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Types of listening
Here are six types of listening, starting with basic discrimination of sounds
and ending in deep communication.
Discriminative listening
Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the
difference between difference sounds is identified. If you cannot hear
differences, then you cannot make sense of the meaning that is expressed
by such differences.
We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language early,
and later are unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other
languages. This is one reason why a person from one country finds it
difficult to speak another language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish
the subtle sounds that are required in that language.
Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in
another person's voice will be less likely to be able to discern the emotions
the other person is experiencing.
Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much
through body language. We thus also need to be able to discriminate
between muscle and skeletal movements that signify different meanings.
Comprehension listening
The next step beyond discriminating between different sound and sights is
to make sense of them. To comprehend the meaning requires first having a
lexicon of words at our fingertips and also all rules of grammar and syntax
by which we can understand what others are saying.
The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication,
and an understanding of body language helps us understand what the other
person is really meaning.
In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and
comprehension often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a
long spiel.
Comprehension listening is also known as content listening, informative
listening and full listening.
Biased listening
Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to
hear, typically misinterpreting what the other person says based on the
stereotypes and other biases that they have. Such biased listening is often
very evaluative in nature.
Evaluative listening
In evaluative listening, or critical listening, we make judgments about what
the other person is saying. We seek to assess the truth of what is being
said. We also judge what they say against our values, assessing them as
good or bad, worthy or unworthy.
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Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is trying

to persuade us, perhaps to change our behavior and maybe even to change
our beliefs. Within this, we also discriminate between subtleties of language
and comprehend the inner meaning of what is said. Typically also we weigh
up the pros and cons of an argument, determining whether it makes sense
logically as well as whether it is helpful to us.
Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive
listening.
Appreciative listening
In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate,
for example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use
appreciative listening when we are listening to good music, poetry or
maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.
Sympathetic listening
In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this
concern in the way we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their
ills and happiness at their joys.
Empathetic listening
When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer
understand how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination
and close attention to the nuances of emotional signals. When we are being
truly empathetic, we actually feel what they are feeling.
In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we
also need to demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them,
asking sensitively and in a way that encourages self-disclosure.
Therapeutic listening
In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing
with the speaker but also to use this deep connection in order to help the
speaker understand, change or develop in some way.
This not only happens when you go to see a therapist but also in many
social situations, where friends and family seek to both diagnose problems
from listening and also to help the speaker cure themselves, perhaps by
some cathartic process. This also happens in work situations, where
managers, HR people, trainers and coaches seek to help employees learn
and develop.
Dialogic listening
The word 'dialogue' stems from the Greek words 'dia', meaning 'through'
and 'logos' meaning 'words'. Thus dialogic listening mean learning through
conversation and an engaged interchange of ideas and information in which
we actively seek to learn more about the person and how they think.
Dialogic listening is sometimes known as 'relational listening'.
Relationship listening
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Sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop or

sustain a relationship. This is why lovers talk for hours and attend closely to
what each other has to say when the same words from someone else would
seem to be rather boring.
Relationship listening is also important in areas such as negotiation and
sales, where it is helpful if the other person likes you and trusts you.

Eight barriers to effective listening

More attention is usually paid to making people better speakers or writers (the
"supply side" of the communication chain) rather than on making them better
listeners or readers (the "demand side"). The most direct way to improve
communication is by learning to listen more effectively.
Nearly every aspect of human life could be improved by better listening --
from family matters to corporate business affairs to international relations.
Most of us are terrible listeners. We're such poor listeners, in fact, that we
don't know how much we're missing.
The following are eight common barriers to good listening, with suggestions
for overcoming each.

#1 - Knowing the answer

"Knowing the answer" means that you think you already know what the
speaker wants to say, before she actually finishes saying it. You might then
impatiently cut her off or try to complete the sentence for her.
Even more disruptive is interrupting her by saying that you with disagree
her, but without letting her finish saying what it is that you think you
disagree with. That's a common problem when a discussion gets heated, and
which causes the discussion to degrade quickly.
By interrupting the speaker before letting her finish, you're essentially
saying that you don't value what she's saying. Showing respect to the
speaker is a crucial element of good listening.
The "knowing the answer" barrier also causes the listener to pre-judge what
the speaker is saying -- a kind of closed-mindedness.
A good listener tries to keep an open, receptive mind. He looks for
opportunities to stretch his mind when listening, and to acquire new ideas or
insights, rather than reinforcing existing points of view.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

A simple strategy for overcoming the "knowing the answer" barrier is to wait
for three seconds after the speaker finishes before beginning your reply.
Three seconds can seem like a very long time during a heated discussion,
and following this rule also means that you might have to listen for a long
time before the other person finally stops speaking. That's usually a good
thing, because it gives the speaker a chance to fully vent his or her feelings.
Another strategy is to schedule a structured session during which only one
person speaks while the other listens. You then switch roles in the next
session.
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It's worth emphasizing that the goal of good listening is simply to listen -- nothing
more and nothing less.
During the session when you play the role of listener, you are only allowed
to ask supportive questions or seek clarification of the speaker's points. You
may not make any points of your own during this session. That can be
tricky, because some people's "questions" tend to be more like statements.
Keeping the mind open during conversation requires discipline and practice.
One strategy is to make a commitment to learn at least one unexpected,
worthwhile thing during every conversation. The decision to look for
something new and interesting helps make your mind more open and
receptive while listening.
Using this strategy, most people will probably discover at least one gem --
and often more than one -- no matter whom the conversation is with.

#2 - Trying to be helpful
Another significant barrier to good listening is "trying to be helpful".
Although trying to be helpful may seem beneficial, it interferes with listening
because the listener is thinking about how to solve what he perceives to be
the speaker's problem. Consequently, he misses what the speaker is actually
sayin
old Zen proverb says, "When walking, walk. When eating, eat." In other
words, give your whole attention to whatever you're doing. It's worth
emphasizing that the goal of good listening is simply to listen -- nothing
more and nothing less. Interrupting the speaker in order to offer advice
disrupts the flow of conversation, and impairs the listener's ability to
understand the speaker's experience.
Many people have a "messiah complex" and try to fix or rescue other people
as a way of feeling fulfilled. Such people usually get a kick out of being
problem-solvers, perhaps because it gives them a sense of importance.
However, that behavior can be a huge hurdle to good listening.
Trying to be helpful while listening also implies that you've made certain
judgments about the speaker. That can raise emotional barriers to
communication, as judgments can mean that the listener doesn't have
complete understanding or respect for the speaker.
In a sense, giving a person your undivided attention while listening is the
purest act of love you can offer. Because human beings are such social
animals, simply knowing that another person has listened and understood is
empowering. Often that's all a person needs in order to solve the problems
on his or her own.
If you as a listener step in and heroically offer your solution, you're implying
that you're more capable of seeing the solution than the speaker is.
If the speaker is describing a difficult or long-term problem, and you offer a
facile, off-the-cuff solution, you're probably forgetting that he or she may
have already considered your instant solution long before.
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Strategy for overcoming this barrier

Schedule a separate session for giving advice. Many people forget that it's
rude to offer advice when the speaker isn't asking for it. Even if the advice is
good.
In any case, a person can give better advice if he first listens carefully and
understands the speaker's complete situation before trying to offer advice.
If you believe you have valuable advice that the speaker isn't likely to know,
then first politely ask if you may offer what you see as a possible solution.
Wait for the speaker to clearly invite you to go ahead before you offer your
advice.

