ci1.29 PART 2. CURVED WEB SYSTEMS. (BY W. F. McCOMBS) €11,80 Diagonal Tension in Curved Web Systems ~ Introduction. ‘This type of structure has an important place. in the design of light metal structures. ‘The structural designer should have as good an understanding of it as he mus have for the somewhat simpler plane wed system. Actually, most airframe shear web systems are curved rather than flat, the fuselage of a modern aircraft being the oustanding example. To make a fuselage skin entirely non-buckling would require a very thick skin and/or a closely spaced substructure supporting it. This would involve a considerable weight penalty compared to the buckling skin arrangement. The typical metal skin in a modern fighter or transport airplane thus carries tts limit and ultimate loads with a considerable degree of skin buckling. In view of this, the need for an understanding of diagonal tension effects in curved web systems is obvious. 11.31 General Discussion. Before getting into the details of design, @ general discussion of what happens in a curved web system as the web buckles is helpful. Consider a sem{-monocoque structure with a cireular (or elliptical) cross-sectional shape as shown in Fig. C11.29, Ring @) Ring Attached to Skin Skin "Floating" Ring, Attached Only to Stringers, Fig. C11.29 ‘The structure consists members (called "stringers" and “longerons" if they are few in number, say 3 to 6) which are supported by frames or rings and covered with a skin. The rings may be attached to the skin and "notched" to let the stringers pass through, as in Fig. (b), or they may be located entirely under the stringers and not, therefore, attached to the skin. In this latter case they are called "floating" rings, of a nunber of axtal| if they are nunorous| as in Fig. (c). Sometimes both types of rings are present. Comparing this structure to a plane web beam, the stringers correspond to the flanges, the rings correspond to the uprights and the skin corresponds to the web. Thus, the stringers carry (or resist) axial loads, The rings support the stringers ana, if not of the "floating" type, also divide the skin panels into shorter lengths. The skin carries (or resists) shear loads. Now, assume the structure to be subjected to a pure torsion, T, a8 shown in Fig. C11.29. Before the skin buckles, this torsion produces a shear in the skin panels given by the well- known formula ata Only the skin 1s loaded. As in the case of the uprights of a plane web beam, the rings are not loaded. There 1s no load in the stringers. As the torsion 1s increased, however, the skin shear stress eventually becomes larger than the critical buckling stress and the panels buckle. Any further increase in torsion must now be carried as diagonal tension. Five min ‘things then occur as the torsion 1s increased above the buckling value, as 11lustrated in Fig. 011.30, 1, The skip panels buckle and flatten out between rings fastened to the skin, from their original curved shape. This gives a polygonal cross-section (avay from a ring). ‘The angle of diagonal tension is less than that for a plane web beam, however, in the range of 20° ~ 30°. 2. Tne stringers now feel an axtal load, due to the pulling on the ends, (C11.30), of the structure by the buckled skin, Just as in the case of the plane web beam. ‘The stringers also feel a normal loading ‘that tends to bend, or "bow", them inward Detwoon supporting rings, as shown in Fig. 011.30¢. ‘The supporting rings feel an inward loading which puts then in "hoop" compression. For rings attached to the skin this loading is applied by the stringers and the skin, and is thus "spread out". For floating rings ‘this loading 18 applied only by the11.30 Ps I, (b) Generation of Axial Loads in the Stringers @ ‘Net Loads Applied by the Skin to the Sub-Structure (Stringers and Rings) Pull of Skin RG @ End View of Stringer Showing Loads & Supports PRG A (c) “Loads on Stinger and Support by Rage (Prod Pao: Loads on Ring Dye to Supporting Stringers. (Addi (e) tonal Loads also Present Due to Skin) Fig. C11,30 stringers, coming entirely from (3) above, and is thus concentrated at points. This concentration produces not only conpression| but also internal bending moments in the floating rings. This is shown in Fig. 011.300. 5. Any fasteners splicing skins together or fastening the skins to the end rings feel not only a shear panel type of loading but also a normal loading, as in the case of a plane web beam. Also, the "folds" in the skin due to the diagonal buckles pry on ‘the rivets as they “attempt” to extend across the rivet lines at the stringers and rings. ‘The important thing to realize here is ‘that, although only a pure torsion has been applied, considerable axial loads have been, gonerated in the stringers and rings. And even some bending moments have been induced in the stringers and in the rings of the "floating" type. Now, assume that at the same time the torsion load is being applied an increasing DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN compressive axial load, P, 1s being applied, ‘Simultaneously, as shown in Pig. c11.31. a WA E] Ge Fig. C11.31 ‘The following will now happen due to the presence of P. 1. The stringers will, of course, have to carry the compressive load, P, which will be divided among thon. There Will be some "effective" skin to help. 2. Less obvious, but very important, 1s the fact that the diagonal tension loads due to the torsion, T, will be considerably affected by the presence of the axial load, P. The larger P is, with respect to T, the greater will be its effect upon the diagonal tension effects. This is as follows. a) The skin panels will now buckle at a lower amount of applied torsion since ‘they are now also strained axtally in compression. Actually there is a "com bined” buckling consisting of compres sion and shear buckling. This can be obtained from an interaction equation, discussed later. ») Since the critical shear buckling stress is now lower the diagonal tension factor, k, is larger. ¢) All of the diagonal tension effects dependent upon k are increased. These include the axial loads induced in the stringers., the normal loads bending the stringers inward, the loads induced in the rings and the loads felt by the fasteners. 4) Tho angle of diagonal tension will be larger, closer to 45°, Thus we see that the effect of compression is to increase the loads due to diagonal tension. Now assume that instead of being compres~ sion, the axial load, P, 1s tension. In this case, the effects of diagonal tension, due to 1, are reduced. 1, The stringers and skin feel tension due to P, which opposes compression due to diagonal tension.