharsteisie is straight vertcal fine [Fig Fig. 228 52.25 (a). Mw taker, into account, the forward characteristic becomes as shown in Fig, $2.25 (). Here, the reciprocal of the slope ofthis characterise represen. Large Signal Operation Large signal sources are those whose voluige is much greater than the diode knee voltage Vg {near equal to bartise potential Vp). Under such conditions, forward current would be lage, > thal 1, (An 52.1) would be negligible. (i) Small Signal Operation In thiscase, the signal voltage ie much smaller than Vg (0.8 V foe Geand 0.7 V for would be small r, would be very large as compared try (6) Reverse Direction | {An acual cr rel diode does not have infinite resistance inthe revere direction because it will always have some reverse saturation current prior to breakdown. For example, if witha V,= 50 V. Jy | 10 MA, then By = 5% 1D" Q= § M. Silicon diodes have reverse resistance of many thousards of megiohms Herce, an actual diode in the reverse diction can he thought of a equivalent © 3 high resistor. This would fe tre only inthe case of signals of low frequencies. For high-frequency signals, |we will have 1 take into aecount the capacitive effets (AMT 32) Example $2.16, Sketch the waveform for the oupus voltage Vin Fig, $2.26. Take V_ = 03V for germanium diode which has a forward current of 28 mA at 1. Solution, Jy = (1-O3)28MA = 25.0; 1, =25mV7hs GNA) = ra = FA Ty = 12250 Hence, the equivalent circuit hecomesas shown in Fig. $2.27. Whenever V, exceeds 0.3 Vin the forward direction, diode is shored and the circuit offers a total resistance = (28 + 78) = 100 Q. ). Since J, 5/28 = 029. neyiglble ‘The peak votage= 20~0.3= 19.7 V. Hence, peak value of Forward current peak value of output voltage = 197% 1075 = 16.77 V Hence, the peak value of the half-wave retitled volige is 14.77 V as shown in Fig. 52.77 (b). During the negative hal-eyele uf dhe applied voltage, diode aets as an open swith so ta ¥,= 0. The waveform sketch of Vy is shown in Fig, $2.27 Yo 7 P ee ia : Fa iar ol Qa 752% 152 Yo Ae 2 | cc o @ 6 ra 828 ra seat 52.14. Diode Circuits with DC and AC Voltage Sources ‘We wil oftn come across diode and transistor ercuits which wil contain toth de and ae voltage sourees, Sach cieuits can he easly analysed by using Superposition Theorem (At 2.17). We will first draw the &e equivalent circuit while negecting ac-sources and find the required current and voltage values. Next, we wil draw the ac equivalent circuit while neglecting the de sources and again find te voltage and curert values. Final, we will superimpose the nua ss of values to get the inal result ‘White drawing the equivalent eeults,Foiowng posts mast be remembered 1, Direct current cannot flow ‘through’ capacitor, Hence. al capacitors look lke an open switch t9 ade source. 2, Usually, capacitors uted in mou ciseaits are large enough 40 dol Uke a short te em a source pariculely one of very high frequency. Similarly, de batteries would aso acts short circuits tales they have very igh intemal resistances Example 2.17. The silicon diode shown in Fig. $2.28 has a bull resistance of 1 8. The frequency of the 10 mV (peak) signal i so high shat the reactance ofthe coupling, capacitor may be taken as zero. Setch the opproximase waveform of he tal voluge “V"across the diode. (Basie Electronics, Punjab Univ) Solution. We will apply Superposition theorem to Gnd V, Fist, roliags deep duc © y de source would be found and then it would“ oe Lo ett Ris seen from Fig. 52.28 that the circuit 0 => Vin SIYD vy, (0 the left of point A is ‘open’ tothe de source i of 20 V because of capacitor C. Hence, the 10 nV| “2 ‘equivalent de ereuit sas shown in Fig. $229 (a). As seen, diode is forward-biased by the Fig. 5228 battery. Hence, only 0.7 V de appear across the dlode 2076) Electrical tesnnotogy ‘The de curent 1 = (20— 0.721 K = 1 mA. Gi) AC Bauivalent Cireuit Here, he capacitor Cand the 20-V hatery would be treated as shons thereby giving ws the a uit eine of Fig. 52.29 Since it isa silicon diode PB ogsay y= simvi mA 2500 +254 12510 ie me | AS stown in Fig, $2.29 (6, so Zany far as the signal source is con: me cerned, 20 K resistor and ac resis in 20KE sa: } taace oF the ode ae connected is parllelat point A. Now. 20 K ST Q=51 0. Hence, | Kand 51 Qare pst fo setter actone te goal © Source of peak value 10 mV The Frak talus ofthc vlinge dep = over 51. resistance is lox10* 20x10" Lost 30,081 ‘The teal op aeross the dode i the sum ofthe ac and de drops. The combined voltage wave: form is shown in Fig, $2.29 (c, It consists of ade voltage of 0.7 V over which ridesan ae voltage of peak value +048 mV. “Example $2.18 The Ge diode shown in Fig. 32.30 has bulk resistance of 2 9 The two capacitors offer neghgible reactance tothe ac signal. Sletch the waveform ofthe oupat voltage Solution. As seen from Fig. $2.30 (4), node current ean pass throught 100 K resistor because i 's blocked by C,. Hence, no dé voliage appears across 100-K resistor. The battery curtent passes ‘hough 10 K resistor, through diode, throagh 20 K resister and finally to ground. 1 = G0 =0.3)K00 + 20) x10 = 0.98 MAST mA 25 mVil mA) +2=270 vu = 10m oe mv) 0 al; 10 mv) ot 20RZ100 20K EK ‘a rice @ dh Fi, sa30 AC couivalentcireuitis shown in Fig. $2.30 (2) where capacitom and battery have been shorted. [As seen, diode resistance of 27 isin series with 20 K W100 K. It means that only 2 very small par Of ac source voltage drops across the diode, Henee, almost all acsource voltage appears across 100 K resistor. Obviously, Vis practically the same as ae source vokage as shown in Fig 52.30 (d) 52.15. Diode Clipper and Clamper Circuits Theseare diode waveshaping circuits te circuits meant t contol the shape ofthe yoltge and ‘tureat waveforms i uit varons purposes. Bach peaforia the waveshaping Sanction ciated by ia P-N Junction Diode — ‘name. The output of the clipping circuit sopeas as it portion ofthe input signal were lipped aff But clamper circuits simply clams (i. li up or down) the input signal toa diferent de level 52.16. Clippers ‘clipping circuit requires a misimum of wo compenens i. a diode and a resistor. Often, de batery in so wed fate clipping level The input waveforet canbe clipped at dierent levels by simply changing the batey votage and ty interchanging the position of varcus elements, We will sean ideal diode which sts like a closed swith when frwarl-iased and asan open swich when tevene-hised Sweh sect are used in ralars and digital computers et. when itis desed to rermove signal voltages above or below a sprefid voliige level. Another application isin radio receivers fot omic where noise pulses thatrise wll above the signal ample are clipped down to the deste level. Example £2.19. For the simple parallel clipner of Fi. 5231 find the shape af the eutpat soltage Vo acres the diode if the inp sine wave sina isan shown in Fg, 32.31 (a). What wil happen when diode and reson are interchanged ? Solution. When postive fal-yele ofthe signal volage is apie thecipper when Ais postive with respect B te dade Dis reverse-base, Hence, acts asan pen switch, Consequently, the entire input voltage appears aro it = Daring the negative levee of the v. Ag) dignal vllge when cirodt ternal MV Bhecomesposiive wih espectto A av the dd I torwara:tased. Hence, acts lke a closed switeh (or short) ° Se > across which no voluge is dropped, Hence, the waveshape of V, is as Eye showa in Fig. 52.31 (c). Its seen that o the mopatve portion ofthe signa Toltage hs heen removed. Hence uch clot i called» mega slipper. i} Fg. 5231 When Diode and Resistor are interchanged In this ease, the eireit becomes as shown in Fig, $232 (6), Now. the D Doutpat voltage V, is that which is yy, a Va {dropped aeross R. Daring the postive halfxyele of the sigma votage,Dacs 30 fas an open switch, Henee, all spplicd W Ro ‘ vollagedrepsactoss Dandnoneacross : ie R.So, there is 0 output signal voltage During the negative inpst half 30 V ” eo @ 6 6 cyele, terminal is positive andso its forward-binses which acts as a shor. Hence, there is no voltage drop across Fig 52.32 1D. Consequently, ll he applied signal voltage drops aross R and none aeross D. AS a result, the negative hall-cyele ofthe pat signal is allowed to passthrough the cliper circuit. Obviously, now the circuit aes a 2 positive clipper Electrical Technology Example $2.20. What would be the ouput waveform displayed by the oscilloscope in Fig. 52.33? The silicon diode has a barrier voltage of 0.7 V. i xR S 13068) " 10) a fe y Jt SS va ESE TS | ryt all B tal) 3 (Be) = 15x S04 (gti) Cee eae tae Payer epee enya eae penne ae vi Aatiox 40 Va Adp wy eT a mT an e / Z « , wk3Vo0/ ee gl | Yo f a ad i ; 8 ee ‘ rasan coson But ro current ows tll V, exceeds the opposing battery voltage of 10 V. Hence, only upper rar of ‘he positive signal vetage passes through the clipper eireit ard appears as Vj across. Is shape is shown in Fig, 32.34 (c), The negative half-eyele of the signal voltage is clipped of. ‘in fac in his excuit, the entire input Is cipped ott except postive peak portions. Reversed Battery Connections ‘The batery contections have been reversed in Fig. 52.35. In this ease, during the positive hall ceyeleor the sigral, the voluge cross R would be the sum ofthe signal voltage and the battery vollage “Le. signal voltage weuld fe lifted up hy 10 V as shown in Fig. 52.35 (). aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2082) Electrical Teshnotogy “The onput volegeV, across the “open” wil be = volts fom B55 89 F = Fig 52.40 (a) 5+10=15V = with E negate “Te waveform ofthe outa voltge is shown in Fig. 52.42 (b). thas sme teqiency a that of the input signal, However. it his been clamped dow inthe negative region, Kis sen tat vltge Siving ofboth ipot and ouput sites isthe sme i. 15V. is never te casein cpping circuits. When R= 100K Now, 4 = 100 x 10° x 1 x 10“ ms = 0.1 ms. Hence, the capacitor which is almost instanta- neoily charged to +5 V dung the postive input half éyele, willbe slmoxt completly discharged daring the negative halfeycle because, tow-S 4 (tll dachurge ime). qual thal ime period 0 S)of te signal Hence, inthis ease, Vy Would 0 be momentarily equal to - 15 _.