PLATE TECTONICS

iGCSE GEOGRAPHY
Syllabus link

Learning Checklist
TOPIC
Describe the global distribution of fold mountains, volcanoes and
earthquakes
Explain how the distribution is related to movement at plate
boundaries
Describe the global patterns of plates
The structure of plates
An awareness of plate movements and their effects
Constructive plates (plates moving away from each other)
Destructive plates (subduction)
Conservative plates (plates sliding past each other)
Annotate the main features of a volcano (and their eruptions)
Describe the causes and effects of a volcanic eruption (CASE STUDY)
Describe the main features of an earthquake
Describe the causes and effects of an earthquake (CASE STUDY)

NOTE
S

REVISE
D

THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

A closer look at the CRUST

There are two types of crust!

CONTINENTAL CRUST

OCEANIC CRUST

PLATES AND PLATE BOUNDARIES

The worlds crust is divided into ________________________________________.
These are separate sections of crust
(________________) which float on top of the mantle
layer (______________).
Think of it like a giant jigsaw puzzle/ cracked boiled
egg.
Most of these plates ( sections of crust)
____________________________ and cause the ________
_______________________.
Continents are always on the move : this is known
as _____________________.

TASK: NAME THE PLATES

PLATE BOUNDARIES

The plates meet at _________

_________________________,
which are areas of great
crustal ________.
These meeting points are
where most of the worlds
____________ and __________
and other structural features
such as fold mountains, rift
valleys and ocean trenches
occur.

TASK: Spatially aware? Can you draw the plate margins on this Pacific centred world map using the Atlantic centred one as a
resource? Remember to label the plates and, if you can, the plate boundaries.
Map of the Earths Tectonic Plates

KEY

HOW DO THE PLATES MOVE?

Draw a diagram in the space below to show how the plates move

Convection currents are caused by

Helpful revision video

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/21c/earth_universe/changing_earthact.shtml

1. DESTRUCTIVE PLATE BOUNDARIES (SUBDUCTION)

A destructive plate boundary is sometimes called a convergent or tensional plate margin. This occurs when oceanic and continental
plates move together. The oceanic plate is subducted (forced) under the lighter continental plate. Friction causes melting of the
oceanic plate and may trigger earthquakes. Magma rises up through cracks and erupts onto the surface.

1.

2.

COLLISION PLATE BOUNDARIES

Collision zones form when two continental plates collide. Neither plate is forced under the other, and so both are forced up and
form fold mountains.

Example: west coast of South America, the oceanic plate (Nazca plate), collides with the
continental plate (South Amercian plate)

Example:

3.

CONSTRUCTIVE (DIVERGENT) PLATE BOUNDARIES

A constructive plate boundary, sometimes called a divergent plate margin, occurs

when plates move apart. Volcanoes are formed as magma wells up to fill the gap, and
eventually new crust is formed.

Example:

4.

CONSERVATIVE PLATE BOUNDARIES

A conservative plate boundary, sometimes called a transform plate margin, occurs where plates slide past each other in opposite
directions, or in the same direction but at different speeds. Friction is eventually overcome and the plates slip past in a sudden
movement. The shockwaves created produce an earthquake.

Example:

HAZARDS & FEATURES AT PLATE

BOUNDARIES
1)

FOLD MOUNTAINS

The Formation of Fold Mountains

Form along both destructive and collision plate

boundaries, in other words where two plates are
pushing towards each other.
The best examples are the Himalayas, the Rockies, the
Andes and the Alps, all of which are huge fold mountain
ranges caused by the collision of two plates.
The general theory is that as two plates, with land masses on them, move towards each other
they push layers of accumulated sediment in the sea between them up into folds. Thus most fold
mountains will continue to grow, as the plates constantly move towards each other.
Fold mountains form the highest of the worlds mountain ranges. The main mountain range is
made up of a series of ranges. Flatter areas form plateau within the mountains. Active volcanoes
form high conical mountains within ranges. The highest mountain in South America is
Aconcagua, which is 6960m above sea level and an active volcano. Fold mountain ranges, such
as the Andes and the Alps, tend to be sparsely populated.