‘The skia panels can carry a larger shear stress before buckling in shear. In fact, a relatively suall anount of axial tension can prevent thon from buckling at all, as will be discussed later. ‘The diagonal tension factor, k, will be smaller (or zero if no buckling occurs). All diagonal tension effects dependent upon k are reduced and the diagonal tension] angle 1s smaller. Finally, suppose that instead of an axial load, P, a bending moment is being applied sigultaneously with the torsion, T, as in Fig. c11.32. € In this case, also, as the torsion 1s being increased from @ stall mount, M 19 also boing increased, (the ratio of M to T being constant, as was the case for axial load, P). Then, from the usual bending theory,’, _ Mz , the T Fig. C11.32 following w111 occur. ‘The stringers (and skin) above the neutral axis Will feel compression loads, the further away the greater the load. The upper skin panels will thus buckle earlier 4m combined compression and shear and produce the largest diagonal tension loads on the stringers and rings. ‘The skins below the neutral axts will duckle Inter (or not at all) due to the tension strain produced by M. Thus the diagonal tension effects will be smaller (or non-existant) in the rings and stringers in thie region. The skins near the neutral axis will feel Little or no strains due to bending and will buckle about as in the case for the pure torsion, T, producing equivalent effects. In an actual airplane structure, a fuselago| for example, the applied loading is more complex. Instead of simply an applied torsion, there is also, usually, a vertical and perhaps a sideward set of loads which produce shears that vary from panel to panel. And there may de not only a bending moment, which changes, along the fuselage, but also axial loads due to cust landings, catepulting requirements, etc. Obviously all of this complicates the calcu lations,and experience and judgment are of great help; but the method of going about it {s fundamental and will now be discussed. ‘The N.A.C.A, has conducted an extensive program over the years with the object of determining a system for the design of structures having curved webs in diagonal tension. The theory for this system, as in the case for the plane web beam, was given by Wagner and others and modified as necessary from the results of many tests. The design mothod 1s fully discussed in Ref. (3) and the substantiating test program in Ref. (4). The reader 1s encouraged to consult these refer- ences for a fuller presentation of the ‘theoretical develorment and test results. As mentioned earlier, curved wed systems are of two general types. One of these has an arrangement which results in the web, or skin, panels being longer in the axial direction, d, than in the circumferential direction, h. ‘This 1s typical of the stringer systen in a fuselage, as shonm in Fig. 011.33. Stringer’ <> Ring: @ ae a>1.0 Ko Fig. C11.33 ‘That 1s, the geonetry of the stringer spacing, h, and the ring spacing, d, 1s such that a fer n "Ploating" rings, not being attached to the skin, do not determine the spacing, d. A second type of curved web structure may be referred to as the longeron systen. Its main characteristic 1s that the skin panels are long in the circumferential direction. This type of structure would, typically, in a fuselage, con- sist of a few axial members (a minimum of 3 but more usually 4 to 8 fora "fail safe" design) and a large number of closely spaced franes. ‘The frames would, in this system, be at about a 4" to 6" spacing as compared to a 15"-20" spac ing for a stringer system. This gives fer n f as indicated in Fig. C11.3411.32 Longeron a n gen0 Ring 7 7 Fig. C1134 In the longeron system the to the skin and longeronss "floating" rings. frames are attached there are no Most of the NACA data and design method 1s for the stringer system. The design method for ‘the longeron system, also presented herein, has evolved from Ref. (3) and also from the results of an investigation and test program at Chance-Vought Aircraft Corp. These latter checks are in soma places different fron the ones in the stringer system. The main problen 1s the determination of the angle of diagonal tension, for either system. Once this 1s known all of the diagonal tension stresses are know. The stringer system will be discussed first and the longeron system will be discussed secondly. The basic approach is similar to that for plane web beams. 11,32. Analysis of Stringer Systems in Diagonal Tension. Before the diagonal tension effects can be calculated, the primary internal loads in ‘the structure, due to the applied loads, must be determined. This can be done as discussed in Chapter A20, The engineers theory of bending| can usually be used to determine the axial loads in the stringers, as in Art. A20.2-A20.5. ‘The shear flows in the various skin panels can de determined as in A20.6-A20.8. In the case of stringer construction a more accurate determination of the skin shear flows may, 1f desired, be obtained if the skin panels are considered flat, rather than curved, between stringers, This 1s because the panels, after Duckling, actually flatten out, giving a polygonal cross-sectional shape, except imediately adjacent to non-floating rings, as shown in Fig, C11.30a. ‘The diagonal tension effects can now be evaluated. 1. DBPSRMINATION OF CRITICAL BUCKLING STRESS OF SKIN PANELS Tho buckling strength of curved panels under pure shear and compressive stresses is covered in Chapter C9. The equation for buckling shear stress Fs,. 1s, DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN Nig Bo (tye "Ba D Feor re") where sinple support 1s usually conservatively assumed in determining kg. When axial loads (and strains) are present, as in practical structures subJected to bending as well as shear, the situation is more compli~ cated. As discussed in Chapter C9, the presence of compressive stresses together with shear stresses causes the panel to buckle at a lower value of shear than 1f no compression were present. The presence of tension stresses, along with shear stresses, enables the panel to stand larger shear stresses before buckling occurs. In fact, a relatively small amount of tension stress my prevent the panel from ever buckling in shear. It 1s important to determine the actual shear buckling stress when axial stresses, particularly compression, are present. The reason 1s that this affects the diagonal tension factor, k, and all of the ensuing stresses affected by kK. First consider a shear panel subjected to a shear stress f, and a compression stress fo. Te has boon douchotrated xporiaantaily at the NACA, Ref. (5) that a curved panel, thusly Joaded, buckles according to the interaction formula, Foor where Fo, and Fs, are the critical panel cor Sor buckling stresses for pure compression and pure shear respectively. From Chapter 09, the buckling stress for a curved sheet panel, in end compression 1s given by the equation, a7 8 BUTI Foor = Now for any particular panel, Foi got =A, (a constant) F; ‘Ser and Foor 7 A aor Now, also for any given applied loading con- ‘dition being checked we Can calculate te (= ty (=H) at the center of the panel (before Duckling) and also fg (previously done). These stresses will bear a constant ratio to each other until buckling occurs, after which thecompression stress no longer increases. Thus wo can write fo Pork ---- 2-2-2222 --- (73) or fo =B ts Substituting these foraulas for Fo... and fo back into the interaction formula (71) we obtain, Bt F Fagp t + GS) = 10 Scr Solving this quadratic for fs we get ~ Be [pt +4] ---- (mm) i rr z where fg 1s the actual shear stress at which ‘the panel buckles due to the presence of compression stresses. Calling this stress fgoy and calling the expression in the brackets Re toon = Fagp Ro Where Re is always less than 1.0 when compression stresses are present. Next, consider a shear panel subjected to a shear stress, fg, and a tension stress, fy. For this case it has been experimentally demonstrated, Ref. (6), that the interaction relationship defining buckling is fe 2 tt eet efde ohat 2 Foon Foor where Fe,, and Fo,, are as previously discussed.| ‘The shear stress, fg, at which the panel will Duexle when the tension stress present. 