#7E->| Fa ta Varihe beginning atthe vega.“ tive talcple but wl fl of w almost OV before the gal reverses its laity Fig. 5243). As seen, v, consists of yolage spikes of ampliede — pola seh Pl raseeas 52.19. Summary of Clamping Circuits {nthe following clamping citcuis, st would be assunned hat theamount ofthe tine 9k= 9 KC» THD where Ts the time-pesiod of the input signal. For all circuits, we willtake the seme input signal shown in Fig. $2.44 with a peak value of V. We will abo take note of the change in the output waveform when diode cornections are reversed ¢ Vou = Vos “TT Uy if t Ce. Deeet i ft ml i wtf yf U UE was ae Wis seen fiom Fig. 52.44 and 52.45 that negative clamping has changed to positive clamping when the diode comnoctions are revesed, nag i “ttl LLL » Fig. 5247 aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. ROUGH WORK aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2090 Electrical Technology (@) Applications To chose emitting diodes for a particular application, one or more of the following points have to be considered : wavelength of light emitted, input power required, output power, efficiency, turn-on and tum-off time, mounting arrangement, light intensity and brightness etc. Since LEDs operate at voltage levels from 1.5 V to 3.3 V, they are highly compatible with solit- cireuitry Their uses include the followin, 1. LEDs are used in burglar-al 2. for solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing cathode-ray tubes (CRT): 3. in image sensing circuits used for ‘picturephone 4. in the field of optical fibre communication systems where high-radia ‘matched into the siica-fibre optical cable; in data links and remote controllers; in arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric (letters and numbers) or supplying input power to lasers or for entering information into optical computer memories; 7. for numeric displays in band-held or pocket calculators. As shown in Fig. 53.4. (a) a seven-segment display consists of seven rectangular LEDs which ccon form the digits 0 t0 9. The seven LED segments are labelled ‘a’ to ‘g", Bach of this segments is tarm systems; GaAs diodes are Ae . 3 @ © Fig. 53.4 controlled through one of the display LEDs. Seven-se ment displays come in two types, common-cathode and common-anode type. In the common-cathode type, all the cathodes of the diodes are tied together as shown in Fig. 53.4 (b). This makes it possible to light any segmient by forward-biasing that particular LED. For example, o light number 5, segments af, g, and d must be Forward-bi ased. Since the cathodes are tied to ground, only 5 volt is, to beapplied to the anode of these segments to light them. The common-anode seven-segment display has all ts anodes tied together to +5 volt and ground is used 1o light the individual segments. Fig. 53.4(c) shows a picture of a rey seven-segment display. OptoetectronicDevices (2091 (e)Malticoloured LEDS LEDs are available which gives out light in either two or three colours, ‘There are also blinking LEDs, A 1wo-colour LED is a three-terminal device as shown in Fig. 3.5. The longest lead is the cathode and the remaining two leads are the anodes, When leads R and Care forward-biased, the LED emits ted light and when leads G and C are forward-hiased, LED emits green light. The tricolour LED looks simi- : lar to the ordinary LED but emits, red, green or yellow light depending on operating conditions. Tthastwo leads and each of these actsas both anodeandcathode. When RC G de current lows through it inone direction, LED emits Fig. 89.8 red light but when current flows in the opposite direction, LED emits ‘green light. However, with ac current, yellow light is given out ‘The blinking LED is a combination of an oscillator and a LED in fone package. Since it has an anede and a cathode lead, it looks like an ordinary LED. The blinking frequency is usually 3 Hz when the diode forward bias is 5 V. It conducts sbout 20 mA of current when ON and 0.9 mA when OFF. 53.3. Use of LEDs in Facsimile Machines G2 Fig. 53.6 shows a simplified schematic diagram of a facsimile (or k fax) machine. As seen, the light from the LED array is focussed on the document paper. The light reflected at the paper is focussed on a charge-coupled device (CCD) by a combination of mirror and a lens. This causes the optical information to be converted inio electrical information. The electrical information is then sent through the data-processing unit to its destination a telephone line Sensor for detecting PZ docurient paper, 5 ‘eepone [Datprocessing | SE Moe I Printing uit Fig. 526 53.4. Liquid Crystal Displays (a) General A liquid crystal is a material (usually, an organie compound) which flows like a liquid at room temperature but whose molecular structure has some properties normally associated with solids (examples of such compounds are : cholesteryl nonanoste and p-azoxyanisole), As is well-known, 192__Electrical Technology the molecules in ordinary liguids have random orientation but in a lame Hct liquid crystal they are oriented in a definite erysal pattem, Nor- mally, thin layer of liga erys- tal is tansparent to incident ight but when an electric field is ap- plied across it ts molecular ar- rangement is disturbed causing changes in is optical properties. When light falls on an activated layer of a liquid crystal itis ei- ther absorbed or else is scattered by thedisoriemed molecules. (b) Construction: As shown in Fig, 53.7 (a), @ liquid erysal “cell” consists of a thin layer (about 10 pm) of a liquid crystal sandwiched between two glass sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on their inside faces. With both ghss sheets transparent, the cell is known as transmittive type cell, When one glass is transparent and ‘the other has a reflective coating, the cel is called reflective type, The LCD doesnot produce any illumination ofits own. It in fat. depends entirely on illumination falling on it from an external source for its visual cfcet (©) Working ‘The two typi of display available are known as (/) feldeeect deplay and (i) dynamnle seats tering display. When field-effect display is energized, the energized areas of the LCD absorb the incident light ard, hence give localized black display. When dynamie scattering display'is energized, the molecules of energized area of the display become turbulent and scatter light in all directions Consequently, the activated areas take on a frosed glass appearance resulting ina silver display. OF course, the un-energized areas rena translucent ‘As shown in Fig. 537 (bya digiton an LCD hava segment appearance. For exaanple, if number 5 is required, the temninals 8, 2, 3 6 and 5 would be energized so that only thse regions would be activated while the otherarecs would remain clear. (@) Advantages ‘An LCD has the distinet advantage of extremely low power requirement (about 10-15 pW per segment display as compared toa fow mW fora LED), Tis die to the fact that it does nt itself generate any illumination but depends on external illamination forts visual effect (colour depending cident ight. They have a life-time of about $0,000 hours (©) Uses 1. Ficldetfeet LCDs are normally wed in watches and portble instruments where source of energy is a prime consideration 2. Thousands of tiny LCDs are ase to form te picture elements (pixels) ofthe screen in one type of B & W pockst TY receiver 3. Recent desktop LCD monitors. 