The Global distribution of fold mountains

long, relatively narrow belts of mountains, with parallel ridges and valleys.
TASK: annotate the map to describe the distribution of fold mountains.

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JUST INCASE. This is what you would cover at A2 Geography so you can see the
difference
The formation of fold mountains
Where an area of sea separates two plates, sediments settle on the sea floor in depressions
called geosynclines. These sediments gradually become compressed into sedimentary rock.
When the two plates move towards each other again, the layers of sedimentary rock on the sea
floor become crumpled and folded.
Eventually the sedimentary rock appears above sea level as a range of fold mountains.
Where the rocks are folded upwards, they are called
anticlines. Where the rocks are folded downwards,
they are called synclines. Severely folded and
faulted rocks are called nappes.

Matterhorn, Zermatt, Switzerland

The Formation of Fold Mountains at Destructive Plate Boundaries:

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As already seen, at a destructive plate boundary the oceanic plate is subducted beneath the
continental one. The molten material then rises to the surface to form volcanoes, either in an
island arc (e.g. the West Indies) or on the continental land mass (e.g. the volcanoes of the
Andes). In both cases Fold Mountains can be formed.
When the Nazca plate dives under the South American one, their motion forward also has been
pushing sediment together. This, over millions of years, has been pushed up into huge fold
mountains: The Andes. Within them there are also volcanoes as the mountains are above the
subduction zone.
If an island arc has been formed, the same idea occurs. Over millions of years the movement of
the two plates together will push the island arc nearer to the continent. As this occurs the
sediments on the seabed are folded up to become huge mountains.
The Formation of Fold Mountains at Collision Margins:
These occur less frequently, but two excellent examples are the Himalayas, where the Indian
plate is moving North and East towards the stationary European plate, and the Alps, formed by
the collision between the African and Eurasian plates.
In these examples both plates are Continental ones, and so can neither sink nor be destroyed.
The material between them is therefore forced upwards to form the mountains.
For the Himalayas the material that now forms the mountains was originally on the bottom of the
non-existent Tethy's Sea. As the Indian plate pushed towards the Eurasian one, the sediments
were folded up to form the Himalayas, leaving the only trace of the sea to be the fossilised shells
that you can find high up in the mountains.

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Past paper - Summer 2008

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VOLCANOES & EARTHQUAKES

The maps below show the global distribution of active volcanoes (those that have erupted in the past 80
years). There are about 540 of these. Other volcanoes are described as dormant (resting, but may erupt
again in the future), or extinct (dead and will not erupt again). Notice how the active volcanoes rise in a
series of relatively narrow belts around the planet. The Pacific Ring of Fire is he most famous of these
belts, and goes all the way round the edge of the Pacific Ocean.

The map below shows the global distribution of earthquake activity. Earthquakes occur more frequently
than volcanic eruptions.

TASK: compare the two maps what are the similarities between the two? What are the differences?

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VOLCANOES
A volcano is a circular, or linear opening in the Earths surface
through which lava, rock fragments, ash, aerosols, and gases
erupt. A volcano is also the landform, often a mountain, built from
repeated eruptions.
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov

HOW VOLCANOES FORM

Volcanoes form at destructive plate margins (like the Mid Atlantic
Ridge), destructive plate margins (like the Andes) and
occasionally at hot spots, away from margins (e.g. Hawaii)
Magma is produced deep within the Earth, in areas that are hotter than the melting point of the rocks. The
magma rises because it is less dense that the surrounding rocks.
Magma often contains water dissolved within it as gas. As the magma rises, it may reach a depth
where the pressure is lower. The dissolved gas can no longer be held in solution in the magma and
it begins to form bubbles, which expand
In runnier magmas, the gas is able to escape. But in thick, viscous magmas, the gas is released
explosively at the surface producing very violent eruptions that spray lava high in the air
Bubbles of liquid lava burst explosively in the air and then the material cools and solidifies and falls
to the ground. This is high the pyroclastic material is produced
The build up of this material leads to the formation of a volcano.
TASK: Draw and annotate the main features of a volcano, some are listed below, but see if you
can add more