18 fy can be solved for directly fron equation (76), fa, a sere eee (7) Sor or, fe fogy = 60 + GEE) Fogg === == > (78) Calling the expression in parenthesis in (78) Rp we get, foe * Fen Ft 11.33 Since Rp 1s always greater than 1.0 when tension stresses are present, the actual shear buckling stress will alnays be greater than Fg,., the buckling stress for pure shear loads only. Inspection of the term in parenthesis in (78) making up RT shows that as the tension stress becomes several times larger than Fo,. the value of fg, Will become several times larger than Fg,,- Thus, if fy is large enough no buckling will occur even when large shear stresses are present. 2, DIAGONAL TENSION FACTOR, Kk. ‘The next step is the determination of the dtagonal tension factor, kK. This ts a function of ¢-*-where, as discussed above, Ser Seer = Peon Ro OF Saop = Facy Br depending upon whether compression or tension stresses are present. For a curved panel the formula for k, as determined from much test data, Ref. (3) is the empirical relationship, = +300 £4 ts re em [652210 fb aon gt] (09 R= radius of curvature with the auxiliary rules that a) tf &>2 use omy 2 b) tf n= a replace £ by 4 ("ongeron" system) and, in this case, if t>2 use only 2. Rather than calculate k from the forma, tt can more easily be obtained from Fig. Cl1.19. 3, STRINGER LOADS, STRESSES, AND STRAINS As in the case of the plane web system, the total stringer load will consist of the primary axial loads, Pp , due to applied bending monents and/or axial loads, plus the diagonal tension induced loads, Pp,t, Pore = Fp * Pp.r. Pp ie determined as in Chapter A20.2-A20.5. Pp.7, 18 determined, simtlarly to the case for thé flanges of a plane web beam, from the "pulling" of the buckled skin on the end frames.cust Fig. C11.35 As show in Pig. C11.35, Pp,p, is the diagonal tension load ina stringer bounded by panel "a" on one side and panel *b" on the other. Let the width of panel (a) do ha and the width of panel (b) be hp. (For equally spaced stringers, of course, hy = hy). Let the shear flow in panel (a) be d_ and that in panel (b) be ap. Then we can write ey a My C08 Oy GB, Cot a REESE eee Pp.r. = To keep the calculations simpler (as will be appreciated later) we can accept same in- accuracy and use average values for the respective tems (22%, Sa + 9D oto.) and get Por, =k Qh cot a remembering that this 1s an "average" load, wnich, for closely spaced stringers, 18 sufficient, especially for preliminary design. ‘Te total stringer load is then, from 60 and 62 Por = Pp + K ah cota where all terms are known ‘The stringer stress is obtained by dividing the terms on the right side by their respective effective areas tom, = TR» PE, Kgnooba tO R Bep ep. 2) hop 18 the total effective area, stringer and skin, used in determining the primary loads as in Chapter A20. If Pp is tension the area 1s equal to ht, panel is fully effective. >) ep p= Agta + 5 ht (1K) Roy see Ref. (8) ---------- Ref. (3) suggests 2 more accurate caleulation. DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN Ro,p depending upon whether axial compression of tension is present. Again, K and R, or RE are also average values for the panels on each side of the stringer. Thus wo can write P P k qh cot a tote = + +a Fore * Pogxin Aagp * <8 (2-KRe, 7 or Pp K fg cot a = + Aeon * Feskin ER + .8(1-1)Ro,p (es) Where all terms are known on the right hand side of the equation except a. ‘The total stringer strain 1s then fern ‘str ~ —E ware eee e eee (86) If fgpR 18 larger than the proportional limit stress, or in the neighborhood of the yield strese, B is not a constant and a stress strain diagram should be used to read e directly, using ‘Again, fepR, and hence egra, cannot be ned until a'1s known (later). ‘There 1s also a secondary loading on the stringer which tends to bend or "bow" it inward. ‘This 1s caused by the fact that the taut skins are pulled flat on each side of the stringer. ‘Thus as in Fig. 011.30 there is an invard ‘component of the skin diagonal tension loading ‘that pulls the stringer invard. This loading is not a simply distributed one; it is largest im the middle of the stringer and becomes smaller at the supports. Ref. (3) recommends ‘that the effect of this loading be considered as producing secondary bending monents in the stringer, taken as tg ht 4° k tar 2 ee mo _-~-- (87) R = radius of curv. ‘This represents a "peak" moment at the middle and at the ring supports. It will produce ‘tension on the inside of the stringer at the middle and compression on the inside of tho stringer at the supports. The recommended value of Mora 1s the result of many test measurements, therefore it is of a semi- empirical nature. 4, STRESSES AND STRAINS IN RINGS ‘There are two types of rings, those attached to the skin and those not attached to the skin, called "floating rings,” which support, and are ‘therefore loaded only by, the stringers. Rings attached to the skin are usually "notched" to let the stringers pass through.‘The stringers are attached to these rings locally by some shear clip arrangement. The rings feel an inward acting loading which puts then in "hoop compression". These loads cone from the stringers and from the skin, The stringer being pulled inward by tho skin, as, described above and in Fig. (11.30, in turn pushes inward on the supporting rings. The skin, not being flat at the ring, also pulls inward on the ring. The result of all of this is, essentially, according to Ref. (3) a hoop compression stress in the ring for the case of a cylinder under pure torsion. This is because ‘the loading is approximately equivalent to an evenly distributed invard acting radial loading. For this case the radial loading can be taken as, per inch along the ring, f, at k tan a Raia ‘The axial (hoop) compression load in the ring will then be Pra Pag = pR= fg dt k tana ------ (88) ‘The axial compression stress in the ring will be B kf, tana tag = qe = 8 —— - - (89) Fora +sxin ARG at 8 (1-k) Where all terms on the right are known except a. ‘The axial strain in the ring wi11 be wnere fag and hence cg are unknown until a t8 determiaca. When loads other than pure torsion are applied fg and k will vary from panel to panel and the hoop compression stress will not be constant around the ring. There will also be sone varying secondary shear stresses in the panel due to unequal "pulls" on oach side of the panel, at the stringer, by the buckled skin. fen "floating" rings are used concentrated| inward acting radial loads are applied by the stringers. This produces hoop compression and, since all the loads are concentrated, also some bending moments. There is, of course, no effective skin acting with these rings. The axial compression load is Py ig, = fs ot k tana ‘The axial compression stress is then, where all terms on the right hand side are known except a. ‘The axial strain ts given by or can, of course, be gotten from a stress strain diagram for the material. ‘The maximum bending moment present in a floating ring 1s given by kK t. thd tang Mo® a = - (98) R= radius of curv. ‘This occurs at the Junction with the stringer. ‘There is a secondary moment, half as large, midway between stringers in the ring. 5S. STRAINS IN THE SKIN PANELS ‘The strain in the skin panels 1s given in Ref. (3) as, 1 cote [ata sin 20 a-warn] where u = Poisson’s Ratio = .32 for aluminum, every term on the right hand side of the equation 1s knom except a. Fig. C11.36 is of help in calculating €, giving the value of the bracketed term. 6. DETERMINATION oF a* For the stringer system (4 >h) Ref. (3) shows that a is related to tho stringer strain, ‘the ring strain and the web, or skin panel, strain by the formula R = radius of curv. Where ¢ 1s a tension strain (+) and epg and egrR are entered as negative members for com pression, thus adding to ¢. a Is determined by successive approximation using the three prior formulas for e, eg? and egg snd then checking with the formula (95) above. That 1s, * For a faster estimate or for preliminary design, step 6 can be skipped for panels in compression and shear and simply ‘assumed to be 45°,1.36 1) Assume a value for a. 2) Determine ¢, eng and egmp using this assumed value of a. 3) Substitute €, eng and egng into the formula for tan* a and get a "now value for a. 4) Repeat steps (1) to (3) as many times (say 3) as necessary to get a to a "converged" value. If rings attached to the skin are being used then epg in step (2) above is obtained trom (90), using (89) for tag. If "floating" rings are ‘used then epg 1s obtained trom (92), using (91) for fra. once a is determined, the stringer stresses| and ring stresses are knom, having been used in getting the strains egra and eg for the final check of a in (95). The bending moments in the stringers can then be calculated trom (87) and the bending monents in floating rings, if used, from (93). 