4. Note book computer display 5. Cellular phone display o display data on personal digital assistant (PDAs) suchas Palm Vx ee @ i) Fig. 637 on th OptoetectronicDevices 205 ‘The liquid crystal display (LCDs) commonly used on notebook computers and handheld PDAS are also appearing on desktop, These flat panel displays promise great clarity at increasingly high resolutions and are available in screen sizes upto 15 inches. The LCD monitor offers benefits and drawbacks. The first benefit is size. Because of the need to house the tube itself, cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitors are big and heavy. LCD monitors are only a few inches deep and they are much lighter in weight. However LCD monitors are expensive than CRTS at present. Another problem is the viewing angle. The optimal viewing angle of an LCD is from straight in front and as you move further to the side the sereen becomes harder w reac, much more so than with a CRT. Moreover scteen resolutions generally teach only as high as 1,024 x 768, which is insufficient for some appli- cations. Fig. 53.7(c) shows the picture of an LCD used in portable instrument, 53.5. P-N Junction Photodiode It is @ two-terminal junction — deviee-whih is peated by Pest reroerisog ibe json a teat iluminating it A reverse-biased PN ~ junetion hava small amount of reverse ; To saturation current 1, (or fp) due to : thermally-generated electron-hole w= ne a pairs. In silicon, J, isin the range of x hanoamperes. The number of these —a minority carriers depends on the intensity of light incident on the ree junction, When the diode sin glass package, ight ean reach the junction and thes change the reverse current. ‘The basic biasing arrangement, construction and sym- bolsor aphotodiode are shown in Fig. 538. As een, 2 lens has heen used in the cap of the unit to focus ‘maximum light on the reverse-biased junction, The active diameter of these devices s about 2.5 mm but they are mounted in stindard 0-5 packages with a ‘window to allow maximum incident light. ‘The characteristics of Fig. $3.9 show that for a given reverse voltige, (or, increases wit increase inthe level of illumination, ‘The dark current refers Photodiode a= VV -iV to the current that flows when no light is incident, By changing the illumination level, reverse eur~ reat can be changed. In this way, reverse resis- tance of the diode can be changed by a factor of nearly 20. A photodiode can tum itscurrent ON and OFF innanoseconds. Hence, itis one ofthe fastest pho- todetectors. Iisused where itis required toswitch light ON and OFF st a maximum rate. Applica- Fig. 53.9 tions of a photodiode include 2094) Etectricat Technotogy 1, detection, both visible and invisible ; 2. demodulatio 3. switching : 4. logic circuit that require stability and high speed ; 5. character recognition ; 6. optical communication equipment ; 7. encoders exe. 53.6. Dust Sensor Fig. 53.10 shows a combination of an LED and a photodiode used as a dust seasor. As seen, the light emitted from the LED gets reflected by the dust par- ticles, The reflected light is collected by the photo- diode and is converted ito aa electrical signal. The dust sensor is employed in cleaners. ‘The combination of an LED and a photodiode is also used as : (1) a paper sensor in facsimile ma- Fig. 53:10 chines, (2) as a tape-end sensor in videotape record- ers/players, and (3) as a dirt detector for rinsing in washing machines. 53.7. Photoconductive Cell Itis a semiconductor device whose resistance varies in- versely with the intensity of light that falls upon it. It is also known as photoresistve cel ot photoresistor because it oper- ates on the principle of photoresistivity. (@) Theory (64S photo senstive detects ‘The resistivity (and, hence, resistance) of a semiconductor depends on the number of free charge carriers available init. When the semi- conductor isnot illuminated, the number of charge carriers is small and, hence, re~ sistivity is high. But when light in the form of photons strikes the semicondue- tor, each photon delivers energy 1 it. If the photon energy is greater than the en- ergy band gap of the semiconductor, fee mobile charge carriers are liberated and, asa result, resistivity of the semiconduc- tor is decreased. (#) Construction and Working Photoconductive cells are generally made of cadmium compounds such as cadmium sulphide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe). Spectral response of CAS cell is similar to the human eye, Fig, 53.11 hence such cells are often used to simu- late the human eye. That is why they find OptoetectronicDevices 205 use in light metering circuits in photographic cam- ‘The construction of a typical photo conduc tive cell and its two altemnative circuit symbols are shown in Fig. $3.11 (a) and (b) respectively. As seen, thin layer of photosensitive semiconductor ‘material is deposited in the form of a long strip rig “agged across adise-shaped ceramic base with pro- testive sides. For added protection, a glass lens or plastic cover is used. The two ends of the strip are brought out to connecting pins below the base on ‘The terminal characteristic of a photosonduc- 1 100000 tive cell is shown in Fig. 53.12. It depicts how the > tumination dus) resistance of the cell varies with light intensity. Typi- Fig. 53.12 cally, the dark resistance of the cel is | MQ or larger. Under illumination, the cell resistance dropsto value between | and 100 k2 depending on surface illumination (©) Applications A photoconductive cell is an inexpensive and simple detector which is widely wsed in OFF/ON Circuits, light-measurement and light-detecting circuits, Example $3.1, A relay is controled by a photo- R conductive cell which has resistance of 1k when ithaminated and 100 KS when in the dark. The relay is supplied with 10 mA from a30-V supply whencellis illuminated and is required io be de-energized when the cell isin the dark. Sketch a suitable circuit and calculate the required series resistance and value of dark current y (Optoelectronic Devices, Gujarat Unty. 1993) Solution. The cirevit is as shown in where Risa current-limiting resistor. I= 30R+”) where ris ceil resistance R= (G0I—r When illuminated R= GOD X10 Dark current is given by Jy, =30K2+ 100) 10° 53.8. Phototransistor Itisa light sensitive transistorandis similar to an ordinary bipo- lar junction transistor (BJT) except that it has no connection to the base terminal. Its operation is based on the photodiode that exists at the CB junction. Instead of the base current, the inpat to the transis- tor is provided in the form of lightas shown in the schematic symbol ofFig.53.14 (a). Silicon NPNs ae mostly used as photo transistors. The device is usually packed in a TO-type can with @ lens on top although itis router Resitanse (0) — ca ig. 53.13 1 100K8 Aig. 53.13, = 1x10) =2x10'=2 KO 2096 _ Etectricat Technotogy eEE==aeorcc_r_—ereeee sometimes encapsulated in clear plastic. When there is no incident light on the CB junction, there is a small thermally-generated collector- to-emitter leakage current [oq which, in this cease, Icalled dark currentandis inthe 1 range. ‘When light is incident on the CB junction, aa base current f, is produced which is directly proportional to the light intensity. Hence, col- lector current f= Bh, ‘Typical collector characteristic curves of a phototransistor are shown in Fig. 53.14 (6) Vee Each individual curve corresponds to a eerain @ Value of fight intensity expressed in mW fem repress As seen, Ic increases with light intensity. ‘The phototransistor has applications similat to those of a photodiode. Their main differences are inthe current and response time. The phoio-transisior has the advantages of greater sensitivity and current capacity than photodiodes. However, photodiodes are faster ofthe two, switching in less than a nanosecond. 53.9. Photodarlington As shown in Fig. 53.15 a photodarington consists of a ee) ptowovansbior in a Darlington arangemere wih a common e trnsisor. Ithas a much greater sensitivity to incident rai- ant energy than a phototransistor because of higher curcent A) eS Zn gain. However, its switching time of 50 ps is much longer than the phototransistor (2 is) or the photodiode (I ns). Its circuit symbol is shown in Fig. $3.15. Applications c Photodarlingtons are used in a variety of applications Fig. 63.15 some of which are given below. A light-operated relay is shown in Fig. 53.16 (a). The phototransistor T, drives the bipolar tran- sistor T,, When sufficient light falls on 7,, 7, is driven into saturation so thai fs inczeased manifold. This collector current while passing through the relay coil energizes the relay. pt Voc: is. t @ = © Fig. 93.16 OptoetectronicDevices 205 Fig. 53.16 (b) showsa dark-operated relay circuit ie. one in which relays deenergized when light falls on the phowtransistor, Here, 7 and R forma potential divideracross Vee. With insufficient light incident on T,, transistor 7, is biased ON thereby keeping the relay energized. However, when there is sufficient light, 7, tums ON and pulls the base of 7, low thereby tuming T, OFF and hence, deenerglzing the relay. . . Such relays are used in many applications such as () automatic door activators, (ii) process ‘counters and (ii) various alarm systems for smoke or intrusion detection. 