CRATERS circular depressions, that are usually less than 1km in diameter. Craters at the summit are
formed by the explosive ejection of material from a central vent.
CALDERAS a caldera is a huge crater caused when a volcanic cone collapses into a partly empty
magma chamber after a powerful eruption e.g. Yellowstone National Park in the USA and the
Ngorongoro Crater in Tanzinia
PARASITIC CONES smaller cones which develop on the side of a bigger volcano. They form when the
main vent becomes blocked and the magma finds another outlet e.g. on Mount Etna on Italy
LAVA DOMES features which often grow on the sides of stratovolcanoes. They form from very viscous
lava that is pale in colour and has high silica content. This lava cannot flow very far before solidifying,
so the cones produced have very steep convex sides. Lava domes often collapse leading to explosive
eruptions and pyroclastic flows, like those seen on the Soufriere Hills volcano on the Island of
Montserrat in the Caribbean.

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TYPES OF VOLCANO
Some volcanoes, like Mount St Helens, tend to be explosive when they erupt, whereas others, like Hawaiis
Kilauea, tend to be effusive (loosely flowing) and non-explosive. How explosive an eruption is depends on
the magmas chemical composition and gas content, which in turn can affect the magmas stickiness or
viscosity.
All magma contains gases that escape if the magma travels to the earths surface. If magma is fluid (as in
Kiluaeas) gases can escape relatively rapidly. As a result, lava flows instead of exploding during an
eruption. If magma is viscous (e.g. Mt St Helens), the gases cannot escape easily; pressure builds inside
the magma until the gases can sometimes escape violently. In an explosive eruption the sudden expansion
of gases blasts magma into air borne fragments called tephra, which can range in size from fine particles
of ash to giant boulders. After the initial explosive phase of the eruption, however, quieter lava flows can
follow. In both explosive and non explosive (effusive) eruptions, volcanic gases, including water vapour,
are released into the atmosphere.

Shield Volcanoes

Shield volcanoes are formed in the oceans often at constructive plate margins. They occur on the
Haiwiian Islands (e.g. the volcanoes Mauna Loa and Kilauea), as well as on Iceland. They:
Rise from the deep ocean floor
Have gentle upper slopes (at an angle of about 5 degrees) and steeper lower slopes (at an angle of
about 10 degrees)
Usually have a roughly circular or oval shape in map view, and cover a wide area
Are composed almost entirely of long, thin lava flows, built up over a central vent
Have very little pyroclastic material associated with them
Are mostly formed by runny lava that flows easily down the slope away from the summit vent. This
lava is dark in colour and has a low silica content. The low viscosity of the magma allows the lava
to flow quickly down a gentle slope. But as it cools and gets less runny its thickness builds up on
the

lower slopes, which explains the steeper profile.

Statovolcanoes

They have steeper slopes and narrower bases that shields with slope angles of 6-10 degrees at
the bottom of the volcano and 30 degrees at the summit

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The steep slopes result from short, wide and very

viscous lava flows that dont travel very far from
the vent
There are alternating layers of lava and
pyroclastic material. Pyroclastic material can
make up over half the volume of a stratovolcano
Due to the higher viscosity of magmas erupted
from stratovolcanoes, they are usually more
explosive than shield volcanoes. Their lava is
paler in colour and has a higher silica content
Long dormant periods (of hundreds or even thousands of
years) make this type of volcano particularly dangerous,
because people are reluctant to heed warnings about
possible eruptions. Sometimes the eruptions have two
phases first an explosive phase that unblocks the vent
and produces pyroclastic material and, then a second phase which produces lava.

The smallest volcanoes, cinder cones, such as Sunset Crater in Arizona, from primarily from
explosive eruptions of lava. Blown violently into the air, the erupting lava breaks apart into
fragments called cinders. The fallen cinders accumulate into a cone around the volcanoes
central vent. Cinder cones can form on the flanks of shield and stratovolcanoes

What comes out of a volcano?