7. LOADS ON THE RIVETS ‘The only remaining internal loads to be calculated are those acting on the rivets. ‘These are of to types. a) There are.the primary loads, in the plane of the skins which try to cause shear or bearing fatlures at the riveted Joints, as in any spliced skin.| bd) There are also, "prying" forces on the rivets which try to "pop off" the rivet| heads or to pull the skin up and around| the rivet heads. This latter my occur, particularly, when counter- sunk or dimpled skins and flush head rivets are used and the rivot diameter 4s too small or the rivet spacing 18 too large. These are "secondary" loads. | ‘The primary rivet loads occur whenever the skin 1s spliced, which 1s usually, but not necessarily, along a stringer or along a ring. These loads would also be present if the skin panel ended at stringer or ring, as at an opening or "cut-out™ and the panel had not been re-enforced by a doubler to prevent buckling. At a splice parallel to a stringer the load per inch along the rivet line is due to ‘the same effects as discussed for the plane wad beam. It is 1 cos a toad/tnch = tet [+x (Gbg-2)] - - (96) DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN At a splice (or opening) along a ring (a vertical splice) the loading ts 1 sin Load/inen = tg t [rex r »]- - (97) Yote that in either case, 17 the panels involved are made non-buckling (on each side of the Splico) k=0 and the load per inch 18 the sane a8 for e non-bickled wed. Tt {8 only around a *cut-out" or opening that the panels are made either non-buckling or made to buckle to @ lesser extent, and this 1s done to "relieve" the loading on the edge member rather than on the rivets (ase art. 11,29). ‘The second type of rivet loads, the prying loads, are not determinable by any forma. Ref. (3) recommends that an arbitrary criteria de used as follows. The tensile strength of the rivet-skin combination, Pp, should be such that it 1s as large as the number given by 22 t Poy where Fry is the ultimate tensile strength of the skin or web material being used. Pp por inch Pp 18 usually most critical for flush attacments. As an aid in getting this, Figs. 11.378 and C11.37 give information on’ the tensile strength of vartous rivet types and sizes, 11,33. Allowable Stresses (and Interactions). 1. STRINGERS Just as there are two types of basic loads (and stresses) 1n the stringers and rings (the primary ones and the ones due to diagonal tension effects) there are also two types of, allowable stresses for local fatlure. An interaction formula 1s thus used to predict adequate strength. This 1s,for the stringer t t8tax = p+ Mio --------- (99) Foo” Pep fp = stringer stress due to the applied loads, this is the first term on the right hand side of equation (85). ‘he allowable crippling stress for the “Foc stringer, obtained as in Chapter C7. fg Fomax * £97 ¥ Fy tgp 18 the second term on the right hand side of equation (85). * Fog i same as Fog in Chapter C7.fe + 1s a ratio obtained from Fig. ‘st cll.21. It is explained in the plane wed beam discussion. Fer the "forced crippling" (diagonal tension effect) allowable stress for the stringer 18 obtained fron Fig. 11.38, as in the case for the uprights in the plane web dean, or calculated from the formulas (also for Fag and tp) + aja (tSTRya/n Fep= 26,000 k*/* (F27R)2/* tor zagt eT" ae) material. Pope 82,500 x°/* (ESTR)2/ tor rssr &, material with {he sane restrictions noted in C11.22. (The total axial stringer stress is fp + fgp at the area near the supporting rings, and tp * fotyy In the middle between supports.) ‘Te stress in the stringor due to the bending monent, Mgpg, of equation (67) can be calculated and added to fp in the proper manner. Ref. (3) also suggests the stringer be checked as a column, fully fixed at the supporting rings and carrying the stress fona- Some allowance should be made for bean collaat action, due to the bending moment present in the middle of the stringer. This can be done using some effective loading producing the monents discussed or by carrying some extra margin of safety over and above the column Duckling stress. 2. RINGS ‘The rings have allowable stresses similar im nature to the stringers. The interaction equation 18, for the case of rings attached to the skin, 1s the stress due to the ring carrying toaas Btner than the tension field ones (as a bulkhead analysis would shon). Faq 18 the allowable forced crippling stress for the ring, obtained in the same manner as that for the stiffener, (Fig. C11.38), f Tre * tro x SPER, tata th sao manner as discussed for the stiffener. It cust occurs in the ring midway between stiffeners. Foo 18 the "normal" allowable crippling stress for the ring. If Fag > Foo then use Foo for Fra, Floating rings, not being subject to forced crippling by the skin, are checked in the usual manner for the stresses due to hoop compression loads and the accompanying bending moment, equations (81) and (83). ‘The interaction equation 1s, tag * Fee fpg 1s a constant stress between stringer functions; it does not have a maximum peak as do the rings attached to skin. 3. GENERAL INSTABILITY A general instability check for the stringers and skin can be made from the empirical criteria presented in Fig. C11.39. This 1s obtained from test data and recommenda— tions of Ref. (7) and Ref. (3). The allowables are based upon pure torsion tests. The ade~ quacy of the structure 1s checked by fe ‘SINST -1z0 (202) It 1s suggested that a respectable margin of safety be held (M.S. = .15). The radii of gyration in Fig. C11.39 should be made assuming the full width of shoot to act with the stringer or ring respectively and that the sheet is flat because the criterion was obtained under these assumptions. 4. ALLOWABLE STRESS: IN THE SKIN (OR WEB) Ref. (3) recommends that the allowable stress in a web or skin be taken as, for non— flush attachments, (65 +4) ----- (203) fea. = fea. wnere 4= .3 tanh ARO + .1 tann AST 5 4 can, at iat. more easily, de read from Fig. C1140. f$,1) 4s obtained from Fig. Cll.41b or Cll.4lc after obtaining appp from Fig. Cll.41a. Data from tests by the Chance-Vought Aircraft Corp. indicate that the allowable web stress can simply be read from Fig. Cl1.42, In etther case, the allowables apply to fg, the gross stress in the panel. The net shear stress between rivet holes can be carried up to the ultimaté shear stress Fo, of the material.cun.38 DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN 11.34 Example Problem. 