53.10. Photo voltaic or Solar Cell ‘Such cells operate on the principle of photovoltaic action Ze, conversion of light energy into electrical energy. This action occurs in all semiconductors which are consirueted to absorb energy. (@) Construction ‘As shown in Fig. 53.17 (a), basie solar cell consists of P-type and N-type semiconductor mate- rial (usually, silicon or selenium) forming a P-N junction. The bottom surface of the cell (which is always away from light) covered with a continuous conductive contact to which a wire lead is at- tached. The upper surface has a maximum area exposed to light with a small contact either along the ledge or around the perimeter, The surtace layer of P-type material is extremely thin (0.5 mm) so that light can penetrate to the junction _ a © Fig. 53:17 Although silicon is commonly used for fabricating solar cells, another construction consisis of P- type selenium covered with a layer of N-type cadmium oxide to form P-N junction as shown in Fig. 53.17 (b). Two alternative circuit symbols are shown in Fig. $3.17 (¢). Power solar cells are also fabricated in flat strips to form efficient coverage of available surface area, Incidentally, the maxi- ‘mum efficiency of asolar cell in converting sunlight into electrical energy is neatly 15 per cent at the present. (b) Theory ‘When the P-N junction of a solar cal isilluminated, electron hole pairs are generated in the ssame way, as in photovoltaic eel. ‘An electric field is established near the P-N junction by he posi- tive and negative ions created due tothe production of electron-hole Pais which leads to the develop ‘ment of potential across the june tion. Since the number of elec tron-hole pairs far exceeds the — - ‘number needed for thermal equi- A photovoltaic cll generates electricity when radiated by sunlight librium, many ofthe electronsare 2098 Electrical Technology pulled across the junction by the force of the electric field. Those that cross the junction contribute to the current in the cell and through the external Iwad. ‘The terminal voltage of the cell is direcily proportional to the intensity of the incident light. The voltage may be as high as 0.6 V depending on the external load. Usually a large number of cells are arranged in an array in order to obtained higher voltages and currents as shown in Fig. 53.18. ey aye | > % Fig. 53.18 Fig. 53.18 Solar cells act like abattery when connected in series or parallel. Fig, $3.19 show two groupsof 10 series cells connected in parallel with each other. If each cell provides 0.5 V at 150 mA, the overall value ofthe solar bank is $ V at 150m. The two parallel solarbanks provide S V at 300 mA. This solar power source supplies the load and also charges the Ni-Cé battery. ‘The battery provides power in the sence of light. A blocking diode D isused to isolate the solar cells from the NI-Ca batery otherwise in the absence of light the battery will discharge through the cells thereby damaging them A solar cell operates with fair efficiency, has unlimited life, cn be easily mass-produced and has high power capacity per weight. It is because of these qualities that it has become an important source of power for earth satellites Example $3.2. An earth satellite has on board 12-V battery which supplies a continuous current of 0.5 A. Solar cells are used to keep the battery charged. The solar cells are illuminated by the sun for 12 hours in every 24 hours. I daring exposure, each cell gives 0.5 Vat 50 mA, determine the nunber of cells required. (Optoelectronics Devices, Gujarat Unix. 1994) Solution. ‘The solar cell batery-charging circuit is shown in Fig, $3.20. The cells must be Connected in series to provide the necessary voltage and such groups must be connected in parallel toprovide the necessary current. The charging voltage has to be greater Roo than the battery voltage of 12 V. Al- lowing for different drops, let the so- larbank voltage be 13.5 V. Number of series connected so- 2. = k= 135105=27 The charge given out by batier- ies during 224 hourperiod = 24 x05 = 12 Ah, Hence, solarcellsmust supply this much charge over the same pe- riod. However, solar cells delivercur- SS reat only when they illuminated i. for 12 hours in every 24 hours. Nec- essary charging current required from the solar cells = 12 AN/I2h=1 A. Pace eee! FE é lar sv nv Optoelectronic De 20990 ‘Total number of groups of solar cells required to be connected in parallel is ‘output current cell current= 1/90 10° =20 ++ total number of solar cells required forthe earth satellite = 27 20. 53.11. Laser Diode Like LEDs, laser diodes are typical PN junction devices used under a forward-bias. The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The use of laser is (becoming increasing common) in medical equipment used in surgery and in consumer prod- ‘ucts like compact disk (CD) players, laser printers, hologram scanners ete, (a) Consteueti Broadly speaking. the laser diode structure can be divided into two categories : 1, Surface-emitting laser diodes : These laser diodes emit light ina direction perpendicular to the PN junetion plane. 2. Bdge-emitting laser diodes junction plane, Fig, 53.21 (a) shows the structure of an edge-emitting laser diode. This ype of structure is called Fabry-Perot type laser: As seen from the figure, a P-V junction is formed by two layers of doped gallium arsenide (GaAs). The length of the PN junction hears a precise relationship withthe wave~ lengthof the light tobe emitted. As seen, there isa highly reflective surfaceat one end of the jenetion ‘and a partially reflective surface at the other end. External leads provide the ancde and cathode connections ‘These laser diodes emit light ina direct n parallel to the PN Highly Patil Rethctve ni End Depletion ‘Rapon PN Sas Suncor oo Partial - Renecve Bese End @ Fig, 5321 ® () Theory ‘When the P-N junction isorward-biased by an external voltagesource, electrons move across the junction and usual recombination cecuts in the depletion region which results in he production of photons. As forward current is increased, more photons are produced which drift st random in the depletion region. Some of these photons strike the reflective surface perpendicularly. These reflected photons enter the depletion region, strike ‘otter atoms and release more photons. Ail these photons move back and forth hetween the two reflective surfaces. [Fig. 5321 (b)} ‘The photon Activity becomes so intense that at some point, astrong beam of laser light comes out of the partially reflective surface of the diode, (©) Unique Characteristics of Laser Light ‘The beam of laser light produced by the diode has the following unique characteristics 1. It is coherent ie. there is no path difference between the waves comprising the beam; 2. Itis monochromatic ie. it consists of one wavelength and hence one colour on Laser dode 2100 Electrical Technology 3. Iis collimated ie. emited light waves trivel parallel to each ower, Laser diodes have a threshold level of current above which the laser action occurs but below which te laser diode behaves like a LED emit- Ling incoherent light. The schematie symbol of a laser diode i similar that of LED. Incidentally, a filter or lens necessary to view the laser beam. (@) Applications Laser dios are use in variety of applications ranging from meai- cal equipment used in surgery o consumer produets like optical disk equip- ‘ment, laser printers, hologram scanners etc. Laser diodes emitting vis- Ibe Hight ave used as pointes. Those emluing visible and infrared light are used to measure range (or distance). The laser diodes ure also widely used in parallel processing of information and in parallel interconnections between computers, Some of these applications are discussed in the following artes. Fig. 5322 53.12. Optical Disks ‘The major application field for laser diodes is in optical disk equipment. This eguipmentis used for reading or recording information and can be broadly divided into two groups 1, Reading-only and 2. Recording-and-teading type. ‘The optical disk equipment of either type make use of a laser diode, lenses and photodiodes. During recording, it changes electrical information into optical information and then records the information on the optical disk. During resding (or playback), the heal optically reads the recorded, information and changes the optical information inio electrical information, Fig. 53.22 shows the different types of optical disks used in practice, The commercial systems make use of disks that are 90, 120, 130 and 300 mm in diameter. A mini cisk, 64 mm in diameter is also used for digital audio. Optical disk a ae Dyladedee OAD) tirana Wie mes als Coach Recess yan Sere eles ‘The optical disks have several advantages over semiconductor memories. Someof these inclule their larger data storage capacity, shorter access time and smaller size. Therefore they are used in terminal equipment of computers as well as in audio visual equipment 53.13, Read-only Optical Disks Equipment Fig. 53.24 shows an optical equipment for reading data from digital audio (compact) disks. Compact disks (CDs) which are 120 mm in diameter are typical digital audio disks. Compact disks ‘usually means digital audio compact disk, but it also includes the read-only memory (CD-ROM) for data memory and interactive compact disk (CD-1) for multimedia use. OptoelectronicDevices 2101 Audio information (Ze. sound) is digitally recorded in stereo on the surface of a CD in the form of microscopic “pits” and “flats", As seen from 53.24, the light emitted from the laser diode passes through the lens and is focussed to a diameter of about I um on the surfaceofadisk. Asthe CD rovates, the lens and beam follow the ack under control of a servo. motor. The laser light which is altered by the pits and flats along the recorded track is reflected back from the track through the lens and optical system to infrared photodiodes. ‘The signal from the photodiodes is then used to reproduce the digitally recorded sound, a eta a = toe Lens Lens oT er te Fig, 53.28 53.14. Printers Using Laser Diodes ‘There are two types of optical sources usually used in printers ; (1) laser diodes and (2) LED arrays. The printers using laser diodes are called laser beam printers (or simply laser printer). These are ‘one of the most attractive type of equipment in office automation in today’s world, Words and figures can be printed rapidly and more easily by a laser printer than by other types of printers (Courtesy optical semiconductor devices by M.Fukuda published by John Welly & Sons Inc.) 2102 Electrical Technology Fig. 53.25 shows a simplified diagram of a laser printer. As seen the laser diode is driven by ‘modulated signals from the computer. The optical beam after passing through the lens is reflected by the rotating