RUNNING HEAD: STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY

TO SOCIETY
1
Megan Rutter
Scholarly Essay
Context letter:
This scholarly literature review/proposal will examine current research on the programs
implemented to reduce the recidivism rate of women in the United States. Recidivism is when a
formerly convicted person is rearrested for a second or following offense. This is a large problem
in the United States as well over half of all people arrested in a day have been arrested prior.
There are programs to help assist with the reentry (return to normal life after prison) of prisoners,
but most focus on males job training and housing. The female recidivism rates are increasing
much faster then males and this is an issue that requires more extensive research. Many
communities may only have the funds to implement one program at this time and there needs to
be information regarding which programs have had the most success. This article would address
this information for members of the professional discourse community, with a foundation in
criminal justice knowledge. The main purpose of this document is to call for further research, by
the academic community, on the more specific topic of female reentry programs and which are
most effective at reducing recidivism. A secondary purpose is to raise general awareness to the
professional community that this is a major issue and that future policy should focus on female
reentry programs.
The potential audience of this paper would be criminal justice professionals, students, and
policy makers. I would publish this document in a criminal justice academic journal, such as the
American Journal of Criminal Justice or the Criminal Justice Review (CJR). This way it would
be accessible to any one with a criminal justice interest in the topic. Primarily, I would want
potential researchers to have access to this writing, because I think that this research needs to be
done. That could include PHD students looking for a dissertation topic or professors that need to
continue research through their university. Secondary, would be any reentry program leaders,
police or students with an interest in finding out more information about the topic of women and
reentry possibilities.

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

Stopping The Circle of Prison:

Women and Reentry to Society
Megan Rutter
Northeastern University

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

Stopping The Circle of Prison: Women and Reentry to Society

Introduction
The United States is number one in the world in terms of proportion of the population
currently being held in the prison system. Due to strict drug laws and increasing sentences for
non-violent crimes, the United States is alone at the top of the charts, in regards to how much of
the population is currently behind bars. The increasingly high recidivism rates demonstrate that
the system is cyclical and broken. When nearly three-quarters of released offenders return to jail
within five years, the evidence speaks for itself (National Institute of Justice [NIJ], 2014). This
problem has been carefully studied in the past, but most research has focused on male reentry
programs and their success or shortcomings. With more recent research turning to womens
programs and recidivism, a few severe shortcomings have been noted.
Womens prison and reentry programs are focused on more family traits and mental
health, as opposed to male work focused programs, which is preventing women from being able
to actively engage in society. While womens programs include many of the features of mens,
they are not focused on obtaining a job, which is a vital aspect of reintegration into society.
Limiting the options of incarcerated women is the reason why two-thirds of all incarcerated
women had been imprisoned at least once before. The majority of female prisoners come from
areas of high poverty that lack access to these programs. It is necessary to figure out what
programs are the most effective so that they can be implemented to save money and have the
greatest impact. Through a thorough review of previous literature, this essay calls for an increase
in research to be conducted and to find the most effective programs for reducing recidivism rates
in the female population, with a substantial focus on job placement, skill development, and
educational opportunities.

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

History
The history of reentry programs for women specifically, has been a slow evolving process
that only began within the past couple decades. During the start of the war on crime in the 1970s
most reentry programs focused on the male population and getting housing and jobs upon
returning to society. Prisoners were sent to halfway houses and expected to find jobs and move
out within a certain amount of time (usually six months) (Seiter & Kadela, 2003). It has only
been since the evolution of rehabilitation theory during the 1990s that reentry programs have
shifted focus to cover all aspects of a prisoners return to life outside the prison walls. As this shift
occurred, policy makers and program leaders have begun to show an interest in how these
programs cater to womens needs and lifestyle, and what has been done historically.
Women entering back into society may have different needs than their male counterparts,
including household work and childcare, but in general have a similar primary need to find
housing and work. In the past, the focus on childcare training and family trait development has
caused an increase in recidivism rates (Adams et al., 2011). Since the beginning of western
society, women have always been seen as the nurturing type and unable to commit violent
crimes, and therefore reentry programs catered to that nature. According to Mallicoat (2015),
women exiting prison during the twentieth century were severely limited in gender specific
programs and had to rely on family and friends to support them. By keeping the same social
circles, women were reintroduced to the same lifestyle that led them to commit crime in the first
place and led to high recidivism rates.
Throughout the previous three decades, programs have evolved to include further
opportunities for women within and outside of prison walls, but it is unclear what programs or