GASES

The main gas to be emitted by

volcanoes is water vapour (50-80%),
but there are also emissions of sulfur
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen,
hydrogen and carbon dioxide
The gases can be trapped in viscous
lava causing pressure to build up and
leading to frothing of the magma and
explosive eruptions

LIQUIDS

Magma is molten
rock material
below the Earths
surface
Lava is the flows of
molten rock
material which
have erupted on
the Earths surface

SOLIDS

These are known as pyroclastic material:

Ash is made up of the smallest particles (less
than 4mm in size). However, blocks of the
coarsest material are much larger. The smallest
particles can be held in suspension in the air,
as clouds, for months or even years.
The particles get finer the further away from
the volcanic vent. Because of its weight and
size, the largest material is dropped close to
the vent. More material is therefore found close
to the vent than further away

The dangers of volcanic eruptions (volcanic hazards)

ASH FALLS

PYROCLAS
TIC FLOWS

Fine ash is blasted into the atmosphere, where

it can stay in suspension for many months
affecting areas far away from the volcano. It
mostly damages property by burying buildings;
people are not usually harmed directly. Ash
can also be a hazard to aircraft leading to
cancelled flights. Sometimes, ash clouds can
block the sun, causing the weather to be
cooler and affecting crops.
Very hot, soild material can travel rapidly down
valleys and slopes. It is impossible for people
to escape, so pyroclastic flows can be

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LATERAL
BLASTS
MUDFLOW
S (lahars)

VOLCANIC
GASES
ACID RAIN

POSTERUPTION
FAMINE &
DISEASE
TSUNAMI
LAVA
FLOWS

responsible for many deaths

E.g. Mt Pelee in Martinique, West Indies, 1902
killed 40,000
Sometimes a volcano can explode sideways,
which can be destructive for areas within
40km of the volcano, destroying property and
agricultural land
These form when ash mixes with water and
travels down river valleys. Because mud is
much denser than water, mudflows are very
destructive washing away buildings, roads,
bridges and people
Carbon dioxide is a dense, non toxic gas that
can flow downhill, causing suffocation. Other
gases that are poisonous can burn or cause
lung diseases.
Because of the sulfur dioxide and hydrogen
sulfide released, very large eruptions cause
acid rainfall. This can damage buildings, and
may have very serious effects on plants and
animal species.
Problems of volcanic gases, ash, acid rain etc
can destroy crops leading to famine and the
same issues can lead to health problems in
people.
The collapse of volcanoes in the sea can lead
to tsunamis
Athough lava flows can destroy buildings they
rarely result in a direct loss of life they travel
slowly enough for you to walk away!

WHAT CAN BE DONE TO REDUCE THE RISK?

LAVA FLOW
DIVERSION

Mechanical excavators can be used to channel lava

flows away from buildings. Lava flows can also be
sprayed with water to cool them down and make them
solidify and stop flowing
http://m.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-29136747

MUDFLOW
BARRIERS

Walls built across the valley to trap mudflow and

protect settlements further down the valley

BUILDING
DESIGN

Although little can be done to stop a violent volcano,

stronger roofs can be built to prevent them collapsing
under the weight of ash

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VOLCANO
MONITORIN
G

Recently active volcanoes can be monitored to give

early warnings of future eruptions. This usually involved
measuring features that happen before an eruption
such as small earthquakes, ground deformation (the
ground tends to swell before an eruption) and gas
emissions (the mixture and amount of gases released
from the vent changes before an eruption)

REMOTE
SENSING

Monitoring the location of ash clouds from satallites is a

useful warning for aircraft

HAZARD
MAPPING &
PLANNING

This involved looking at the patter of past eruptions, in

order to predict future eruptions. It can lead to a ban on
building in high risk areas, or simply the preparation of
emergency response plans such as constructing
evacuation routes.