polygon mirror and scanned on the photoseasitive drum. The drum is homogeneously charged when it passes through the charging unit consisting of an LED array. ‘The homogencous electrification Is partially erased In accordance with the scanned optical beam. This is because of the fact that the electrical resistance at the light-irradiated part decreases and the electric charge is re- leased. This causes the signals (ie. data) from the computer to be written on to the drum. At the developing unit, an electrically charged powder (called toner) is electrostatically attached to the writ ten parts. At the transcribing unit, the powder is transferred to the paper. Next, the transferred pattern is fixed by heating and pressing at the Fixing unit. The data from the computer is thus printed on the: paper. ser aods LED aay for eteie Sscharge Photosenitive Tarn Tesclopeg Fig. 5325, 53.15. Hologram Scanners ‘The hologram scanner is widely used in various equipment and is ordinarily used in bar-code readers in point-of-sale systems (such as super marked checkout counters), It is also used in laser printers for scanning the laser beam on the drum precisely. OptoetectronicDevices 2103. Fig, 53.26 shows a simplified sehemaic of a hologram scanner. As seen, the optical beam for reading the bar-code is focussed by a lens through the hologram disk and scanned on the har-code by rotating the hologram disk, Gratings with coaxial circles are formed on the hologram disk. This Reflected signal Hogan sk Hologram scanne Fig. 58.26 ccauses the incident laser beam to bend at the grating by an amount determined by the grating pitch. ‘The reflected light modulated according to the bar-code is reflected by the mirror and monitored by the photodiode. The monitored optical signal is then translated into an electrical signal 53.16. Laser Range Finder ‘The laser diodes along with photodiodes can be used to measure the range (be. a distance) of an object. Fig. $3.27 shows a simple schematic of a laser range finder. As Seen, the laser diode is ‘modulated with high current pulses. The pulsed high-power beam is emitted in the direction of an object, The beam is reflected from the object. The reflected beam is detected with a photo detector (or photodiode). The range is calculated as the difference between the time the light was emitted from the laser diode and the time it was detected by the photodiode. Pulsed modulation = wa =p Time Laser diode Yes ae a = wan me Se =bd) ee Reflected ight Pmodinde Vos Fig. 9927 2104) Electrical Technology Let D = distance between the laser range finder and the object. ee — ose Sssieansenexan ‘A2-dimensional array of laser diodes and photodetectors can he constructed, Such a system is used to obtain 3-D images of an object. 53.17. Light-activated SCR (LASCR) ‘The operation of a LASCR is essentially simitar to that of a conventional SCR except that itis ight-tiggered (Fig.53.28). Moreover, ithas a window and lens whieh focuses light on the gate junction area, The LASCR operates like a lich, It.can be triggered ON by a light input on the gate area but does not turn OFF When light source is removed. Itcan be turned OFF only by reducing the current mnrough it below its holding current. Depending on its size, aLASCR is capable of handling larger amount of current that can be handled by a photodiode or @ photo-transistor. Fig. 53.28 shows how a LASCR ean be used for energizing a latching relay. The i put de source tams on the electric lamp and the resulting incident light sriggers the LASCR into conduction, The anode current energizes the relay and closes the contact. It i seen thatthe input de source is electrically isolated from the rest of the circuit. ‘Alar ee Opener | 53.18. Optical Isolators Optical isolators are designed to electrically isolate one circuit from another while allowing one cireuit to control the other. The usual purpose of isolation is to provide protection from high-voltage transients, surge voltages and low-level electrical noise that could possibly result in an erroneous. output or damage to the device, Such isolators allow interfacing of circuits with different voltage levels and different grounds ete ° LED ° @s L, : ° Re ° oO @ ® © OptoetectronicDevices 2105 An optical isolator (or coupler) consists ofa light source such as LED and a photodetector such asa photo transistor as shown in Fig, 53. 29 (a) and is available in a standard £€ package. When LED is forward-biased, the light produced by itis transferred to the phototransistor which is turned ON thereby producing current through the external load. Fig, 53.29 (6) showsa Darlington transistor coupler which is used when increased output current cepability is needed beyond that provided by the phototransistor output. The LASCR output coupler of Fig. 53.29 (c) canbe used in applications where a low-evel input voltage is required to latch a high ‘voltage relay for activating some kind of electro-mechanical device. 53.19. Optical Modulators Light emitting PN junction devices such as LEDs and laser diodes are easily ‘modulated by superimposing signals on to the injectedcurrent, Thisis direet moduta- tion, Laser diodes inhigh-bit rate and long- span optical communication systems are fre- quently used under direct modulation. However direct modulation results in ‘chirping which limis transmission quality because of dispersion in optical fibres. An optical modulator can modulate the light ‘ouput from taser diodes with tule oF no chirping. ‘There are two types of optical modulators: 1, The semiconductor optical modulators 2. Optical modulaiors composed of dielectric materials such as lithium nitrate (LiNO,) ‘The semiconductor optical modulators are PN junetion diodes and can further be subdivided into wo types : 1, Deviees used under forward bias (as LEDs and laser diodes are used), The optical modula- tion in these devices is carried out by changing gain or loss within the modulators. 2. Devices used under reverse bias (ie, a8 photodiodes are used). Most high-performance semiconductor optical modulators are used under reverse bias. The reverse bias is needed to generate strong electric field, Optical modatation is basically performed by modulating the refractive index or optical absorption coefficientof the modulators. The devices which make use of refractive index phenomenon for modulation are called phase ‘modulation type devices while those that use optical absorption coefficient phenomenon are called Inensity modulation type devices. ‘There are several different types of optical modu- {ators available today. But the waveguide type opti- cal modulaor is more commen in use. Funher tere are several different waveguide type optical modula~ tor structures possible, Fig. $3.30 shows a mesatype optical modulator structure Optical modulator 2106 Electrical Technology Itmay be noted that although we have shown the structure making use of a simple N-and P-layer Dut in reality each layer (N-type or P-type) Is made up of several different semiconductors. 53.20. Optical Fibre Communication Systems ‘The optical fibre communication systems (such as public communication networks and data links) are the basic infrastructure of the information hungry society. There are several advantages of tho optical fibre system over metallic transmission systems as listed below : 1, Data can be transmited at a very high-frequency over longer distances without much loss. 2. Electromagnetic induction (EMI) noise is never induced during transmission through optical fibre cables 3. Optical fibre cable slight, flexibleand economical. Fig. 53.31 shows the public optical fibre communication system broadly divided into two grou (1) Submarine systems, and (2) Land systems, Submarine systems have already been used to connect countries all over the world, The submarine systems help people to talk overseas without any time delay. Opti ire Communication systems Submarine ystems Land systems Long-hal ystems Fig. 6331 In land systems, long-haul systems have been connected between large cities. The land systems also include systems such as subserier systems and CATV (‘e. community oF common antenna television, cable and telecommunication television system, or cable television system), ect signl ‘opal ignat as aoe, ea Le, Taser diode “Tranter Splcal connects Fig. 5332 Fig 53.32 shows an application of LEDs, laser diodes and photodiodes in a simplified optical fibre communication systems, The LEDs and laser diodes emit light modulated with a signal. The ‘optical signal is then transmitted through the optical fibre and is received with photodiodes on the destination side, In this type of a system LEDs or laser diodes emit the light directly through the optical fibre and therefore is referred to as direct modulation type systems. But in more recent OptoetectronicDevices 2107 systems, the optical modulators modulate the light emitted from the laser diodes and then the modu- lated light is ransmisted through the optical fibre [refer wo Fig. $3.33) ae ; ati ModslatorOpicar OPA brecabe ae sounector Opszal signal Fewer [ie dials at Laser dode| “Taceniier Fig. 53:33 In long-haul systems, repeaters (which include photodiodes and laser diodes and electronic circuits) are inserted. In the repeater, the weak optical signal being transmitted through the optical fibre is detected by the photodiode. The detected signal is reformed and amplified by the electronic circuits, The