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

processes have the greatest reduction in recidivism rates and therefore the highest success. These
programs vary in their invasiveness and goals, from social adaptation to religion or education
intervention.
Available Programs
Thorn (2009) investigated the role of religion in the reentry of women from prison to
society. Religion has existed since the beginning of written time and has a very important place
in many peoples lives. Everyone can think of some anecdotal evidence of religion saving
peoples lives from the brink of destruction, whether from substance abuse or overwhelming
grief and pain. Thorns goal was to analyze how this profound social phenomenon could assist in
reducing recidivism. Using evidence from previous studies of the effect of religion on mental and
physical health, Thorn investigated how religion can impact recidivism rates in women. Findings
revealed that women with previous religious beliefs and a solid community within a church were
shown to have lower recidivism rates (Thorn, 2009). This research is important to show that
there are protective factors in place that can assist with reducing recidivism, but religion cannot
be used as a program for current inmates without that background or beliefs. This method does
not address current issues effecting imprisoned women, which can include substance abuse
problems.
Programs focusing on substance abuse and rehabilitating women have shown moderate
success in reducing use of illicit drugs, but lack absolute data for reducing recidivism rates in the
long term. Adams et al. (2011) found that substance abuse was a critical factor for predicting
success after reentry, but only for the one side of the issue. If use of illicit substances continued
after release, there was a much higher chance of being rearrested, but with discontinued use the
situation was much more complicated. It seemed to reduce recidivism, but only when in

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

combination with other interventions or treatment (Adams et al., 2011). Being able to stop using
illicit substances is an incredible feat, but without treatment for other mental disorders, it does
not seem capable of stopping the crime circle for women released from prison.
Mental disorders and psychological help are a critical part of helping women readjust to
life in the community and without this help they are likely to fall into the same bad patterns. As
Adams et al. (2011) mention in their conclusions, 6 out of 10 incarcerated women have had
experiences of physical or sexual abuse, resulting in mental problems including PTSD and
depression. If these disorders are left untreated and ignored, women may feel the need to resort
to old illegal habits to cope. Treatment for these is not the only issue though. Willging, Malcoe,
Cyr, Zywiak, & Lapham (2013) found that there is a significantly higher comorbidity of
substance abuse and mental disorders among previously incarcerated women, as compared to the
population in general. Having access to treatment is proven to be crucial to the success of reentry
for women, but a lack of access to quality public assistance is a major concern.
Prisoners do not have the quality access to most welfare programs and health services,
because when a prisoner exits prison, the invisible punishments do not end. They are not allowed
to be on public assistance, which makes it very difficult to treat mental disorders and substance
abuse. There have been programs developed for this reason, but their success at reducing
recidivism is suspicious. Willging et al. (2013) found that treatment was one step in the process
of staying out of prison, but only when other physical needs were taken care of as well. This
includes needs such as housing, jobs, and a cooperative family relationship.
Having family to turn to in hard times is important in any persons life, but when a
prisoner is just getting out of jail it is essential. A prisoner is let out of jail and sent free, but they
need to have a solid support system to ensure that they can find housing and get a job without

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

turning to illicit activities. The average prisoner does not have housing at the time of release and
therefore it is important to be able to have a place to stay in the temporary (Covington, 2001).
Family also provides a shelter for illicit activity and can work as a guard against triggers that
may send the women back to bad acquaintances. Unfortunately, not every women leaving prison
has family in the area to assist in the transition and therefore there must be programs in place to
help with those basic needs of community and housing.
Housing programs for recent inmates is one of the longest running types of reentry
programs, but is also one of the least attended to. Housing for women getting out of prison is
mainly located in high poverty areas, where crime is already rampant. As Covington (2001)
found, many women in these housing programs find themselves with limited support and end up
homeless. In communities with high crime rates and drug use, many women turn back to their
old habits that led them to commit crime in the first place. Programs that provide housing for
women during the transition time have been shown to prevent rearrest, but only when they are
able to keep the women for the duration of the time it takes to find their own housing and
maintain a stable job (Seiter & Kadela, 2003).
Finding a job becomes problematic after a conviction, as many companies will not hire
someone that has been convicted of a crime. Women are at an additional disadvantage, as there
are too few job programs available to them. Mallicoat (2015) compares the male programs to
females in that the male programs focus on manual labor jobs that are widely available postprison, but these are not obtainable to women. Another barrier to employment for these women is
education. Many convicted women do not have quality education before being arrested and
therefore are not qualified for most employment. Mallicoat (2015) found that only about 50% of
female correctional institutions provided education opportunities for inmates to further their