#3 - Treating discussion as competition

Some people feel that agreeing with the speaker during a heated discussion
is a sign of weakness. They feel compelled to challenge every point the
speaker makes, even if they inwardly agree. Discussion then becomes a
contest, with a score being kept for who wins the most points by arguing.
Treating discussion as competition is one of the most serious barriers to
good listening. It greatly inhibits the listener from stretching and seeing a
different point of view. It can also be frustrating for the speaker.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

Although competitive debate serves many useful purposes, and can be great
fun, debating should be scheduled for a separate session of its own, where it
won't interfere with good listening.
Except in a very rare case where you truly disagree with absolutely
everything the speaker is saying, you should avoid dismissing her
statements completely. Instead, affirm the points of agreement.
Try to voice active agreement whenever you do agree, and be very specific
about what you disagree with.
A good overall listening principle is to be generous with the speaker. Offer
affirmative feedback as often as you feel comfortable doing so. Generosity
also entails clearly voicing exactly where you disagree, as well as where you
agree.

#4 - Trying to influence or impress

Because good listening depends on listening just for the sake of listening,
any ulterior motive will diminish the effectiveness of the listener. Examples
of ulterior motives are trying to impress or to influence the speaker.
A person who has an agenda other than simply to understand what the
speaker is thinking and feeling will not be able to pay complete attention
while listening.
Psychologists have pointed out that people can understand language about
two or three times faster than they can speak. That implies that a listener
has a lot of extra mental "bandwidth" for thinking about other things while
listening. A good listener knows how to use that spare capacity to think
about what the speaker is talking about.
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A listener with an ulterior motive, such as to influence or impress the

speaker, will probably use the spare capacity to think about his "next move"
in the conversation -- his rebuttal or what he will say next when the speaker
is finished -- instead of focusing on understanding the speaker.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

"Trying to influence or impress" is a difficult barrier to overcome, because
motives usually can't just be willed away. Deciding not to have a motive
usually only drives it beneath your awareness so that it becomes a hidden
motive.
One strategy is to make note of your internal motives while you're listening.
As you notice your motives in progressively closer and finer detail, you'll
eventually become more fully conscious of ulterior motives, and they may
even unravel, allowing you to let go and listen just for the sake of listening.

#5 - Reacting to red flag words

Words can provoke a reaction in the listener that wasn't necessarily what the
speaker intended. When that happens the listener won't be able to hear or
pay full attention to what the speaker is saying.
Red flag words or expressions trigger an unexpectedly strong association in
the listener's mind, often because of the listener's private beliefs or
experiences.
Technology is often seen as the driver of improved communications, but
technology, in itself, creates noise and discord as much as it melds minds.
Good listeners have learned how to minimize the distraction caused by red
flag words, but a red flag word will make almost any listener momentarily
unable to hear with full attention.
An important point is that the speaker may not have actually meant the
word in the way that the listener understood. However, the listener will be
so distracted by the red flag that she will not notice what the speaker
actually did mean to say.
Red flag words don't always provoke emotional reactions. Sometimes they
just cause slight disagreements or misunderstandings. Whenever a listener
finds himself disagreeing or reacting, he should be on the lookout for red
flag words or expressions.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

When a speaker uses a word or expression that triggers a reflexive
association, you as a good listener can ask the speaker to confirm whether
she meant to say what you think she said.
When you hear a word or expression that raises a red flag, try to stop the
conversation, if possible, so that you don't miss anything that the speaker
says. Then ask the speaker to clarify and explain the point in a different
way.
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#6 - Believing in language
One of the trickiest barriers is "believing in language" -- a misplaced trust in
the precision of words.
Language is a guessing game. Speaker and listener use language to predict
what each other is thinking. Meaning must always be actively negotiated.
It's a fallacy to think that a word's dictionary definition can be transmitted
directly through using the word. An example of that fallacy is revealed in the
statement, "I said it perfectly clearly, so why didn't you understand?". Of
course, the naive assumption here is that words that are clear to one person
are clear to another, as if the words themselves contained absolute
meaning.
Words have a unique effect in the mind of each person, because each
person's experience is unique. Those differences can be small, but the
overall effect of the differences can become large enough to cause
misunderstanding.
A worse problem is that words work by pointing at experiences shared by
speaker and listener.
If the listener hasn't had the experience that the speaker is using the word
to point at, then the word points at nothing. Worse still, the listener may
quietly substitute a different experience to match the word.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

You as a good listener ought to practice mistrusting the meaning of words.
Ask the speaker supporting questions to cross-verify what the words mean
to him.
Don't assume that words or expressions mean exactly the same to you as
they do to the speaker. You can stop the speaker and question the meaning
of a word. Doing that too often also becomes an impediment, of course, but
if you suspect that the speaker's usage of the word might be slightly
different, you ought to take time to explore that, before the difference leads
to misunderstanding.

#7 - Mixing up the forest and the trees

A common saying refers to an inability "to see the forest for the trees".
Sometimes people pay such close attention to detail, that they miss the
overall meaning or context of a situation.
Some speakers are what we will call "trees" people. They prefer concrete,
detailed explanations. They might explain a complex situation just by
naming or describing its characteristics in no particular order.
Other speakers are "forest" people. When they have to explain complex
situations, they prefer to begin by giving a sweeping, abstract, bird's-eye
view.
Good explanations usually involve both types, with the big-picture "forest"
view providing context and overall meaning, and the specific "trees" view
providing illuminating examples.
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When trying to communicate complex information, the speaker needs to

accurately shift between forest and trees in order to show how the details fit
into the big picture. However, speakers often forget to use "turn indicators"
to signal that they are shifting from one to another, which can cause
confusion or misunderstanding for the listener.
Each style is prone to weaknesses in communication. For example, "trees"
people often have trouble telling their listener which of the details are more
important and how those details fit into the overall context. They can also
fail to tell their listener that they are making a transition from one thought
to another -- a problem that quickly shows up in their writing, as well.
"Forest" people, on the other hand, often baffle their listeners with obscure
abstractions. They tend to prefer using concepts, but sometimes those
concepts are so removed from the world of the senses that their listeners
get lost.
"Trees" people commonly accuse "forest" people of going off on tangents or
speaking in unwarranted generalities. "Forest" people commonly feel that
"trees" people are too narrow and literal.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