ADVANTAGES BROUGHT ABOUT BY VOLCANOES

GEOTHERMA
L POWER

In some volcanic countries,

such as Iceland, great use is
made of the fact that the
rocks beneath the surface
are very hot and water in the
ground is also hot. Electricity
is generated, either directly
from steam in volcanically
active areas, or by water
pumped down and heated by
the hot rocks. Hot water
from the ground can also be
used directly in central
heating systems and even in
swimming pools

FERTILE
SOILS

Some types of lava and ash weather rapidly in tropical conditions and
form a thick, rich soil layer, abundant in trace elements. This soil can
be extremely fertile and produce high crop yields.

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VOLCANOES
CREATING
LANDMASS

Volcanoes produce new islands and

enlarge existing land masses e.g. Iceland

http://edition.cnn.com/2015/02/28/asia/japan-volcano-island/

TOURISM

When safe, volcanoes tend to attract

tourists. This helps the economy
(multiplier) in places such as Iceland
and the Canary Islands (Tenerife and
Lanzarote) and creates direct and
indirect employment (e.g. tour
guides, hotel workers etc)
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/iceland/7575220/Tourists-flock-toworlds-newest-volcano.html

MINERALS
AND MINING
In the past

Much of the sulfur is mined from around active volcanoes. Other mineral desposites
were formed by volcanoes that are now extinct
Volcanoes supply large volumes of gases to the atmosphere, which initially created the
Earths atmosphere. All the water now in the oceans originated as volcanic gases in the
form of water vapour

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CASE STUDY: ICELAND Eyjafjallajokull volcano

In April 2010 the Eyjafjallajokull volcano in

Iceland erupted.
Facts
o
o
o
o

about the eruption

The eruption started on 20 March.
A 500 metre fissure opened up.
The eruption happened underneath an
ice sheet.
Dissolved gases in the molten rock along
with steam generated from the melting
ice caused a large column of volcanic ash.

Effects of the eruption within Iceland

o Areas were flooded because of the glacier melt water which lay above the volcano.
o Agricultural land was damaged, and farms were hit by heavy ash fall.
o The ash fall poisoned animals in nearby farms.
o Some roads were destroyed.
o People were asked to stay indoors because of the ash in the air.
Effects of the eruption within Europe
o Travel was severely disrupted as many flights were cancelled between 14 and 21 April
2010.
o Businesses lost trade.
o Air operators lost millions of pounds each day.
o Perishable foods were wasted as they could not be transported.
o People were not able to get to work because they were stranded.
o The timing of the disruption was during the Easter holidays when levels of tourism are
high.

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Past paper summer 2010

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3) EARTHQUAKES
What is an earthquake
Movements within the Earths crust cause stress
to build up at points of weakness, and rocks to
deform. Stored energy builds up in the same way
as energy builds up in the spring of a watch
when it is wound. When the stress finally exceeds
the strength of the rock, the rock fractures along
a fault, often at a zone of existing weakness
within the rock. The stored energy is suddenly
released as an earthquake.
Intense vibrations, or seismic waves, spread out from the initial point of rupture, the focus, like ripples on a
pond. These waves are what makes the ground shake and can travel large distances in all directions. Near
the focus, the waves can be very large, making them extremely destructive.

FOCUS: the point within the earth where the earthquake originates
EPICENTRE: the point on the Earths surface directly above the focus

ASSESSING EARTHQUAKES
The affects of an earthquake can be assessed on a 12 point scale Mercalli Scale
OR earthquakes can also be assessed using the Richter Scale of magnitude, which measures the total
amount of energy released by an earthquake. Powerful earthquakes have Richter values between 5 and 9.
An increase of 1 on the scale means that the energy released increases by about 30 days.

The amount of damage that an earthquake causes will be affected by the following factors:
The amount of energy released (as measured by the Richter Scale)
The depth of the focus beneath the surface (Shallower earthquakes have a greater effect)
The density of the population in the area of the earthquake epicenter
Whether or not the buildings have been built to withstand earthquakes
How solid the bedrock is; weak sands and clays turns to liquid (known as liquefaction), causing
buildings to collapse.
The ability of a country to recover in the long term from an earthquake is largely dependent on its
level of development.