684,000 2 ‘Tne foregoing explanation can be better See explained or clarified through the presentation of an example problen. x 7.25 61.6 + 113 = 175 1b./in. Assume that we have a fuselage with a = 11,700[.167(38.3) + .169(36.4)+.216(32.9) structural arrangement as in the example problea| 4 BE of 420.5 and Fig. A20.3 and A20.4 of Chapter A20. Also, assume the moment of inertia and + 113 = 96 + 113 = 209 lb./in. noutral axis for a linear bending stress distri-| bution to apply. These values are given on ‘The dtagonal tension effects will now be page A20.8°. Also let it be assumed that the calculated assuming average q’s, bending supporting rings are attached to the skin and | stresses, etc., for the panels 2-8 and 3-4. spaced at 16". The rings are 1" x 3" x 1" 2497 " | 75 + B sections, .040" in thickness (see Fig.Cl1.43) Guveng = WEEE a00 th./in. ‘An analysis will bo made of stringer #3, skin panels 2-8 and 3-4, and the ring. It 18 A = 182 2 18» 5000 pet assumed also that an axial skin splice occurs Savp_g “b= 2052 * $000 pet. along stringer #3 and a vertical splice long spe eine eo oer aL theo ot the| fasteners The average critical shear buckling stress 11 equation (75). a aerate will now be caleulated using equation (75) hase! First, 1 no skin buckling occurred the %, M-1,987,000°F | average compression stress in the two panels would de, approximately, the stress in the stringer between them, thus = 20,400 pst. fopaneis fav. then the constant, B, would be Fig. C1143 patos 201400 = 3,40 First the internal loads in the stringer and te 6s enamels Jere doternined =the average ‘The critical pure shear buckling stress loads at the middle of the bay will be used in ‘this example to got the diagonal tension eee terete oftects. rEg UE te Peer = T2 1 -Ue%) “o)” - From Chapter At the center of the bay, 09, ks = 16.8. M = 1,475, 1D. 000 in. 1D, 2082)4 Mz 187,000 in. 2216.9 10,609,000 624,000 tn. Fog * ETE ER IOS O00 82 v Max. stringer stress occurs at Ring b: B140 pet. 7 fly For pure compression the eritical buckling MZ. 1,563,000 (32.9) stress equation from Chapter C9 1s, = MZ, 1,863,000 (32.9) 4 Pomax = PERE 21,600 pst nt kK, E & Ri av.) fp) + Ke = 15.9 (trom Igy, = 224781000 (82-9) = 20,400 pst. Sor 22 (1 Ye") DY” Cfapter 09). i eee 118 £18.93 10,600,000 082 Shear flows in skin panels: Foor Sete ce agg B+ Ee, whors 4 consists of aren | mus, A= F = 08078140 = «950 Ss t i of 26 triangles - Cer/*Ber - 11,700 [,167(38.3) + .169(38.4)], Since buckling stresses are below the pro- portional limit stress of the matertal, no saSEARARARE Plasticity correction was necessary as is * A non-linear bending stress distribution can be used, but it | usually the case in thin walled structures. also is affected by the diagonal tension compressive stresses] ‘Thus stress ratio (A) could be obtained directly Bz upelees coor hota Laat ones trees mu 85 kof. 2980 petNext: = and, tron equation (75) focny 4 Pop ¥ Ro * 8140 (26) = 616 pat which is quite small, due to the presence of compression. Nxt, fs 'AV_ - 6000 _ > OO = 7.26 ere g now k can be determined: ta 500_(.082) \ SOO (2.0)%= .64 From Fig. 11.19, « = .75 ‘The expressions for stringer and ring stresses can now be written in terms of a: Substituting into equation (85) and using fp,y for the first term on the right side, 20,4004 275 (6000) cot Trey aay *5(1-.75)( 26) ‘STR. = 20,400 + 5870 cot a this 1s the "average" stress in the stringer. Substituting into equation (89) for rings, and using Agg = (1"+3"+1")(.040") = .20 in.", +75 (6000) tan a Ro 0 Tei pemy * 8 2 - -75) = 8,300 tan a @ will now be determined, by successive approximation using equations (94), (86), (90) and the above expressions for stresses in then, and also Fig. 011.6 for equation (94). Since there 1s so mich compression involved, assume a= 45°, to start with. From Fig. Cll.36 = 1:83 (6000) . rs © ae por = 1056 x 10 20,400 + 5570 (1.0) = a 20,400 + 8570, (1:0) = paso x 10 ze Es 1s * since 22.0, woe 2.0 (ee page CH. 39) 11.39 = 8,300 (1.0) _ "ag “10.6 x 10" ~ Now solve for "new" a using equation (95) (1036 + 2450)10-* + oe (1036 + 7e2)107* + 762 x 10 tan" a= +907 ° 0 42.20, which is less than the assumed 450, As a second trial assume a = 42.49. Gh = 1.04 (trom Pig. 011.36) € = 1,84 x 6000/10.6 x 10° = 1041 x 10-* €g7R = 20400 + 5570 (cot a)/10.6 x 10° = 2505 x 10-° &qq = 81800x tan 0/10.6x10° = 752 x 10°* gq = (1081 + 2505)10~ tan" @ = Gon + 752)10-° + .00eas ~ °F whence a = 42.6° as against 42.4° assumed. The accuracy of the theory does not warrant closer chock, thus a Will be taken as 42.4". ‘The corresponding stringer and ring stresses are as follows: farm * 20,400 + 5570 (1.082) = 20,400 + 6090 ‘These are not added for local strength checks. ‘They are added for a column stability check. ‘The term on the right 1s the average stress, foreed crippling, due to the diagonal tension effects. faq = 8,300 (.917) = 7,610 pst. Also, from equation (87), = 6000(7.25) (082) (15)*(.75) (+917) Mogg S000{Ta88) Cocpe eg Cte) (237) 299 1b./in. 299 (4862) Sots) = 4020 pet. ‘The rivet load/in, along the axial splice is, from eq. (96), | Loaa/tn.= 6000(.082)[1+ .75(-35) -1)] = 243 1b./in.11.40 and, along the circumferential splice, from (97)| Loaa/in.= 6000(.082)[1+ .75(3e5) -1)] 262 1b./in. From the above stresses, Tax’? Tatios, ‘and the allonables, chocks for adequate strength| can be made as follows: STRINGERS:~ At the junction with ring (b), toga = (21,600 + fy) + 6090 pet. For adequate local strength, f BE 10 st t,t ty Foc. = a/o(fS2ja/o ‘gn = 265000K*/2(-$7)2/ 26,000( .76)*/* (=95.)°/* = 24,900 pst (Also determinable trom Fig. ¢11.38). ‘mus,+ 21,6004 4000 , 6000 27,000 * Bs,605 * 1-19 (atringer te inadequate) At the center of the stringer, ft 7 ST MAX. fomux = for EO) f8T ax top from Fig. 011.21 ~1.0. Therefore, tomy, = 6090 (1.02) = 6210 pst. ‘then we get, using the interaction forma, 20,400 + 4020 , _6210 37,000 35-500 = 1-24 (stringer 18 Inadequate) Checking as a fixed end column, - f/f. ee. era = Ya = 402 a5 L/ep = 2.492) * 18-6 Poop, 7 251500 (See Fig. 07.33) * Fog = 27,000 (calculation not shown) DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN ‘thus 20,400 + 6090 25,500 "7 2700 (should be a 11ttle ess than 1.00, say 0.85, to allow for Deam-column action) ‘Mme rings attached to the skin are subject only to the forced crippling stresses, fag. RINGS Midway between stringer junctions this action J¢ a maximim and for adequate local strength, *ROyax ra = 10 Using the data in Fig. C1121, ty tryay * tro x pe = 7,610 x 1.0 = 7,610 pst. and thus troy ee Beiiag ~ 8 (sutfiotent) ‘The same compression stress (and load, P = tag x Ag) exists at the stringer junction. If ‘the ring ts notched to let the stringer pass through, as 1s usually done, the net section at ‘the ring must be made capable of carrying this load, which 1s located at the centroid of the un-notched ring cross-section. Usually this means some "beef-up", locally, around the notched section; sometimes incorporated into the clip attaching the stringer to the ring. Actually the rings, 11ke the stringers, are subject to the average of the shear stresses in the panels fore and aft of them. These have deen assumed equal in this example. ‘SKIN ‘To allowable shear stress taken from Fig. 11.42 1s Fg = 21,800 ‘Using the method of Ref. (3) Faq, ~ 20,800 (from Fig. Cl1.41a and b) a = .36 (from Fig. C11.40) ‘mus Fy = 20,600 (.65 + .38) = 21,400 pat.Either case shows there to be a large margin of safety for the actual shear stress of fy = 6000 pst, (average value shown). (Panels nearer the neutral axis will, of course, feel a larger shear stress.) FASTENERS Any fasteners used in this area must, of course, be able to transfer the load/inoh at ‘the splices as previously calculated. This criterion might not design the spacing however. ‘They must also have a tension allowable, when inetalled in .082 skin, of, equation (98), ‘Tens.A11.Load/Inch = .22 ( .082) (62,000) = 435 1b. From Fig. C11.37 1t can be seen that 1/8" flush head aluminum rivets in a dimpled .032 skin at 4.50" spacing should be adequate, or 1/8" brazier head rivets at a spacing of .65" if a "flush" Joint is not required. The tension requirenent 1s most severe in this case. GENERAL INSTABILITY ‘A check against overall instability of the "network" of rings and stringers can be made using Fig. 11.39. This 1s analagous to the colum stability check for the uprights of @ plane web beam. In the case of curved webs, however, no "help" 1s given by the taut skin in preventing instability. For this example problem the values used in caloulating the shear stress in the skin at which "collapse" due to instability would occur are: = .414 (Stringer 8, of Fig. A20.4 in °, c Chapter A20) 519 Pag (Both of these radii of gyration are gotten by {eluding a full wideh of skin acting with the stringsr, wo = ny and with the ring, Me = 4, per Ref. (35. ‘Then (Pst Pra)"/* x10* (any/* R*/* = (-414x .819)"/* x10* (as x 7.25)*/* (0)*/* 386 x 10* 29 From Fig. 11.39 Fomor Ee > 8.0; hence Payyyq > 3X10.3x10°= 30,900 pst cu.at and the margin of safety against collapse 1s, 1 = 22,800 « rage Other panels, of course, might have a larger shear stress and a smaller allowable Fszyayp and thus be more critical, but there 1s too much stiffness available, as seen, to expect any instability troubles. LONSERON TYPE SYSTEM 1.38 ‘The longeron type of structural system 1s somewhat simpler fron a total amilysis stand- point. This is, of course, primarily because there are fewer members carrying the axial loads and not as many shear panels with varying shear loads. This type of structure may, or may not, be the most optimum arrangement from ‘a weight and manufacturing cost consideration fora particular airplane. But this is not the subject of this discussion since 1t depends upon an optimization study. The methods of analysis presented here would, however, have a place in the calculations behind such a study. Same typical types of longeron structural systems cross-sections for a fuselage are shown in Fig. C1144. Longeron, co) ) sin @ © © Fig, C1144 Fig. (a) shows the minimum arrangement, as ‘to number of longerons, since at lesst 3 axtal load carrying members are necessary for equilibrium when bending moments in more than one plane are involved. This arrangement, hon- ever, has a disadvantage in that it 1s not a "tail safe" design. This means that the failure of any one member will not leave a structure capable of still carrying some arbitrary percentage (usually 50% to 67%) of the design ultimate loads. ‘The system shown in Fig. Cl1.44> 18 capable of doing this and is, therefore, the mintmum type acceptable from the "fail safe" standpoint (4 longerons). More longerons may be used, as in Fig. (c), occasionally, depending upon other factors of design and manufacturing. ‘The longeron system, however, requires more closely spaced rings than does the stringercu.42 system for strength-welght efficiency, as mentioned before. Tho optimum spacing of the supporting rings, or frames, 1s determined after many trial calculations have been made involving different gauges and sizes and spacings of rings and thicknesses of skins. As in the previous discussion of stringer construction, the rings support the skin, dividing 1t into smaller panels, lengttwise. They also support the longerons, similarly to the uprights (stiffeners) in a plane wed beam, against bending due to unequal tension field "pulls" by the skin on each side of the longeron. There are no "floating" rings in a longeron structural system. After buckling, the skin in this system has tension diagonals which, rather than being "flat" between closely spaced stringers, instead lie on a hyperboloid of revolution. That 1s, they flatten diagonally between the closely spaced rings. This action 1s discussed in Ref. (8) and the reader should consult tt tor the basic theory as presented by Wagner originally. In this system the ring spacing "a" 18 such that d = h; see Fig. C11.34. cu.36 ‘Te engineering procedure for calculating stresses and allowables for the longeron system 15 somewhat similar to that used for the stringer system. The reader will note the differences. 1, First, at any bay being checked, determine ‘the primary internal load distributions in the longerons and shear panels due to the applied loads. This can be done as in Art. C11.34 using the engineers theory of bending in most cases. In other cases where Judguent and experience and the nature of the structure indicate 1t, the method of Chapter A8 may be used in determining the primary load distri- Dution due to the applied loads. 2, Next determine the critical shear buckling stresses in the skin panels. Since compression stresses are nearly always also present in practical situations, pure shear buckling does not occur. Thus, as discussed in the case for stringer design, some rational interaction must be used to obtain a “reduced” shear buckling stress. This can be done, for example, by using Some "average" compression stress in the panel, weighted toward the high side for con- sorvatism. Thereby the interaction method of Article (11.32 can be used where B Be -2. / 4 » ae in (74) DIAGONAL SEMI- TENSION FIELD DESIGN and (A) 1s determined for a curved panel of length "a" between rings and height (h) between Jongerons measured along the circumference as in Fig. C11.34. (B) 1s the ratio of the con pression stress to the shear stress, (f¢/ts)> for the particular loading condition being investigated. The compreseion stresa should be calculated as 1f the panel being calculated had not yet buckled. Then, as in equation (75) Teor * Re Face Eives the reduced shear buckling stress, fg... When tension strains, rather than con pressive ones, are present with the shear we have, as in equation (77) and then foop = RT Fagy 88 4n equation (79). 3, Next, the loading ratio, f5/ts,. can be calculated using fe, as determined tn (2) above. 4, Following this, the diagonal tension factor, k, can be obtained from Fig. Cll.19. 5. Tho total axial stress in the longeron can now be written as tL fp t typ, _ Ki fy, cot D -aL Tete * +25 (1- KR a fy Cot Ge Be ~ > = (04) + 125 (1-Ka)Re where primary longeron stress fron Step (1) (+) tf tension and (-) 1f compression Ay, = Longeron Area and ky fgy cot a, Re (or Rp), hy and t are as previously defined. One set, subscript (1), 18 for the panels above the longeron and the other, (2) tor the panel below the longeron, 6. The average stress in the supporting ring (or frame) due to diagonal tension effects 1s given by the following formula (and note that this is different from the stringer case)kt, tana tee RG” Tag a pee lecsat (205) + 5 (1-k) where, as in equation (58), ‘This formula 1s similar to the one for the “effective” area of 2 single upright in a plane web beam system, (Art. C11.20), where @ = distance from c.g. of ring to the skin p = radius of gyration of the ring (cross- section) about an axis parallel to the skin. Bquation (105) assumes that Ky fg dy ty ete., are the sane for the panels on each side of the ring. If not, then sone average value should be used, or else fgg must be written as ‘the sun of 2 diagonal tension effects (for each side panel) as was done for the longeron in (8) above. ‘The "maximum" stress, fRGyy » in the ring will be, as before, eq. (59) Troma where Fe a is obtained from Fig. C11.21. 