You as a good listener can explicitly ask the speaker for overall context or
for specific exemplary details, as needed. You should cross-verify by asking
the speaker how the trees fit together to form the forest. Having an accurate
picture of how the details fit together is crucial to understanding the
speaker's thoughts.
An important point to remember is that a "trees" speaker may become
confused or irritated if you as the listener try to supply missing context, and
a "forest" speaker may become impatient or annoyed if you try to supply
missing examples.
A more effective approach is to encourage the speaker to supply missing
context or examples by asking him open-ended questions.
Asking open-ended questions when listening is generally more effective than
asking closed-ended ones.
For example, an open-ended question such as "Can you give me a concrete
example of that?" is less likely to cause confusion or disagreement than a
more closed-ended one such as "Would such-and-such be an example of
what you're talking about?"
Some speakers may even fail to notice that a closed-ended question is
actually a question. They may then disagree with what they thought was a
statement of opinion, and that will cause distracting friction or confusion.
The strategy of asking open-ended questions, instead of closed-ended or
leading questions, is an important overall component of good listening.

#8 - Over-splitting or over-lumping
Speakers have different styles of organizing thoughts when explaining
complex situations. Some speakers, "splitters", tend to pay more attention
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to how things are different. Other speakers, "lumpers", tend to look for how
things are alike. Perhaps this is a matter of temperament.
If the speaker and listener are on opposite sides of the splitter-lumper
spectrum, the different mental styles can cause confusion or lack of
understanding.
A listener who is an over-splitter can inadvertently signal that he disagrees
with the speaker over everything, even if he actually agrees with most of
what the speaker says and only disagrees with a nuance or point of
emphasis.
That can cause "noise" and interfere with the flow of conversation. Likewise,
a listener who is an over-lumper can let crucial differences of opinion go
unchallenged, which can lead to a serious misunderstanding later. The
speaker will mistakenly assume that the listener has understood and agreed.
It's important to achieve a good balance between splitting (critical thinking)
and lumping (metaphorical thinking). Even more important is for the listener
to recognize when the speaker is splitting and when she is lumping.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

An approach to overcoming this barrier when listening is to ask questions to
determine more precisely where you agree or disagree with what the
speaker is saying, and then to explicitly point that out, when appropriate.
For example, you might say, "I think we have differing views on several
points here, but do we at least agree that ... ?" or "We agree with each other
on most of this, but I think we have different views in the area of ...."

Goals in listening

There is no such thing as a worthless conversation provided you know what to listen for and
questions are the breath of life for a conversation. -- James Nathan Miller

The shortest distance between two communication points is shared meaning – why are we
communicating at all? To listen means to receive the information unfiltered and respond
appropriately to the message. The goal of the listener is to get the message. Listen for the intent.
Listen for the action. What does the person really want you to know, do or think as a result of the
dialogue?

To reach the goal an effective listener must:

1. Attend – Make a conscious decision to listen. Make eye contact and give full attention to
the speaker. Concentrate on the message and block out all distractions.
2. Engage – Demonstrate interest and encourage the speaker through verbal and non-verbal
cueing. Show an openness toward the speaker and prompt by nodding or saying things
like “please continue…” or “go on…”.
3. Suspend – Exercise patience and suspend judgment about what is being said. Don’t try to
evaluate whether the speaker is saying the right thing or saying it the right way. Hear the
message as it is being delivered and ask for clarification if necessary without accusing,
blaming or demanding.
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4. Learn – Be open to ideas, views and opinions that may differ from your own. Every
conversation is a learning opportunity if you use it gain insight and perspective about the
speaker rather than using the speaker’s words to create a platform for your own thoughts.
5. Connect – Check in with the speaker. It allows for building collaboratively toward the
message learning along the way. Find the connections to the speaker’s ideas, their intents
and most importantly the actions that they want in return. Use questions for clarification
to build toward the message.

To build connection the listener should ask about the speaker’s GOAL:

• What are we trying to accomplish?

• How much time do we have (you need) for discussion?
• How quickly do you need a response?
• Can you give me a headline?
• Is there a particular theme that I should listen for?

Ask questions for clarification of the speaker’s INTENT:

• Do you need me simply to listen?

• Would you like my opinion?
• Are you asking for assistance?
• Do you need my agreement?

Ask for clarification of terms or WORDS:

• When you say report do you mean a formal document or a status update?
• You mentioned campaign…is that the marketing or the giving campaign?
• When you said best solution…are you speaking in terms of price or quality?
• When you say Friday do you mean this Friday or next Friday?

Summarize the speaker’s MESSAGE?

• If I understand you correctly…

• You’ve outlined our next steps for the project…
• What I heard you say was…
• To recap the conversation…

Confirm understanding of speaker’s need for ACTION or RESPONSE?

• How would like for me to proceed?

• What would like for me to do with the information?
• What would you like (do you need) me to do or not do?
• My role then would be to…

As you listen with purpose and ask linking rather than leading questions, the answers you receive
will signal how close you are to the heart of the speaker’s message and what the speaker wants
and needs from you in return.
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Speaking and planning and audience awareness in listening

Know the needs of your audience and match your contents to their needs. Know your material thoroug
what you have to say in a logical sequence. Ensure your speech will be captivating to your audience as well as worth th
and attention. Practice and rehearse your speech at home or where you can be at ease and comfortable, in front of a mir
family, friends or colleagues. Use a tape-recorder and listen to yourself. Videotape your presentation and analyze it. Kn
your strong and weak points are. Emphasize your strong points during your presentation.

When you are presenting in front of an audience, you are performing as an actor is on stage. How you are being perceiv
important. Dress appropriately for the occasion. Be solemn if your topic is serious. Present the desired image to your au
Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident, proud, but not arrogant. Remain calm. Appear relaxed, even if you feel nervous.
slowly, enunciate clearly, and show appropriate emotion and feeling relating to your topic. Establish rapport with your
Speak to the person farthest away from you to ensure your voice is loud enough to project to the back of the room. Vary
of your voice and dramatize if necessary. If a microphone is available, adjust and adapt your voice accordingly.

Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand gesture or facia
expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down and reading from a prepared speech. Use audio-
or props for enhancement if appropriate and necessary. Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint we
your presentation. Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of animation, sound clips, or gaudy colors whic
inappropriate for your topic. Do not torture your audience by putting a lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead an
it out to them.

Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your audience effectively. The material
present orally should have the same ingredients as that which are required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical pro
from INTRODUCTION (Thesis statement) to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate and up-to-date informatio
CONCLUSION (re-state thesis, summary, and logical conclusion).

Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite acceptable to glance at your notes infrequen
loudly and clearly. Sound confident. Do not mumble. If you made an error, correct it, and continue. No need to make ex
apologize profusely.

Maintain sincere eye contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look straight into the eyes of a person i
audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye contact with a number of people in the audience, and every now and t
at the whole audience while speaking. Use your eye contact to make everyone in your audience feel involved.

Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their reactions, adjust and adapt. If what you have prepared
obviously not getting across to your audience, change your strategy mid-stream if you are well prepared to do so. Reme
communication is the key to a successful presentation. If you are short of time, know what can be safely left out. If you
time, know what could be effectively added. Always be prepared for the unexpected.

Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race through your presentation and leav
audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of breath.

Add humor whenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout your entire presentation. Rememb
interesting speech makes time fly, but a boring speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is the s

When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessary equipment is set up and in good work
prior to the presentation. If possible, have an emergency backup system readily available. Check out the location ahead
ensure seating arrangements for audience, whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of projection screen, sound system
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suitable for your presentation.

Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead of time that you will be giving out
of your presentation so that they will not waste time taking unnecessary notes during your presentation.

Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer or the microwave oven clock to time your presentation when preparing it at h
as you don't use unnecessary words in your written paper, you don't bore your audience with repetitious or unnecessary
your oral presentation. To end your presentation, summarize your main points in the same way as you normally do in th
CONCLUSION of a written paper. Remember, however, that there is a difference between spoken words appropriate fo
and formally written words intended for reading. Terminate your presentation with an interesting remark or an appropri
line. Leave your listeners with a positive impression and a sense of completion. Do not belabor your closing remarks. T
audience and sit down.

Have the written portion of your assignment or report ready for your instructor if required.

Conducting an interview

Introduction

Interviews are particularly useful for getting the story behind a participant's experiences. The
interviewer can pursue in-depth information around a topic. Interviews may be useful as follow-
up to certain respondents to questionnaires, e.g., to further investigate their responses. Usually
open-ended questions are asked during interviews.

Before you start to design your interview questions and process, clearly articulate to yourself
what problem or need is to be addressed using the information to be gathered by the interviews.
This helps you keep clear focus on the intent of each question.

Preparation for Interview

1. Choose a setting with little distraction. Avoid loud lights or noises, ensure the
interviewee is comfortable (you might ask them if they are), etc. Often, they may feel
more comfortable at their own places of work or homes.
2. Explain the purpose of the interview.
3. Address terms of confidentiality. Note any terms of confidentiality. (Be careful here.
Rarely can you absolutely promise anything. Courts may get access to information, in
certain circumstances.) Explain who will get access to their answers and how their
answers will be analyzed. If their comments are to be used as quotes, get their written
permission to do so. See getting informed consent.
4. Explain the format of the interview. Explain the type of interview you are conducting
and its nature. If you want them to ask questions, specify if they're to do so as they have
them or wait until the end of the interview.
5. Indicate how long the interview usually takes.
6. Tell them how to get in touch with you later if they want to.
7. Ask them if they have any questions before you both get started with the interview.
8. Don't count on your memory to recall their answers. Ask for permission to record the
interview or bring along someone to take notes.

Types of Interviews
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1. Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined questions are asked, in order to

remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during
the interview, the interviewer "goes with the flow".
2. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the
same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides
more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and
adaptability in getting information from the interviewee./LI>
3. Standardized, open-ended interview - here, the same open-ended questions are asked to
all interviewees (an open-ended question is where respondents are free to choose how to
answer the question, i.e., they don't select "yes" or "no" or provide a numeric rating, etc.);
this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.
4. Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are asked the same questions
and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is
useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

Types of Topics in Questions

Patton notes six kinds of questions. One can ask questions about:
1. Behaviors - about what a person has done or is doing
2. Opinions/values - about what a person thinks about a topic
3. Feelings - note that respondents sometimes respond with "I think ..." so be careful to note
that you're looking for feelings
4. Knowledge - to get facts about a topic
5. Sensory - about what people have seen, touched, heard, tasted or smelled
6. Background/demographics - standard background questions, such as age, education,
etc.

Note that the above questions can be asked in terms of past, present or future.

Sequence of Questions

1. Get the respondents involved in the interview as soon as possible.

2. Before asking about controversial matters (such as feelings and conclusions), first
ask about some facts. With this approach, respondents can more easily engage in the
interview before warming up to more personal matters.
3. Intersperse fact-based questions throughout the interview to avoid long lists of fact-
based questions, which tends to leave respondents disengaged.
4. Ask questions about the present before questions about the past or future. It's
usually easier for them to talk about the present and then work into the past or future.
5. The last questions might be to allow respondents to provide any other information
they prefer to add and their impressions of the interview.

Wording of Questions

1. Wording should be open-ended. Respondents should be able to choose their own terms
when answering questions.
2. Questions should be as neutral as possible. Avoid wording that might influence
answers, e.g., evocative, judgmental wording.
 14

3. Questions should be asked one at a time.

4. Questions should be worded clearly. This includes knowing any terms particular to the
program or the respondents' culture.
5. Be careful asking "why" questions. This type of question infers a cause-effect
relationship that may not truly exist. These questions may also cause respondents to feel
defensive, e.g., that they have to justify their response, which may inhibit their responses
to this and future questions.

Conducting Interview

1. Occasionally verify the tape recorder (if used) is working.

2. Ask one question at a time.
3. Attempt to remain as neutral as possible. That is, don't show strong emotional
reactions to their responses. Patton suggests to act as if "you've heard it all before."
4. Encourage responses with occasional nods of the head, "uh huh"s, etc.
5. Be careful about the appearance when note taking. That is, if you jump to take a note,
it may appear as if you're surprised or very pleased about an answer, which may
influence answers to future questions.
6. Provide transition between major topics, e.g., "we've been talking about (some topic)
and now I'd like to move on to (another topic)."
7. Don't lose control of the interview. This can occur when respondents stray to another
topic, take so long to answer a question that times begins to run out, or even begin asking
questions to the interviewer.

Immediately After Interview

1. Verify if the tape recorder, if used, worked throughout the interview.

2. Make any notes on your written notes, e.g., to clarify any scratchings, ensure pages are
numbered, fill out any notes that don't make senses, etc.
3. Write down any observations made during the interview. For example, where did the
interview occur and when, was the respondent particularly nervous at any time? Were
there any surprises during the interview? Did the tape recorder break?

PARTICIPATINGIN DEBATES

Don't Debatethe Player, Debatethe Claim

Five tips to verbally own your opponent with respect, grace and heavily veiled contempt.