amplified signal is eanverted again into an optical signal by alaser diode and transm ted again through the optical fibre cable. Fig. 53.34 shows a simple schematic of a repeater. Opsca signa Optical sign et — ict — — Omi fe cave —"—[~] repeater [ >} — pacar tee cate Opical connector Optica connector Fig. 53:34 From the modulation point of view, the optical fibre communication systems can be divided into digital systems and analog systems. Most long-haul and large capacity optical fibre communication systems are digital systems. The analog systems are used for transmitting information over a short distance, 53.21. Optical Fibre Data Links ‘The use of optical fibre data links has wide spread in the past few decades. Its application ranges from local area networks (LANs) to the computer, digital aucio and mobile fielts. Several different types of LEDs and laser diodes emitting light at wavelengths ranging from visible tothe infrared are used as optical sources. The transmission data rate is a function of transmission distance and varies from application to application. For computer links where the distance varies from 1m to 100m, the data transmission rate varies from 1 Mbits/s to 100 Mbits/s. For local-area-networks used in factory, office and building automation, the data transmission rate varies from 10 K bits/s 10 5 M bits/s. In digital audio field, where the distance iy below 1 m the data transmission rate varies from 500 bits’s to over 10M bites, Similarly in mobile fields (such as ship, aieraft, train and automotive app tions) where the distance could vary from | m to 100 m, the data transmission rate varies from 1K bitss to 1 M bits 2108, Electrical Technology 1. Optical fibre local area networks. The optical fibre to- Penonal Computer Fesonal Computer cal area networks (LANs) are iy . Lo tion systems. Some of their ad- eet cae au machines and otter office | Come fae ‘The LEDs and laser diodes ‘Terminal Nad Gy sherds asa seein Segetienre | | saretene || Optical S nully speaker for reproduction to a sound. | —te ca ‘3. Mobile feds. The optical data links. gin aye sicenwobiefeschasshm, | ote ALA pees Facsimile Printer machine o © Fig. 53.36 light in weight than metallic data links. In Tuner subjected to noise induced by electro magnetic induction, OptoetectronicDevices 2109 © opsective tests - 53 |. LEDs are commonly fabricated from gallium compounds like gallum arsenide and galium shosphide because they (a) arecheap (0) arcesily available (e) emit more heat (d) emit more light. ALED is basicaly a. P. (a) Forward biased junction, () reverse-biased (6) lightly-doped (d)_neaviy-dopes 1. As compared 19 a LED display. the distin advantage of an LCD display is that it requires (a) no illumination (b) extremely low power (6) 90 forward-bias (d)_ a solid erystal Before iluminiting P-Njunciion protodiods, ithas to be (a) reverse-bissed (6) Forwardbiased (©) switened ON (a) switched OFF. In a photoconductive cel, the resistance ofthe semiconductor material vate... With the intensity of incident light (a) directly () inversely (ec). exponentially (d) logarithmically. A photoconductve cll isknown as call (a) photetransistor (b) photoresisior {e) photovoltaic (a) both (ay and ( 1. phototranssior excels a photodiode in the matter of (a) faster switshing (b) greater sensitivity (c). higher curent capacity (a) both (a) and (b) 10, a 13 4 (©) both (b) and () ‘A photodarlington comprises of, (a) a phototransistor (0) a tansisor (©) a photodiode (a) ot (a) and), A\ solar cell operates on the principle of (a) diffusion (b) recombination (©) photo voltae action (a) carter bw. ‘Solu cells are used as source of powerin eacth satellites because they have (a) very high efficiency () unlimited tite (c) higher power capacity per weight (2), both (b) and te) (©) both (a) and i). ‘The device possessing the highest sensitivity (a) photo conductive cell (®) photovoltaic cell (©), photodiode (2) phototransistor 3. The unique characteristics of LASER light are that itis (a) cokerent (b)- monochromatic (©) collimated (a) all ofthe above “The LASCR operates like 3 (a) atch (b) LED (©) photodiede —_(d)_phototransistr. ‘Optical couplers we designed 1 ene circuit from another. (a) cortrot (b) isolate (©) disconnect. (d)_ protect. "The main purpose of using optical isolators is 1 provide protection to devices from (a) high-voliage transients (b) surge voter (©) low-level noise {dal ofthe above, 2110 Electrical Technology 16. ALLED emits visible light when its... (a), P-N junction isreverse-bissed (b)_ depletion weaion widens (©). holesand electrons recombine (d)_P-N janetion becomes ho. 17. In LED, light isemined because (a) recombination of charge carvers takes place (®) diode gets heated up () ight falling on the diode gets amptiied (a) light gets retected due to tens act 18 GaAs L 1. -Ds emit radiation in the (a) uiravioletregion 1b) violev-blue green range ofthe Vsibleregion © sible region (d) jnfroedsegion Phototramsistors respond much tike a conven tional transistor except tht, in their ease, light ‘nergy is weed to (a) alter leakage eurent (b) change base voliuge fe) sitet it ON (a) alter emitter eunent ANSWERS Lid) 2a) Xb Aa) 5.06) 6d) Tle) Ud) 1c) IMA) Md) 1d) 13. (a) 14. (0) 15. (4) 16. (0) 17. (a) 18. (A) 19.00) conor e EAL wecmng bee" SPECIAL S22. em DIODES Meter Protection Zaner Diode as a Reference Eement Tunneling Effect Tunnel Dicde Tunnel Diede Oscitator Voractor Diode FIN Dode. Schottky Diode Step Recovery Diode ‘Gunn Diode IMPATT Diode vevVyY vYVY YY |“ major opplicction for zener diodes is voltage regulation in de power supplies. Zener diode maintains « neerly constant de voltage under the proper operating conditions aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. A114 eteciricat Technetogy Example. 544. Calculate the value of Ein the given circuit of Fig. 546. Given E,, = 6 V and ov. (Blectrical Engg I, Indore Univ, Solution. When E,, is6 V, he dinde asl an openeircuit. It Js so hecause 6 V isnot enough to cause Zener break-down which will ike place only when E,, exceeds 10 V. Hence, inthis ease, By=0. When, = 20 ¥, breakdown oecurs but voltage across code remains constant at 10 V. The balance (20 ~ 10) = 10 V appears aer085 100 0 resistor. Hence, £,= drop aeoss R= 10. 54.2. Voltage Regulation ‘Risa mensere ofa circuit's ability to maintain a constant output Fig. 58.6 soltge even when ether input vole o load current ties. A Zener oe, whe working inthe breakdown reson, en seve asa voltage repuator In Fg 547, Vs the int de vole whose Saraons ae toe regulated. The Zener does everse-connected ros V, When pd ers the foe s sree than tsonducts and draws atively lege een though the Ste resistance “he lea esitarceR,scrss wich constant lags Vig is roi x comnctd in pra! wih the dnd. The Current passing trough equals the sum of diode eaten Adload euet te. = fof Iwill seen hat unr tlcondtion V, Me Vaj= the V. ‘Case. Suppose R, is kept fixed ut suply voltage Vis snore lig wil inerese 7 This inereases nf wll be aserbed hy the Zeer dide wthou lfectng The increase in V, wil he dropped scons f thereby beeping V, contin F547 Conieryif supp vole Vfl he dod aka sme current and yokge drop across Rit redced thos gain Keeping V, constant. Hence, when hangs, and chop change n sucha way aso aap Vg (= cobs (Case Inths cise, seta, ekinged When nein, diode erent | decteses chery Roping and nes Ut crop const. In i way, Vag enn offerte Sho 7, cectese, 7 woul ineasein onder t Keep Fal herce IR drop constant. ABat, Vg would rea unchanged becuse Vag = Vg— IR = Ng (41) Incidentally tary be noes R (Vy ~ Val C1) may also be ned hat when od cent Peaches 8 maxing val, Recomres ze. In shat ene w = V.Henee,V, In Fig $4.7, only onereference voltage level is avalable, Fig, S4.8 shows the cireulls for estab- lishing wo referencellevebs. Hete, two diodes having different Zener voltages have been connected in Example $4.5. Caleulate the batery eurent I 1, cn I, in the circuit of Fig. 548. How wil these values be affected if source voliage increases io 70V? Neglect Zener revistance. industrial Eleetronies, Pane Unis.) Solution. When Vv, = 40V Now. Vy = V.