7. The next problem is the determination of ‘tho angle of diagonal tension, a. There are several ways in which a can be evaluated. Four are as follows a) When there 1s 8 significant amount of compressive strain, simply assume a= 459, b) When there 1s no, or very little, axial strain present (only shear) use Fig. 11.45 to obtain a. c) If sufficient tension stress (or strain) 1s present to prevent buckling, from eq. (78), then, of course, a = 00. 4) Calculate a by the method of successive] approximation as follows. This is the most tedious method and (a) and (>) above Will suffice in most cases, especially for preliminary design. 1.43 The angle, a, must satisfy the equation, trom Ref. (3), and this 1s different fron the case for stringers, e- tan® a = +i &- fg *B where, as before, from equation (94) . = 8} 8k or use Fig. C11.36 for bracketed expression. + sinza aaa] f, e, = (4, trom equation (204) ) tao fgg "EE (faq trom equation (205) ) Equation (106) must be solved by successive approximation as was done in the stringer systen discussion. 8. Strength checks can then be made as follows, using stress ratios. a) Longerons: f, 4 JDn L : pet BE Frio oe nore Foo 18 the toaturel” ertpeling strength and F, 1s obtained fron Fig. 11.38. Frequently, in the case of thicker longerons, the following 1s used as a strength check: f)* ton = Pat E Lo ‘Tat is, the primary and diagonal tension effects are simply added and checked against Foc. >) Rings: 4 PBE10 0 If the rings have stresses in then due to loads other than diagonal tension (1.e. bulkhead type loads, see Chapter A21), then an interaction’ equation is used. t tag + Ze Lo Feo Facus DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN Shear where fp is the stress due to loads Clips. ‘Skin other than diagonal tension effects. feat .s0p— Ring + cia o) skins Te Erte yedleasnm yp.) T ng Strength check: He 4 FLO — ing Crosa section Sullce t, ten Pate Ss KR eroter ins FeLO Longeron 1 2 oasa ins 7 crosseSection 1 7 0282 ‘he 60 in 208 i here Fis obtained from Fig. C11.42 Tesietint Cad more ea where . cae, 580 in =~ F 2016-26 Extruded Mu. Q Permanent Buckling: /=70, 000 psi ‘Detail "A" 20710, Sx t0® Usually no perm. duckling is alloned at limit load. fo Sein, 025" 7075-76 F, 1.0 SS —” ‘Longeron Sp.d. Cross-Section and Details of Members where Fe. 5 18 obtained tron Fig. Fig. CILLAT 11.46, P*P> T = 600,000 in. 1b. (reversible) 4) General Instability: V = 18,000 1b. (produces comp. in upper Cogs skin) 3 ark ‘Those are the loads at the middle of the : bay being checked. whore Fezygp 18 obtained fron Fig. 11.39. Tt ts recommended that a margin of safety of «15 to .20 be maintained here. Note in Pig. C11.39 that no effective skin is used and UAL Byoyg 18 BE OSE «3A. ©) Tho loads on rivets at splices, etc. are the same as for the stringer system, eq. (96) and (97). The procedure outYined in (1) to (8) above can best be illustrated through the use of an example problem. Fig. Cl1.37 Example Problem. Consider a longeron type fuselage structure| having @ cross-section as sho in Fig. C11.47, The details and section properties of the longerons and rings are included in the figure. The properties of the structural cross- section are given in Fig. (11.48. The properties shown are for the case where the Donding moment causes the upper skin to be in compression and the lower in tension. The upper skin thus buckles out early, as indicated. For this example problem assume that the applied loads are, M = 2,185,000 tn.1b, (compression in ‘upper skin) Effective Section in Bending ~ Skin Shown "Dashed" is not Effective Ty. A= 1895 in, * Cross-Section Area 830 tn.* Fig, C1148 1, Using the geometry and properties of Fig. 11.48 and the engineering theory of bending, we find the primary internal stresses to be, mm " Me, _ -2,135,000(35) ‘appar Long." 1885 87,200 pst (comp.) _T_. __600,000 tetop skin ~ Bat ~ 2(2830)(.025) ~ “#40 pet stat, + feeide skins eat ait a 18,000(2 x .60%83) 2 (1695)(.025) = 114780 Pst 2,185 ,000(-18.2: 1835 414,800 (tens.) f. ae ‘lower long.” T2a. Check top skin panel for fg. and k Use properties of Fig. C11.47 ana the applied loads to get Re, eq. (74). The skin compression stresses will be "fictitious" since the skin buckles out early, but will give the proper constant, B, for interaction. Assume fosegn at & point 2/3 up from upper Longeron to top surface as governing compressive buckling. MW . ~2,195,000(27.7) fee y, == = 81,200 ‘skin ~ T 1895 pail(oeer?) 600,000 Bleaso}(.0asy = 4240 pst Then, from eq. (73), T ts * Bat fo. 31,200 B= ge Aigo 7 7-35 For this upper panel, 5" long (d), 41.8" wide (n) and R = 0", the critical pure shear and compression buckling stresses can be found from buckling equations in Chapter C8. From Chapter C8, for our panel dimensions, Ke = 10 and kg = 12.83, thus 025 Fe, = 2_E10H 10,300,000 ¢ cor "Te (1 - 3") 5 © £12.85 x10,300,000 (025, “wie sy ES hence, from eq. (72) '= 2310 pst 2980 pst Foor Fecr _ 2310 4 Feop | 2960 774 ‘Then, from eq. (74) Boe eee and 105 (2980) = 313 psi Tagy = Re Fagy = tf 3a. The loading ratio, ¢-* , 1s top t, s_. 4240 ABO = 13.54 Tapp 313 4a. k is then, from (Sa) and Fig. Cll.19, for cuss. Next, repeat steps 2a—da for the side panels. This involves an arbitrary interaction to serve as a criterion for buckling under combined shear and compression. 2b. ‘The stresses at the top (upper longeron) and bottom (lover longeron) of the side panels are -37,200 (comp.) and 14,800 (tension) respectively. This gives an average "fictitious" stress of -11,200 axial and * 26,000 psi bending stress (equivalent). The actual reduced buckling stress for the side panels could be obtained fron an interaction for these axial and bending stresses. Another way 1s to use an axial stress only, "weighted" on the high side of the average, arbitrarily, to account for the effect of the bending stress. For this problem a compression stress value half-way between the average, =11,200, and the maximum, -37,200, is used. =11,200 ~ 37,200 ‘thus t, = =22:200 = 37,200 > = 24,200 pet ‘then, since f, = 11,780, fo . 24,200 = 72 5 A200, BS ty = 11,760 ~ 7-05 and, as before, and fegp = Re Fogy = «385 (2980) = 998 pst Bd, ‘The loading ratio 1s thon t, 's__ 11,780 = Ss 1780 2 aig Toop 998 4b. From Fig. C11.19, using 11.8 from (3b) k= .79 5. The upper longeron stress can then be gotten from eq. (104); + since >2,0 use 2,0 (See page C11. 33).cu1.as DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN cot a fro _ -27,900 (.967) . = FRO 2 =27,900 (1967) - _ oop65 tty am "rg ""E *~10.8 x 10 . +5(1-Ka)Re ‘then, (41.8) (025; in oo 7 279 (11,780)cot a, a8), aa (osy * (1-.79) (335) 87,200 - 2970 cot a, - 9810 cot dy éa, The stress in the rings supporting the upper skin is obtained from eq. (105). First, +81_(4240) tan a gag “ZA Tat Os = 20,600 tan 0 B(.oa5) * °F (O--! ‘As discussed earlier, this assumes the upper Panels on each side of the frame to have the ‘same shear stress, 6d, The stress in the rings supporting the side panels is, similarly, = —179(11780) tan oss 27 900 tan ay RG eB 5 (1.79) @ and a, in the above equations refer to the upper panels and side panels respectively. 7. Angle of diagonal tension. ‘The compression in the upper panel 1s so large that a, can be reasonably taken as 45°, For the side panel the same is probably ‘true, in the upper portion, but this will be checked using the method of successive approximation and equations (106), (105), (204) and (94), Assume a = 440 (and a = 45°), From Fig. 11.36 and equations above, . ts) 11,780), © = 1.08 GS) = 1.08 (e289) .coe1s En = 4B = ~.00861 - .00028(1.19) - .00095 (1.19) = -.00507 noe tS tent e & - fag te () tan" a 00215 00507) 1 00215 ~ (~.00262) + (2)*(.705) = 1,00 ‘Thus, a, = 45° which 18 close to the 44° assumed. Let a, = 45°. This bears out the statement that any significant compression stress (or strain) forces a towards 45°, Had there been no significant average axial strain (or stress) present a could be gotten from Fig. 011.45 which is based on pure shear (no axial loads present). Using this for the above side panels, for example, we would proceed as follows: B (ye . 