1) Alwaysrespectyouropponent

You will never persuade your opponent to agree with your position. Logicians who
happen to be watching your debate could prove with absolute certainty that your
opponent's position is completely fallacious by every known rule of human logic, and
your opponent won't budge. Like you, people are set in their ways and have heard years
 15

of biased opinions to cement their own worldview. They may change their minds
eventually (remember, Ronald Reagan was once a Democrat and David Horowitz was
once an Afrocentric Communist), but it will certainly not happen during your debate.

Respect this reality. You can only hope to persuade your audience, and you should
strive to do so. Resist the urge to insult, disparage, or otherwise malign your opponent or
any other person.

Both sides should seek to debate content, and not character. When your opponent uses
ad hominem arguments against you, however, it can work to your advantage. Often
times it is a signal that your arguments are so convincing that your adversary must
launch personal assaults due to his inability to rebut your message. We at PI know this
very well, as we are subject to innumerable ad hominem attacks. The fine members of
fark, reddit, and other online news communities call us right-wing, Ayn Rand-loving
extremists. The fine members of FreeRepublic and other conservative news forums call
us lefty communists. Others say, "What can a bunch of twentysomethings know about
economics (or politics) anyway?”

The ad hominem argument proves that your opponent has already exhausted all logic
and is resorting to slander instead. It should be taken as a compliment. And it should
most certainly not be reciprocated.

Your refusal to engage in mudslinging and namecalling will likely provoke ire in your
rival, and will certainly further allow you to distinguish yourself in the eyes of your
audience as the voice of reason.

2) Findcommonground,and stakea claimon it

You should make every effort to base your arguments off of commonly-shared
viewpoints. This not only persuades a greater number of your audience, but also
damages your opponents' arguments more severely.

This is one of the most under-utlized techniques in today's political scene. Socialists
accuse free market supporters of hating poor people, and affirmative action opponents
of hating minorities. Likewise, conservatives accuse decriminalization supporters of
subsidizing pothead losers, and opponents of censorship as being pro-immorality. The
list could go on.
 16

Instead of becoming enraged, or disregarding your opponent as a crackpot idiot, you

should make your opponent look foolish by showing yourself to be aware of the same
concerns that he is. Free-market proponents should make strides to explain how
economic growth benefits the poor, affirmative action opponents should explain how the
discriminatory policy actually hurts minorities, and decriminalization supports should
explain how they support the rights of productive citizens, and not potheads.

Finding common ground enhances your persuasive power. Your audience is more likely
to agree with your reasoning when it is based off of commonly-held beliefs, and your
opponent will be categorically denied the ability to accuse you of not caring.

3) Concedewell-reasonedpoints

There are generally two methods by which you can challenge an argument. First is by
challenging its logical structure, either by its premises, conclusions, or use of various
logical fallacies. This is effective when you are debating people like your local college
student who sputters nothing but arguments dripping with fallacious reasoning. However,
when you are debating more well-reasoned individuals, as you should be doing, you
may need to apply the second technique, which is to concede a point yet offer a stronger
alternative.

An example can be provided by the work of this organization. We have a policy position
which is opposed to the inheritance tax, yet we recently published a learned work
arguing for the inheritance tax, because we believed that the argument itself was a good
one. The argument was that because heirs do nothing productive that directly warrants
their wealth, taxation of their financial windfall is a relatively more productive exercise
than taxing the actual earned income of individuals, which is productively earned. It is a
solid point, which we concede. Yet we believe a larger, more persuasive principle is that
the leaving of an inheritance is the free choice of the individual who earned it - no
different than his choice to, say, blow it on seven Bentleys - and that the usurpation of
that free choice indeed violates the freedoms of those who actually did earn it.

Many issues in public policy have intelligent positions on both sides, and you will need to
offer a compelling case why your position is more relevant and beneficial than your
opponent's. If your points are argued well enough, they should be able to stand down
any of your opponent's points, even without directly attacking his. Such concessions not
only fail to hurt you, but they also improve your standing in the eyes of your audience. It
 17

is a skilled debater who can graciously concede his opponent's point without skipping a
beat.

It will be impossible to be prepared for every argument your opponent makes. He will
surely cite some obscure statistic or random study, or even make an a priori argument
you've never heard. Rather than accuse him of being a liar, you can confidently reply,
"Even if that were true, it still doesn't change the reality that..."

4) Don't confusepassionwith hatred

It is easy to agree with the first point about respecting one's opponent. The easiest way
to respect someone's viewpoint that you disagree with is to shut up and not say anything
about it. But debating is necessary for the health of American democracy, and those in a
debate might likewise find it difficult to passionately advocate a position without seeming
too harsh on its supporters.

Your denunciation of your opponent's position should be as passionate as necessary, as

long as it doesn't denounce the person directly. There is nothing wrong with pointing out
the stupidity or ignorance of a policy, especially if you can prove it. Respecting your
opponent does not mean respecting what he believes or what he promotes.

No matter what the subject matter or contentiousness of the debate, remain positive in
your speech and steer the conversation toward commonalities and possible solutions.

5) Sometimes,the best debatingtechniqueis not to debateat all

The following settings are wholly inappropriate in which to engage in political discourse:

a) The workplace.Unless you work for the Prometheus Institute, the workplace is neither
the time nor the place for political posturing. Your coworkers should know very little, if
anything about your political ideologies. It is impossible to maintain a professional
relationship with your coworkers when they think you are a conservative fascist or liberal
hippie.

b) A date. Dates should be devoid of political discussion, at least for the first few dates.
Dates should be fun and not boring. For the vast majority of people, politics is
excruciatingly boring. It also has the capability to cause deep personal divisions,
convincing your date that you are a person with whom she can form little ideological
 18

common ground. You can bore and/or enrage your girlfriend with your personal politics
or philosophy after you’ve been together for a while.

c) Weddings,funerals,andotherpublicevents.The nature of such events creates the cardinal

rule that divisive and/or contentious topics should not be discussed at them. No matter
how respectful and reasonable your arguments, remember, some people will still hate
your viewpoints, no matter what. Save them for an arena where it is appropriate to
discuss such things.

d) The classroom.If you sympathize with any conservative position, you will find yourself
ideologically outnumbered on a college campus, and often find yourself in a classroom
with a professor who despises your opinion. Do not debate him. Realize that if you truly
challenge your professors politically, you’re guaranteed no higher than a B+ in the class.
Educate yourself on your own time so you know why they’re wrong, and save that
knowledge for someone who is going to care. Also realize that you gain more
intellectually than the ass-kissing liberals in your class who are being taught their own
opinions – you get a free peek at the game plan of the opposition. It’s like being in your
opponent’s huddle, if you use the knowledge right.