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TSUNAMI

A tsunami is a giant ocean wave (or series of waves) generated by an earthquake when there is
displacement (movement) of the seabed. The wave is magnified a it travels into shallower water. It
becomes slower moving, more closely spaced and much, much higher. It can travel across whole oceans
and can have devastating effects on coastal lowlands, especially when they are densely populated. The
tsunami caused by the earthquake at Banda Aceh, Indonesia, on 26 th December 2004, resulted in 289,601
deaths in 12 countries around the Indian Ocean.
Because a tsunami can take hours to travel across an ocean, it is possible to provide warnings of its
arrival. The Pacific Ocean has had a tsunami warning system in place for many years. After the 2004
tsunami, the Indian Ocean countries also introduced a tsunami warning system, together with emergency
drills and procedures to keep casualties to a minimum.

Case study: Boxing Day Tsunami, 2004

On 26 December 2004 a tsunami
occurred in the Indian Ocean. It
was the result of the IndioAustralian Plate subducting below
the Eurasian Plate. It was caused
by an earthquake measuring more
than magnitude 9. The earthquake
caused the seafloor to uplift,
displacing the seawater above.
o In open ocean the tsunami
measured less than 1 metre
high.
o The tsunami travelled at
speeds up to 800km per
hour.
o When the Tsunami reached
the shores, the height of the
wave increased to 15
metres in some areas.

Main impacts
o
o
o

A quarter of a million people died.

Two million people were made homeless.
People were swept away in the waters, which arrived rapidly and with little warning.

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o
o
o
o
o

Thirteen countries were affected, the worst being Indonesia.

Indonesia was hit by the tsunami first. Fourty-five minutes later the tsunami reached Thailand.
Mangrove swamps helped to act as a barrier to reduce the energy of the water in some areas.
Short-term aid, such as water purification tablets, temporary housing and medical supplies were
given from international countries.
Islands reliant on tourism and fishing, such as the Maldives, had to rebuild their industries.
An early warning system between countries surrounding the Indian Ocean has been set up.

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REVISION: TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES & THEIR ASSOCIATED PROCESSES /

LANDFORMS

Type of Boundary

CONSTRUCTIVE
(divergent)

Plate Movement

Example

The America's moving away from the

Eurasian and African Plates - formed
Two plates of oceanic crust
moving apart from each other. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Two plates of continental crust East-African Rift Valley
moving apart from each other.

DESTRUCTIVE
(convergent)

Nazca and South American Plate

Two plates moving together (Oceanic and Continental) - formed the
may be ocean and continental
Peru-Chile Deep Sea Trench and the
or oceanic and oceanic
Andes

COLLISION (convergent)

Two plates moving together

(continental and continental)

Indian and the Eurasian Plate - formed

the Himalayas

CONSERVATIVE

two plates moving parallel to

each other - land neither
created nor destroyed

North American and Pacific Plate - The

San Andreas Fault

A Summary of Plate Margin Movements and Associated Geological Processes and

Landforms:
Type of Margin

Constructive

Destructive

Plate Movements

Two plates moving

away from each
other

Two plates moving

towards each other
(oceanic crust
towards continental
crust)

Geological Processes /
Example
Associated Landforms
divergence
upwelling of magma
creation of new
lithosphere
volcanism
mid-oceanic ridge
formation
earthquakes
Land is created

Mid-Atlantic Ridge America's moving away

from Eurasian and
African Plates.
(divergence of 2
oceanic plates)

Andes
Nazca plate sinking
underneath the South
American Plate

convergence
subduction
creation and
upwelling of magma
volcanism
mountain building
(either fold mountains
or Island Arc)

East African Rift

Valley (divergence of 2
continental plates)

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deep-sea trench
formation
earthquakes (deep
focus)
Land is destroyed

Collision

Conservative

Two plates moving

towards each other
(continental crust
towards continental
crust)

Two plates moving

sideways past each
other

convergence
collision
fold mountains
formed
earthquakes (deep /
shallow)

Himalayas - Indian
plate moving into
Eurasian Plate

horizontal movement
San Andreas Fault stick-slip process
earthquakes (shallow) North American and
Pacific Plate
Land is neither
created nor destroyed

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