= 10 1 = 3039K=10mA, hop aeross 3K series (or line) resistor is = 40 ~10 = 30 V = VAR, =Vyylhy= 102 K= SMA, aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2118 Etectrcat Teonnctogy (0). Small Forward Bias ‘When a very small forward volage (= 0.1 V) is applied, the EBDs become ss shown in Fig 54.17 (b). Due © the downward movement of the N'region, the P-region valence band becomes ‘exactly aligned with the N-tegion condiction hand. AF this stag, electrons tunnel through the thin ‘depletion Layer with the velocity of light thereby giving rte toa large current called peak current f, () Large Forward Bias ‘When the forward bss is increased futher, the two bands get oxt of alignment as shown ia Fig of electrons stops thereby decteasing the current, Since current decteases with increase in applied voltage (ie. ¢V/dlis negative), the junction i sald to possess negative resis- ‘ance at this tage, This resistance increases thoughout the negative region, However, its fund that when 2pplie forward voltage is Jnereased stil further, the current sues increasing Once again sna normal junction die. 54.7. Tunnel Diode ‘This diode was frst introduced by Dr- Leo Easkiin 1058, (@) Construction {Wis high-condictvity two-terminal P-¥ junction diode having doping density about 1000 times higher as compared ‘o an ordinary junetion diode. This heavy doping produces following three unustal eects 1. Firstly it reduces the width of the depletion layer 10 fa extomely small vale (about .00001 mn). a Ssiaehal ai MRA 2. Secondly, it reduces the reverse breakdown volage (oa vey small value (appreaching 2er0) with the result that the diode appears tobe broken down for any reverse voltae, ‘3 Thirdly, it produces 2 negative resistance section on the VA chara:tristc ofthe diode, Ie is called tunnel diode because due to is extremely thin ‘epition layer, electrons are able 19 tuenet through the potetia! barrier atrlatively ow forward bias voltage (ess than 0.05 V). Such dligdes are usually fabricated from germanium, gallium-arsenide (GaAs) and galium antimonide (GaSb) ‘Thecommonly-ased schematic symbols for thediode are shows I in Fig. 54.18, It should be handled with caution because being & + P +5 low-power device, i can be easily damaged by heat and state elec: Fig, 54.18 eh Negative (0) VI Characteristic 7 rs {kis showniin Fig. 58.19. As seen, forward bis produces immediate conduction Le. as soon as forward bias is applied, significant current is produced. The current quickly rises 10 its peak value J, when the applied forward vokage reaches value V, (point A), When forwaed voltageis inceased furtner, diode Canent arts decreasing til itachieves ts rainimam by value called valley curren /,ccrresponding to valley voluge ¥, (point B). For voltages greater than V,, curent starts ine —/ 5 a 1 teasing again asin any ordinary junction diode aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2126) Electrical Tesnnotogy ik REIK nel iat we Say Wav eee Ee yri6v tgmee=0 Iman A een Fa 5808 Fig. 537 Fig. 5438 5. AO V sabilized voltage supply is required to rx a car stereo system from car’ 12 V atery.AZene! Aine with V.= 9 V and Py = 0.28 W is uses a voltage regultor shown in Fig. 8:40, nee a ror u » ae , u 60-80 isk: Bh vos yoy Prax .25 W) < < « <—! Fig. 3459 Fig. 5840 Find the value o the series resisorR {198 a) 4. Aloadof 1Wiscomectl aces 10V Zener egulte 5000 ‘ween Sm b SSA whie mataning the voluge ea stant Fd the minimum and maximum voltage level at input, (e2sVeRSVy, Bov Ere (Cecionis Dees nd Cirents, Magee Ur ‘Summer, 2004) 1. A24V,600 mW zmer din i wsed for proving a24V stabilize supply te avaible load H the input voliage as shove in Fig. S441, The znereuren ean vary be f"T [s32Y,caleulne Me asai (the value of sees resistance requine (ied curent when he fad is 1200 & b90.5ma} (Bhetonies Bog, Rangole Univ, 2003) ‘OBJECTIVE TESTS ~ 54 1. Silicon i prefened for manufacuring Zener OO RMAEREE ode becure ih eas ©) ete dee A. The main reason why electons can wane (©) needs lower doping level through a PN junction is that (6) has biaher temperature and carrent (a) ey bave Woh eneay capacity (0) barter poteatia is very low (4) lower break-down voles [e),depetion layer sextemely tin 2. Wheo used ina cit a Zeer die isalways oy eerste 2) event Sia 4. The //fy tio ofa tel diode of prima 0) coon nes imal = a aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2180) etectricat Technology 56.1. Intoduction Most ofthe cleconic devices and clicuitsrequte a de source for thelr operation, Dry eels and batteries ae one form of de source. They have the advantage of being porable and ripple-free However, iheirvoltiges ae low, they nee frequent replacement and are expensive as compared to conventional de power supplies. Since the most convenient and ecenomical source of power is the domestic se supply, iis advantageous 10 convert ths alternating voltage (usually, 220 V rms) to de voltage (usually smaller in vali). This process of converting ac voltage into de voltage is called rectification and is accomplished with the help of @ rectifier a) filter and id) voltage reguator circuit. ‘These elements put together constitute de power supply 85.2. Unregulated Power Supply An unregulated power supply is one whose de terminal voltage i affected significantly by the amount of load. As the load draws more cuter, the de terminal vokage becomes less. 55.3. Regulated Power Supply Iris that de power supply whote terminal voluge remains almost constant regardless of the ‘An wnmeguloted snpply can be converted ino a regulated power supply by adding a voltage regulating circuit to it (Ar $6.5). Si ies + a rooms typ poner spy consis ote wages shawn init Bt Caan eam ieee wine ey fntinteny cabal emieeu ae Sree ae oeeet nie Sa cainaenepedeapemperintyeasped pans sty Seren Fees i ecko emlireom coo ide w cone a vlape tpg fe ge 2 ies Te no os ees ne! eraiit clan soba Gaia wpe) ones Benap only mania cece ee ieee et eipeatpyieaares ners isiirntgreecenoosten Recereees ilmEaetaem tee Perec emai mn mej Tee Sry no wert ogee 9 pe ie se vies Ha ad ip alm Oo tote re Tn Za SG GIG Wl aa RRC AIATC ICH US ee as f + aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2184) Electrical Tesnnotogy Alterrtively, the value of y could be found as under IF we neglect fourth ind higher tarmonies inthe load current ows = ATi ts Tint then as seen from above aE SPR HO = IE Tg NSW = 385 Ly Fe 0288 yy 9385 lay yy Tan Tay FETT Tog (). Peat Inverse Voltage (PIV) His the maximum voltage that occurs across the reciying dvd in the revere direction. As seen from Pig, 35.2, the diode is reverse-iased during the negative hall-eycle ae the maninin voltage applied across it equals the maximum secondary voltage Le: Vay (Transformer Uulization Factor (TUF) ‘While designing-any power supply itis necessary to determine the rating ofthe transformer. I can be doe provided TUF is known. The value of TUF depends on the anount of power to be Aelivered t tho load and the typeof rectifier excut to be used up = Bower delivered wo theload ‘erating oF transformer secondary ~ eb [At fis sight i inight appear a8 if the above tao is the same as the conversion ficiency: ‘Actually its nt so because therating ofthe transformer secondary is ferent irom the actual power Aelivered by the secondary. if drop over Ry is neglected Now he rated voltage of transformer secondary is V2 but the atl eet lowing though the secon f= I? (and no sige iis a alevave ecified cure Vox tow -%y Prermeg = Vite Man cnet = ft mp = Mal Be * ye, However, cue to saturation effets produce by the low of tet curent trough the tranformet secondary the value of TUF is further reduced to 0.2 Obviously, de powor dativeod oth load-actrinefomer rating ¢ TUF ¥, wehavea LAVA tansfrmer, then the power which t would beable to detiver ta resistive ‘oad in a mative reir without overheating Would be = 0.2 > 1000 = 200 W. ‘Example $8.1. tn the hafsvave rectifier circuit of Fi. SS. determine (maximum aud ms vales of oad volege, (peak and rms values of loa eurent (ai) power absorbed by the oad, (ir) PIV ofthe diode, (0) rms vale of ripple voltage Neglect resistance of ransomner secondary and tha of he dnd. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2198) Electrical Tesnnotogy componeni and (it) numer of a components which form theripple. The Fourier series for rectifier output volage i 24 cos2or-4 cosdor-Seorsar- V.= Ma [E-skestor— seen serLenoor—.-] As seen, 205 Vay Silly, gy (©) RippleFactor Vises Van -0305V x — hye appre Vigacy Vinny 9-636 Vey ee ‘issn es as compared 21 for hal-vave rete ov Babe s=2 Vy, @ TUF 2 cae le oy rng i phy nd abd Windags of the tate Sop tial hs alse 0.693 fu comparaln O67 bra alt wave rea). Mec reaar tases probben dae stration ffx in be cre bere te de catenin te wo Relves of the esi fe in epee rein Txample &5.3. Wi reference the fllwave reife of Fig 359, determine 1) pec, de component mand a Component of bd vole, (ti) peak, de component, rms and ac component of load current, (iii) “ripple factor, (in) peak and average diode currents, (9) bia power tpt the loa Neplet dnd ind secondary wining restances Selation, Here, 1 2 YT = MEV. Hence, 312 = 156 V so han Vey = 1862-78 V Veemv 1 0.856 Vy = 0.636% 78 Q 6N ~ 0507 Vg = 0207 78 also represents Vie @ (0.707 x0.78= 055 4. fos? — (490 =0238.0 W also represen Ian — oy = Tt me _ 0.238 Tua Tuan 9496” O48 aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 242) electrical Tesnnotogy 55.9. Three-phase Hall-wave Rectifier Rectification of a phate supply with the help of diodes is shown in Fig. $5.12 along with « smoothing circuit. The three diodes are connected 0 the three phases of stir-ccrecied secondary of 4 3-phase transformer, Neural poiniW of the secondary # the negative Lerinal forthe Fetfied utp and is earthed 2s shown, « 1 KUM AL AUAAVAS ois eas) Fa ss Fig. 38.19 “The shape of the output is Siown in Fig. $5.13. Te horizontal line AB represents the potential oF the negative dc terminal output and the sine waves |, 2 and 3 each represent the anode potential of the thre diodes. During one-hivd of the cycle Ze, dung tine 4, only diode D, will conduct 1 will eease con- ueting at and then D, will conduct curent spto 1, after which D, will tke over and will supply fanode current tl 1, Wiien one dloge conduc, the other two Tema Inaetve Decause then tele nodes are more ~ve than their cathodes. This process repeats itself during each ensuing eye, with ‘he conducting peri of each diode being as indicated. The output is given by the vertical disance “ab” hetween the upper envelope and the line AB. Obviously the output fluctuates between the max ‘mum and sinimmum values thrice in cach cycle, The variations of ouput be between Vand 05 V,, (neglecting voluge cep is diodes) and has a mean value of V,.