Paralanguage refers to the non-verbal elements of communication used to

modify meaning and convey emotion. Paralanguage may be expressed
consciously or unconsciously, and it includes the pitch, volume, and, in some
cases, intonation of speech. Sometimes the definition is restricted to vocally-
produced sounds. The study of paralanguage is known as paralinguistics.
The term ’paralanguage’ is sometimes used as a cover term for body
language, which is not necessarily tied to speech, and paralinguistic
phenomena in speech. The latter are phenomena that can be observed in
speech (Saussure's parole) but that do not belong to the arbitrary
conventional code of language (Saussure's langue).
The paralinguistic properties of speech play an important role in human
speech communication. There are no utterances or speech signals that lack
paralinguistic properties, since speech requires the presence of a voice that
can be modulated. This voice must have some properties, and all the
properties of a voice as such are paralinguistic. However, the distinction
linguistic vs. paralinguistic applies not only to speech but to writing and sign
language as well, and it is not bound to any sensory modality. Even vocal
 19

language has some paralinguistic as well as linguistic properties that can be

seen (lip reading, McGurk effect), and even felt, e.g. by the Tadoma method.
One can distinguish the following aspects of speech signals and perceived
utterances:
Perspectival aspects
Speech signals that arrive at a listener’s ears have acoustic properties that may allow
listeners to localize the speaker (distance, direction). Sound localization functions in a
similar way also for non-speech sounds. The perspectival aspects of lip reading are more
obvious and have more drastic effects when head turning is involved.
Organic aspects
The speech organs of different speakers differ in size. As children grow up, their organs
of speech become larger and there are differences between male and female adults. The
differences concern not only size, but also proportions. They affect the pitch of the voice
and to a substantial extent also the formant frequencies, which characterize the different
speech sounds. The organic quality of speech has a communicative function in a
restricted sense, since it is merely informative about the speaker. It will be expressed
independently of the speaker’s intention.
Expressive aspects
The properties of the voice and the way of speaking are affected by emotions and
attitudes. Typically, attitudes are expressed intentionally and emotions without intention,
but attempts to fake or to hide emotions are not unusual. Expressive variation is central to
paralanguage. It affects loudness, speaking rate, pitch, pitch range and, to some extent,
also the formant frequencies.
Linguistic aspects
These aspects are the main concern of linguists. Ordinary phonetic transcriptions of
utterances reflect only the linguistically informative quality. The problem of how
listeners factor out the linguistically informative quality from speech signals is a topic of
current research.
Some of the linguistic features of speech, in particular of its prosody, are
paralinguistic or pre-linguistic in origin. A most fundamental and widespread
phenomenon of this kind is known as the "frequency code" (Ohala, 1984).
This code works even in communication across species. It has its origin in
the fact that the acoustic frequencies in the voice of small vocalizers are high
while they are low in the voice of large vocalizers. This gives rise to
secondary meanings such as 'harmless', 'submissive', 'unassertive', which
are naturally associated with smallness, while meanings such as 'dangerous',
'dominant', and 'assertive' are associated with largeness. In most languages,
the frequency code also serves the purpose of distinguishing questions from
statements. It is universally reflected in expressive variation, and it is
reasonable to assume that it has phylogenetically given rise to the sexual
dimorphism that lies behind the large difference in pitch between average
female and male adults.
In text-only communication such as email, chatrooms and instant
messaging, paralinguistic elements can be displayed by emoticons, font and
color choices, capitalization and the use of non-alphabetic or abstract
characters. Nonetheless, paralanguage in written communication is limited in
comparison with face-to-face conversation, sometimes leading to
misunderstandings.
 20

Attending Interview
If you have been shortlisted for interview, you will be contacted within 14
days of the closing date. We have several different offices, so make sure
that you are clear about where you are being interviewed.
The length of the interview will depend on the job, but you should be given
an indication of how long you will be with us when you are invited for
interview.
You will usually be interviewed by a panel of two or three interviewers. One
of these will usually be your line manager, if you are appointed. The
interviewers will ask you questions which relate to the job and the
requirements needed to do the job. Feel free to ask questions about the job
at the end of the interview or to staff showing you around. Remember that
the interview is your chance to find out as much as possible about working
for us and about the job. In this way you will be in a better position to
decide whether it is the right job for you.
In addition to an interview, other methods may be used to help us choose
the right person for the job. Common methods include work related
exercises, maybe using a computer, testing writing or numerical skills,
giving a presentation or undertaking a practical task. It all depends on the
job, but you will be advised in advance what to expect.
Here are some tips for your interview
• Before your interview, read through all the job details again because
the questions at interview will relate to them. Have a go at trying to
predict some of the questions and practice your answers.
• Do some research beforehand if there are gaps in your knowledge -
especially so that you understand the job, the role of the section and
the role of the Council.
• Think about any questions that you might want to ask at interview.
Keep a note of them and, if you need to, refer to them when you are
in the interview.
• Arrive a few minutes early so that you have time to compose yourself.
• Bring a pen and paper and some notes with you if you want to. The
interviewers will not mind if you want to write down part of the
question or refer briefly to your notes.
• All candidates are nervous in interviews, and your interviewers will
make allowances for that. Some people may talk too much, and other
may talk too quickly. If you identify how you react when nervous, then
you will be able to address it on the day.
• At the start of the interview, one of the interviewers panel will explain
the interview structure to you. If anything is unclear, please ask.
• The interviewers will take it in turns to ask you questions. Listen
carefully to them. If necessary, pause for a few seconds to make sure
that you understand exactly what you are being asked before you start
 21

to answer. Remember that it will not reflect badly on you if you ask for
the question to be repeated or explained.
• If you have difficulty in answering a question, then the interviewers
will try to prompt you. For example, they may ask, “would you like to
say a bit more about ….”. This will give you a chance to add more to
your answer.
• Don’t assume that the interviewers know everything about you or your
work, even if you have written about it on your application form. Give
details and examples of how you meet the person specification. Take
every opportunity to sell yourself even if this feels rather artificial.
• Don’t worry if you get stuck at any point in the interview and can’t
think what to say. Ask if you can leave the question for the moment,
and come back to it later in the interview.

The above tips should help you to be successful in your interview. If you are
unsuccessful, then you can contact us and ask for feedback. Arrangements
will then be made for one of the interviewers to contact you.

SWOT Analysis is a strategic planning method used to evaluate the

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a project or
in a business venture. It involves specifying the objective of the business
venture or project and identifying the internal and external factors that are
favorable and unfavorable to achieving that objective. The technique is
credited to Albert Humphrey, who led a convention at Stanford University in
the 1960s and 1970s using data from Fortune 500 companies.
A SWOT analysis must first start with defining a desired end state or
objective. A SWOT analysis may be incorporated into the strategic planning
model. An example of a strategic planning technique that incorporates an
objective-driven SWOT analysis is Strategic Creative Analysis (SCAN)[1].
Strategic Planning, including SWOT and SCAN analysis, has been the subject
of much research.
• Strengths: attributes of the person or company that are helpful to achieving the
objective.
• Weaknesses: attributes of the person or company that are harmful to achieving
the objective.
• Opportunities: external conditions that are helpful to achieving the objective.
• Threats: external conditions which could do damage to the objective.