10.3x10* f, ‘R =~ 11,780 ‘Then from Fig. C11.45, using the above para~ meters, a = 36° (for no compression) ‘Thus the effect of compression, as previously calculated, 1s significant in forcing a towards 45°, as frequently assumed for simplicity. 8. Now that a has been established as 45° for the upper skin panels and for the upper portion of the side skin panels, the stresses are available (from (5) and (6) ) and strength checks can be made. a. Longerons: 2970(1.0) ~ 9810(1.0) tp = -87,2003 fy» = - 12,780 Fog = 65,000 Using Fig. 011.38, and the formla for "0" in the figure, FL = Nx¢ = 27,700 (1.28) = 35,400 ‘then using the interaction equation suggested, 780 87,200 , 12,780 - gg Beioao * Getto = +985 = 1.0 (adequate)Rings: ‘The ring under the side panel skin will be most critical (fg 1s larger): tag = 27,900 (1.0) = 27,900 tROyax = 27/900 (2.15) = 30,500 (Using Fig. 11.21) Bryaj0 we & 927 ‘Then, using Fig. 011.38, For R = 30" N = 19,200 Fag = NXC = 19,200x 1.187 = 22,800 22,800 M8. =p - 1 = Bebo - Ls - 25 ‘Ra ‘Thus the ring ts not adequate. Either more area (thickness) is required or a closer ring spacing (or both) are needed ‘to lower fpg+ Skins: ‘The side panel has the highest stress and will be, therefore, more critical from an ultimate shear strength than the top panel. fs = 11,780 pst From Fig. (11.42, for k = .79 and Fry = 72,000, Foy), = 25,000 pst. M.S. = (25,000/11,780) ~ 1 = 1.13. Check for Permanent Buckling Usually there ie the requirement that no permanent skin buckles shall occur at Limit load. This is checked as follows: ts__ 11,780 BIO = 7,040 pst Terimtt * Using Fig. c11.46 4 Foor X10" __4 (2,980) x 10° Be X Foy = 10.8x10°X62,000 1.87 2.8, Fi 2,8(2980) = 8,340 pst PB cu.at e. General Instability Using Fig. C11.39, with Prong * +554 and Py, = -565 (using no effective skin, per the figure) +39 (Pp) g0(,865)"/* ea ere * 0° = extash* GO x lot = 11.35 From Fig. 011-39 Fapygn, = 8-0%EX107* = 80,900 psi aus Fornst 30,900 18. - = 1162 fe 1,700" " " Gares) t. Rivets ‘The rivet requirements can be checked in ‘the same manner as was done for the stringer ‘type structure along any skin splices and for the tension field "prying" forces. ‘The load transferred between the longeron and the ring can be calculated as Pag = tra XARGg + trom (8b) and (6a) 27,900 x .0285 = 795 1b. ‘Thais load 1s actually carried by the rivets attaching the outer ring flange to the longeron flange (next to the skin) and also by the gusset action of the skin at the ring-longeron Junction. ‘wo fasteners, staggered if necessary, should be used to attach the outer ring flange to the longeron Tlange. (See discussion of Joggles in Chapter D3). 11,38 Summary. From these examples involving both stringer and longeron type construction it can be seen that the effect, of axial compression stresses (or strains) along with the shear stresses in ‘the panels 1s two-fold: a) It brings about, through interaction, earlier buckling of the panels than would result from shear stresses alone. ‘The result 1s, of course, a higher value of k and, hence, of all the on- suing loads and stresses that are a function of k.cun.as >) The angle of diagonal tension 1s forced to approach 45°, more than would result from shear stresses only. ‘The effect of tension stresses is just the opposite and can thus be conservatively” ignored, or evaluated 1f desired. From a time-saving standpoint, in pre liminary design, an arbitrarily large value of k and an angle of diagonal tension of 45° can de assumed where significant axial compression strains are present. ‘The exact magnitude of the various diagons: tension effects throughout a network of skin panels defies simple evaluation from an analytical standpoint. This is particularly ‘true when both shear stresses and axial. stresses change from panel to panel as in most practical structures and loadings. No simple analytic expressions are available. But sone rational approach 1s necessary to complete the design, or specimens for test programs, and the approaches given in this chapter represent ono such procedure. If margins are extrenely small, element tests for substantion are in order. The reader 1s encouraged to consult ‘the references for a more thorough understanding of the basic theory and its limitations, particularly with regards to areas where sub- stantiating test data 1s relatively meager. The stringer system is usually found, for example, in fuselage structures where there are relatively few large "cut-outs" to disrupt the stringer continuity. This is more typical of transport, bomber and other cargo carrying aireraft. The longeron type structure is more efficient and suitable where a large mumber ‘“quick-access" panels and doors and other "cut-outs" are necessary to service various systems rapidly. These would "chop-up" a stringer system rather severely, making 1t quite expensive from both a weight and manu facturing standpoint. Therefore, longeron systems are more usually found in fighter and attack type aircraft, and in others with un usual features. There are also, of course, other factors influencing the choice of structural arrangenent. Sone further notes concerning this general subject are included in Chapter D3. This includes “beef-up" of panels and axial members bordering cut-outs or non-structural doors, Which 1s also related to “end-bay" effects discussed in C11.29. * Its not conservative to ignore the reducing effect of tension yresses on k if the compression stresses due to diagonal tension are being relied upon to reduce any primary load tension stresses in stringers or longerons. DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FIELD DESIGN 11.39 Problems for Part 2. 1. In the example problem of art. c11.34, What M.S. would exist if the ring were made of .032 2024 (instead of .040). (assume a = 45°). In the example problem of Art. 011.34, how wide could the ring spacing, d, be made and still show a positive M.S. for the ring. (Assume a = 45°.) 3. In the example problem of Art. C11.34, how much additional torsion, T, could be applied before the ring would show a M.S. = 0, (Assume a = 45°.) 4, Repeat example problem Art. (11.34 using applied loads M = 2,600,000 in./1d. T=0 ¥ = 40,000 1b. Assume the general section properties (I and neutral axis location) remain the same as in C11.34. In the example problem of art. 011.37 a) What (standard) gauge of 7075-76 sheet aluminum would the ring have to be to show a minimum positive M.S. >) Wat ring spacing, 4, would be required for the .0s2" ring to show a minimum positive M.S. (4.5. ~ 0) Repeat the example problem of art. C11.37 using as applied loads. = 2,400,000 in./1D. 0 20] fey Kot 10 ° 2 4, 6 8 10 Fig, C11.41b 2024-79 Aluminum Alloy. o yt = 62 ksi. Dashed Line is Allowable Yield Stress.11.53cu. 54 DIAGONAL SEMI-TENSION FYELD DESIGN 2 3 45e7a01 2 3 4567801 _2 3 4567001 _2 3 4 567601 _2_ 3 4567801 OTE: 1) This curve good for flat or curved panels, Conventional panel stiffening members must be attached to edge members. 2) Curve does not apply to panels with stringers, 3) Curve may be used for any material at any temperature provided proper values of Fspq » Bg & Fey are used a FcR = Panel Shear Buckling Stret Ee = Modulus of Elastlelty in Compression Fey = Compression Yield Stress “0 3 10 310 30 100 300 1000 4x F sop *10° ex Fey Fig. 11.46