= 0.83 V,, oF 1.17 V. Where Vis the "Em. value of the secondary phase voltage. lis maximum conversion 9 “96.5% and y= 0,17. But i should be notedthat the magnitide ofthese flucuatins orplsitionss lesser thn fora L-phase fll: wave rected cutput since the current never touches zer. Its furher smoothened up by a CL-C filter ereut an shown i Fig. 58.12. ris sven that rect current of each diode appears in the secondary phase winding and so causes transformer saturation resalting in large primary ‘utrent,Hean be avoided by using secondary, 55.10. Full-wave Rectification of ‘S-phase Currents Asshown in Fig. 95.14, three-phase fall-vave rectitir routes a transformer with six sesondary windings connected to sive two separate three-phase supplies 180? out of phase with each ether. The centre tap are connected by an interac: transiormer which enables the two reti- fier units to operate iedependently ofeach aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2146) Electrical Tesnnotogy ‘utput votiage is greater than the capacitor votage which 1s also the load voltage. Heace, diode curret isa surging cur- ent i. it takes the form of shor-duation pulses as shown in Fig. §5.20.A small resistors alwaysconnectedin series with the diode t limit this surge current, is knownas surg lim= Jung resistor The sole function of he dinde ist recharge Cand the sole junction of C isto supply load current by discharge. 55.16. Eifect of increasing filter Capacitance capacitor has the hale propenty of opposing changes Jn voltage. Hence, a bigger capacitor would tend to reduce the ripple magnitude, It has been found that increasing the capacitor sie 1. inereases ¥, towards the Hniing Vale V5 2. reduces the magnitude of ripple voltage ; 3. reduces the time of flew of current pulse through the diode; 4 inereases the peak curent inthe diode, 58.17. Calculations of Shunt Copacitor Filter Contre reir and itr ce of Fi $52 4 wha dopattrid bacmealian face E page ners flat hash Siri fc tn 3622) oes Py ‘it eue cena ge cote te Hately scans vie wa hinpar seca ond wn ee or Fig. 85.21 pp 8 time period of T* Cc reg sual ‘ipa stgg ie = = wo Fi. 85.22 w In fc, Vz,» isthe amount by which capacitor volage fills during disckarge peri 7. This Aischarge is actly exponential® but can be approximated bya straight line discharge ifwe assume Since charging time is nepligibly seal, te approximate discharging tine represents the = givenby Vp=VypcICR, ie pio. a aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2150) Electrical Tesnnotogy = Me an, tke) RMS vale Now, fy, = 2V,y (MRL; maximum value of second harmonic current fy = 4V,,/3Rx20L, The critica (orminimu) value of choke inductance essential for proper working of the iter is reached when, =/,,012V,, (RR, =4 VJ3R.20Lor L=R,/30. Foe f=30 Hz, L= R, 40, Example $811.4 single-phase ful-wave rectifier uses 300-0-300 V, S0-He transformer. For & oad currevt of 60 mA, design an Lefer asing 10 Ficotl and a suitable capacitor te ensure a ripple {factor of not mere than 1%. (Electronics-I, Bangalore Univ.) Solution. y= Lic Wo = Ligie; Ect Hence, Wxe = 19 C= 119 pP212 pr. 55.20. The R-C Filter ‘Such filter is shown in Fig. 85.26. Suppose that isconnectedto afall- 5, \waverectiier having filtered output voltige of V,, The de comporeat volt- age which drops over Ris “ & = Be RE = ‘cos 2txt. As before, it will be assumed that X,. « R, so that Ry X= Xe. In Fig. 55.26 Vg = ee. Ve ll ES Wa Es lee Y, AV, 1 Mee AMe RO) Ve Bae Jews eR, TRIB, 11+ RR) 3 Jivwrxge NB 0ck aire 2st 56.21. The C-L-C or Pi Filter As shown in Fig. 55.27 it consists of one inductor and two capacitors connected actos its each ond, The the components are arranged inthe shape ofthe Gresk later. It is also called capacitor ‘input efter, The input capacior C, is selected to offer very low reactance tothe ripple Fequency, Hence, major part of filtering is done by Cy. Most of the remaining ripple is removed by the com bined aeticn of Land C, “The charging and discharging action of C; is exactly the same as described in Art. $5.15. The ouput voltage waveform i also like that shown in Fig. $8.25 (B)- a aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 2154) Electrical Technology amount of voltage multiplication tat can be obtained. Though voltage Ueiples and guaaruplers ae commonly used, practical considerations limita ditional muluiplications, The main hanceap i that total amount of capaci ‘angebecomes unduly large to sinain the dosied de outpet voltage for any thing except extemely light los, ©) Creu ‘The cuit Tor differen multipliers is shown in Fig. 55.34, Ik should be obvious from the repetitive patern of the cireuit conneetions how alitoral ttioeesandeapaeitarsmay he connected to the doubler circuit for obiaining higher muliplicatione ofthe peak output voltage V9. (ey Analysts During the First yostive ha-cyele, C charges te V,, as diode D, conducts. During negative half cycle, Cs charged trough D, to 2V, eto the sum of voltage aertss Cand peak input voltage V, (An 5530), During the second positive halEeyele, D, conduct and voltage across C* charges C, 10 same voltage 2 V,- During the negative half-eycle, diodes D, and D, conduct sllowing C, to charge Ct the same peak voltage 2V,. Wis scon from Fig. 5434 that voltage across Cis 2 and C, is Vy Iadaltional diodes and capacitors are used, each capacitor would be charged 1 a peak vate of 2V,. “The PIV rating of each diode is 2V, and ripple frequency is twice the line frequency. Generally, ‘hose circuits are used where both the supply voltage and load are maintained constant. 6.29, Troubleshooting Power Supplies ‘There are usually two types of problems with power supplies i ether no de output or low de output. ‘The siuation of no de output can occur dus to any one ofthe fllowing reasons 1. when there is no output from the rectifiers, 2. when mere is no ac input 10 power supp, 3. when filter choke is open, 4. when te fist input capacitor shorts. 2 low de output ean secur in the following situations 1, decreased input ae vote, 2. open input capacitor ofthe fer sire, partial short across the loa. 56.30. Contolled Rectification 11s that rectification in which she output ofa rectifier einuit ean be varied by controlling the pointin the ac epee at which the circuit isurned ON. A thyristor of SCR can be wsed for the purpose = C, camoteharae C, because itis stored by Dy yy s8r098 C, and Cys BY and across C, aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book. 258 Electrical Tesnnotogy cox 0, = cos 120° = 08 va = Yeas Ma. 0.93% O8Va ila Fe = 008 gE = cos 135"=—0.707 ¥, vy, = $5 (1-0707=00460 V5: 4,=00460 5 Example 8.12.4 100-2 bad is comectet to apeak supply of 300 V throwgh acontoled half wave diode rectifier The load power isto be varied from 25 W to 80 W. What is the angular fring contol required ? Neglecifornand érop ofthe diode. (Basic Electrons, Pune Univ, 1990) elution. P= Vy ly , Now, Vag = FE (14 6080) ty = Ya (1 4008 8) 2 ak, = (Ya). has cos os (2%) (tacos 67 = (3) Bitte o= (OY fg (ieee = 228(1+c0s4)" ©) when P= 89 W. 22R(1 +080)? or (1-+088)= 1.8732 08732 or 622917" i) when Pa 26w 2% = 228(1+c0s8)? cosB=0.0471 or 8=87.30" Example $5.13. In « controlled half-wave recter, peak supply voltage is 200 V and the value Flood resisioris I Calculate the power delivered tothe load cious for firing angles of @) O° (ai) 45°) 90° and (0) 13: (Solid State Devices and Chis, BHU) Solution.(i) V,. = 0318x20=636V; ‘Sa/1000=646mA, P= Vg La =66x636 405 mW = 404s W w Ve = 027x20=S4V: 54/000=54mA P = S4x54=2916mW 2.916 W wy Vc = 0.150% 200=31.8V5 318mA P = 31Ax318=1011nW = L0UW w Vc = 0204652200293 V; 93mA P = 93x0.3-86.5mW = 0.0865 W 56.33. Average Values for FW Controlled Rectifier In this ease, the average values would he doubled because there are two half sinusoids to be averaged as shown in Fig. 55.39 for 8, = 60° 0c Power Supplies 2159. Va + 2xYaitso8) = 's cop 607,208 6 Mn (1 408) =0477 V,, 55.34. Siicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Ic Js ¥ uijanction AYBN device having three external Ra we. connections: arode (A), cathode (C)and gate (G) as shown in Fig. $5.40, [La v&) | Great Fe, « g R ¢ o Fig. 5840 When A is made postive with respect to C, the junctions ‘marked 1 and 3 are forward-biased but the ceatremostjunetion ‘marked 2 is reversesiased. Hence, the SCR does mat conduc. However, if sufficiently postive voltage pulse is applied 10 this junction va the gate G, the SCR stars conducting like an ordimary diode, Gate has no ver SCR once it has been triggered into conduction, Conduction canonly be terminated by removing Positive vellage fromm its node [As shown in Fig, 55.40 (b), SCR needs a contol circuit which tiggers it into condaction by « {gate pulse, Two popular vays of tuming ON an SCR are: 1. Amplitide fring-in which gate cureat flows for the whole period oF consuction, 2 UsToxillatoe fring-in this method, gate curentis supplied only momentarily. This method allows control over the power delivered to SCP loud from zero wast to fully ON. ‘Some ofthe simple ways of controlling the conduction of an SCR are discussed below. 55.25. Pulse Control of SCR ‘The simplest SCR contol cireuit ofthis type is shown in Fig, $5.41. If SCR were an ordinary etic woud preduce half-wave reciied i votiage across, However, SCR will Hot conduc! even during positive half-

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