Identification of SWOTs is essential because subsequent steps in the process

of planning for achievement of the selected objective may be derived from
the SWOTs.
First, the decision makers have to determine whether the objective is
attainable, given the SWOTs. If the objective is NOT attainable a different
objective must be selected and the process repeated.
The SWOT analysis is often used in academia to highlight and identify
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. It is particularly helpful in
identifying areas for development
 22

Creative Use of SWOTs: Generating Strategies

If, on the other hand, the objective seems attainable, the SWOTs are used
as inputs to the creative generation of possible strategies, by asking and
answering each of the following four questions, many times:
• How can we Use and Capitalize on each Strength?
• How can we Improve each Weakness?
• How can we Exploit and Benefit from each Opportunity?
• How can we Mitigate each Threat?

Ideally a cross-functional team or a task force that represents a broad range

of perspectives should carry out the SWOT analysis. For example, a SWOT
team may include an accountant, a salesperson, an executive manager, an
engineer, and an ombudsman.
[[edit] Internal and external factors
The aim of any SWOT analysis is to identify the key internal and external
factors that are important to achieving the objective. These come from
within the company's unique value chain. SWOT analysis groups key pieces
of information into two main categories:
• Internal factors – The strengths and weaknesses internal to the organization.
• External factors – The opportunities and threats presented by the external
environment to the organization. - Use a PEST or PESTLE analysis to help
identify factors

The internal factors may be viewed as strengths or weaknesses depending

upon their impact on the organization's objectives. What may represent
strengths with respect to one objective may be weaknesses for another
objective. The factors may include all of the 4P's; as well as personnel,
finance, manufacturing capabilities, and so on. The external factors may
include macroeconomic matters, technological change, legislation, and socio-
cultural changes, as well as changes in the marketplace or competitive
position. The results are often presented in the form of a matrix.
SWOT analysis is just one method of categorization and has its own
weaknesses. For example, it may tend to persuade companies to compile
lists rather than think about what is actually important in achieving
objectives. It also presents the resulting lists uncritically and without clear
prioritization so that, for example, weak opportunities may appear to
balance strong threats.
It is prudent not to eliminate too quickly any candidate SWOT entry. The
importance of individual SWOTs will be revealed by the value of the
strategies it generates. A SWOT item that produces valuable strategies is
important. A SWOT item that generates no strategies is not important.
Use of SWOT Analysis
The usefulness of SWOT analysis is not limited to profit-seeking
organizations. SWOT analysis may be used in any decision-making situation
when a desired end-state (objective) has been defined. Examples include:
non-profit organizations, governmental units, and individuals. SWOT analysis
 23

may also be used in pre-crisis planning and preventive crisis management.

SWOT analysis may also be used in creating a recommendation during a
viability study.

Transactional Analysis (or TA as it is often called) is a model of people

and relationships that was developed during the 1960s by Dr. Eric Berne. It
is based on two notions: first that we have three parts or 'ego-states' to our
'personality. The other assumption is that these converse with one another
in 'transactions' (hence the name). TA is a very common model used in
therapy and there is a great deal written about it.
Parent, Adult and Child
We each have internal models of parents, children and also adults, and we
play these roles with one another in our relationships. We even do it with
ourselves, in our internal conversations.

Parent
There are two forms of Parent we can play.
The Nurturing Parent is caring and concerned and often may appear as a
mother-figure (though men can play it too). They seek to keep the Child
safe and offer unconditional love, calming them when they are troubled.
The Controlling (or Critical) Parent, on the other hand, tries to make the
Child do as the parent wants them to do, perhaps transferring values or
beliefs or helping the Child to understand and live in society. They may also
have negative intent, using the Child as a whipping-boy or worse.

Adult
the Adult in us is the 'grown up' rational person who talks reasonably and
assertively, neither trying to control nor reacting. The Adult is comfortable
with themselves and is, for many of us, our 'ideal self'.

Child
There are three types of Child we can play.
The Natural Child is largely un-self-aware and is characterized by the non-
speech noises they make (yahoo, etc.). They like playing and are open and
vulnerable.
The cutely-named Little Professor is the curious and exploring Child who is
always trying out new stuff (often much to their Controlling Parent's
annoyance). Together with the Natural Child they make up the Free Child.
The Adaptive Child reacts to the world around them, either changing
themselves to fit in or rebelling against the forces they feel.
Communications (transactions)
When two people communicate, each exchange is a transaction. Many of
our problems come from transactions which are unsuccessful.
 24

Parents naturally speak to Children, as this is their role as a parent. They

can talk with other Parents and Adults, although the subject still may be
about the children.
The Nurturing Parent naturally talks to the Natural Child and the Controlling
Parent to the Adaptive Child. In fact these parts of our personality are
evoked by the opposite. Thus if I act as an Adaptive Child, I will most likely
evoke the Controlling Parent in the other person.
We also play many games between these positions, and there are rituals
from greetings to whole conversations (such as the weather) where we take
different positions for different events. These are often 'pre-recorded' as
scripts we just play out. They give us a sense of control and identity and
reassure us that all is still well in the world. Other games can be negative
and destructive and we play them more out of sense of habit and addiction
than constructive pleasure.
Conflict
Complementary transactions occur when both people are at the same level.
Thus Parent talking to Parent, etc. Here, both are often thinking in the
same way and communication is easy. Problems usually occur in Crossed
transactions, where the other person is at a different level.
The parent is either nurturing or controlling, and often speaks to the child,
who is either adaptive or ‘natural’ in their response. When both people talk
as a Parent to the other’s Child, their wires get crossed and conflict results.
The ideal line of communication is the mature and rational Adult-Adult
relationship.

Johari Window

Known to Self Not Known to Self

Known to Others
 25

Not Known to Others

The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft
and Harry Ingham, is one of the most useful models describing the process
of human interaction. A four paned "window," as illustrated above, divides
personal awareness into four different types, as represented by its four
quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four
panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction progresses.

In this model, each person is represented by their own window. Let's

describe mine:

1. The "open" quadrant represents things that both I know about myself,
and that you know about me. For example, I know my name, and so do you,
and if you have explored some of my website, you know some of my
interests. The knowledge that the window represents, can include not only
factual information, but my feelings, motives, behaviors, wants, needs and
desires... indeed, any information describing who I am. When I first meet a
new person, the size of the opening of this first quadrant is not very large,
since there has been little time to exchange information. As the process of
getting to know one another continues, the window shades move down or to
the right, placing more information into the open window, as described
below.

2. The "blind" quadrant represents things that you know about me, but that
I am unaware of. So, for example, we could be eating at a restaurant, and I
may have unknowingly gotten some food on my face. This information is in
my blind quadrant because you can see it, but I cannot. If you now tell me
that I have something on my face, then the window shade moves to the
right, enlarging the open quadrant's area. Now, I may also have blindspots
with respect to many other much more complex things. For example,
perhaps in our ongoing conversation, you may notice that eye contact seems
to be lacking. You may not say anything, since you may not want to
embarrass me, or you may draw your own inferences that perhaps I am
being insincere. Then the problem is, how can I get this information out in
the open, since it may be affecting the level of trust that is developing
between us? How can I learn more about myself? Unfortunately, there is no
readily available answer. I may notice a slight hesitation on your part, and
perhaps this may lead to a question. But who knows if I will pick this up, or
if your answer will be on the mark.

3. The "hidden" quadrant represents things that I know about myself, that
you do not know. So for example, I have not told you, nor mentioned
anywhere on my website, what one of my favorite ice cream flavors is. This
information is in my "hidden" quadrant. As soon as I tell you that I love "Ben
 26

and Jerry's Cherry Garcia" flavored ice cream, I am effectively pulling the
window shade down, moving the information in my hidden quadrant and
enlarging the open quadrant's area. Again, there are vast amounts of
information, virtually my whole life's story, that has yet to be revealed to
you. As we get to know and trust each other, I will then feel more
comfortable disclosing more intimate details about myself. This process is
called: "Self-disclosure."

4. The "unknown" quadrant represents things that neither I know about

myself, nor you know about me. For example, I may disclose a dream that I
had, and as we both attempt to understand its significance, a new
awareness may emerge, known to neither of us before the conversation took
place. Being placed in new situations often reveal new information not
previously known to self or others. For example, I learned of the Johari
window at a workshop conducted by a Japanese American psychiatrist in the
early 1980's. During this workshop, he created a safe atmosphere of care
and trust between the various participants. Usually, I am terrified of
speaking in public, but I was surprised to learn that in such an atmosphere,
the task need not be so daunting. Prior to this event, I had viewed myself
and others had also viewed me as being extremely shy. (The above now
reminds me of a funny joke, which I cannot refrain from telling you. It is
said that the number one fear that people have is speaking in public. Their
number two fear is dying. And the number three fear that people have, is
dying while speaking in public.) Thus, a novel situation can trigger new
awareness and personal growth. The process of moving previously unknown
information into the open quadrant, thus enlarging its area, has been likened
to Maslow's concept of self-actualization. The process can also be viewed as
a game, where the open quadrant is synonymous with the win-win situation.

Much, much more has been written on the Johari window model of human
interaction. The process of enlarging the open quadrant is called self-
disclosure, a give and take process between me and the people I interact
with. Typically, as I share something about myself (moving information from
my hidden quadrant into the open) and if the other party is interested in
getting to know me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information
in their hidden quadrant. Thus, an interaction between two parties can be
modeled dynamically as two active Johari windows. For example, you may
respond to my disclosure that I like "Cherry Garcia" by letting me know what
your favorite ice cream is, or where a new ice cream shop is being built,
kinds of information in your hidden quadrant. Incidentally, it is fattening, so
be careful on how much you eat!

We believe disclosure to be healthy, at least that's the impression one gets

after reading Freud. However, Anita Kelly recently wrote that self-disclosure
of personal secrets has its dangers. We are often better off not telling
secrets regarding our sexual behavior, mental health problems or large-scale
failures. "If you give people information about yourself, you give them power
 27

over you," she says. Monica Lewinsky's disclosure to Linda Tripp and the
ensuing scandal that enveloped President Clinton is a case in point. Be
forewarned that most secrets get passed along to at least two more parties.
People also misjudge how others respond to secrets. Sometimes you get
negative feedback. For example, a women who reveals that she was raped
may be seen in the future as a victim, or by men as damaged goods. Now, if
you must tell your secret to someone, chose that person very carefully.
Chose someone whose response will give you some insight into your
problem. Unfortunately, such a person is often hard to find. So if you cannot
find anyone appropriate, consider this: that keeping secrets is healthy and
tasteful, because it is a way of managing your identity, and indicates you are
secure and have self-control. But it takes energy, because you have to be on
constant guard not to accidentally reveal something that is potentially
damaging.

As ones level of confidence and self esteem develops, one may actively
invite others to comment on one's blind spots. A teacher may seek feedback
from students on the quality of a particular lecture, with the desire of
improving the presentation. Active listening skills are helpful in this
endeavor. On the other hand, we all have defenses, protecting the parts of
ourselves that we feel vulnerable. Remember, the blind quadrant contains
behavior, feelings and motivations not accessible to the person, but which
others can see. Feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, impotence,
unworthiness, rejection, guilt, dependency, ambivalence for loved ones,
needs to control and manipulate, are all difficult to face, and yet can be seen
by others. To forcibly reveal what another wishes not to see, is
"psychological rape," and can be traumatic. Fortunately, nature has provided
us with a variety of defense mechanisms to cope with such events, such as
denial, ignoring, rationalizing, etc.

The Johari window, essentially being a model for communication, can also
reveal difficulties in this area. In Johari terms, two people attempt to
communicate via the open quadrants. On the simplest level, difficulties may
arise due to a lack of clarity in the interaction, such as poor grammar or
choice of words, unorganized thoughts, faulty logic etc. This induces the
receiver to criticize you, the sender, by revealing something that was in your
blind quadrant. Then, if the feedback works, you correct it immediately, or
perhaps on a more long term approach take a course in reading and writing.
On a deeper level, you may be in a group meeting, and while you secretly
sympathize with the minority viewpoint, you voted with the majority.
However, blind to you, you actually may be communicating this information
via body language, in conflict with your verbal message. On an even deeper
level, you in an interaction with others, may always put on a smiling, happy
face, hiding all negative feelings. By withholding negative feelings, you may
be signaling to your friends to withhold also, and keep their distance. Thus,
your communication style may seem bland or distant.

And let's not forget the parable of the blind men and the elephant. Our
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society is constructed so that many of us get very specialized, knowing only

a small academic field very well, while being virtually ignorant of all others.
This specialization is blinding many of us to what is happening in the world
today. According to R. Buckminister Fuller, this system of education was
done on purpose, to channel the most intelligent people into specialties,
enabling them to be more easily controlled. Noam Chomsky has made
similar comments with regards to the manufacturing enterprise, and how
Adam Smith's writings have been purposely misrepresented. See my
webpage On Education.

In the construction of this website, I am putting more of my knowledge into

the open quadrant. I am consciously using the Johari model to improve my
awareness of the world. If you see one of my blind spots, please feel free to
contact me, and let me know!