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

academic potential. There is absolutely a absence of opportunity for women to advance their
knowledge and skill base, which leads to a lack of income resources and a possible pathway back
to illegal ways of making money. Further, women have the added gender stereotype of
motherhood as an obstacle to educational advancement and success.
The majority of women leaving prison also have children at home and without a way to
support them, many lose custody or are not granted visitation rights. Mallicoat (2015) outlines
that women can lose custody if a child is in foster care for fifteen months and that families that
take the child in during the time of incarceration are not granted financial aid. This uniquely
added stress can lead a lot of women to make poor decisions upon release, but has also been
theorized that having children may make the parent want to do better. Having a child to look up
to you can force a parent to reevaluate and make the decision to change.
Making the decision to stop committing crime has been shown to be a very powerful tool
in reducing recidivism in women. Again, this is hampered by the lack of programs and resources,
but multiple researchers agree that by choosing a different path, women can set themselves up
for a better chance of success. Mallicoat (2015) and Seiter and Kadela (2003) agree that the
prisoner themselves has the opportunity to impact their own success story. Although, this shows
that prisoners that are motivated to change will seek out programs and find community support,
but what if programs are not available or are unknown to the inmates?
Overall, the programs mentioned cover a wide range of aspects of daily life and appear to
have the ability to assist in the reentry to normal life for prisons, but Travis and Visher (2003)
found that many programs were not effective. They discovered that nine in ten prisoners would
be rearrested over a fifteen-year span post-release. This longitudinal study first looked at
previous studies that had been conducted on reentry programs and found a glaring lack of quality

STOPPING THE CIRCLE OF PRISON: WOMEN AND REENTRY TO SOCIETY

research following lifespans of individual convicts. By following prisoners during and after their
time in jail, the researchers discovered that, regardless of the programs available, the majority of
prisoners did not follow-up with corresponding programs upon reentry (Travis & Visher, 2003).
This creates a evident problem that further research is desperately needed into the processes that
not only create quality reentry programs but also that motivate prisoners to fully and passionately
utilize these services to sincerely assist in the reentry process and reducing recidivism.
Conclusion
Each mentioned program has good intentions, but they are not able to accomplish the
goal of reducing recidivism alone. Housing, educational, and job training programs provide basic
needs and skills, but do not address the psychological or substance abuse problems that are
unfortunately common to prison inmates. Treatment programs, however, are unable to make a
financial impact for reentry to provide resources to prevent future illicit activities. The best
evidence supports that making the decision to change lifestyles is the best motivator to stop
illegal activities, but once this decision is made programs need to be in place to help support and
assist this inmates in getting jobs, finding housing, and maintaining community support.
As the amount of correctional facilities for women increases, so does the need for
accessibility to quality reentry programs. Criminal Justice research has taken steps to identify
and explain possible programs available, but all have resounding limitations and flaws.
Researchers are able to choose what programs they study and so there is not a clear picture of
how programs compare and what weaknesses each presents. It is clear that simply doing
something or making a choice can help reduce the recidivism, but more focus needs to put on
providing real world education and job training for women. These concrete skills can help

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women find housing, keep their children in their custody, and provide meaningful uses of time to
reduce temptation to return to previous illicit activities.
The programs and interventions discussed demonstrate that reentry processes have
adapted for women from prison, but the glaring lack of objective comparisons and analysis of the
effectives of these programs is an unfortunate situation that calls for more research. Most women
do not have access to all or even any of these programs. The current research does a good job of
providing an overview of programs, but tends to originate from a biased place of researcher
perception. Most studies agree that basic program necessities include treating substance abuse,
dealing with psychological trauma, and increasing community relationships, but do not address
what methods of job training, housing and educational needs are best at creating well rounded,
functioning members of society. With options at a minimal, there needs to be more research to
resolve which programs are the most effective so that they, at least, may be implemented as a
starting point in areas with high poverty and low community support for reentry programs.

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References
Adams, S., Peden, A., Hall, L., Rayens, M., Staten, R., & Leukefeld, C. (2011). Predictors of
Retention of Women Offenders in a Community-Based Residential Substance Abuse
Treatment Program. Journal of Addictions Nursing, 22, 103-116.
Covington, S. (2001, December 1). A Womans Journey Home: Challenges for Female
Offenders and Their Children. Retrieved March 19, 2015, from
http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/prison2home02/covington.htm#Plan
Mallicoat, S. (2014). The Incarceration of Women. In Women and crime: A text/reader (Second
ed., pp. 461-501). Thousand Oaks, Calif., California: SAGE.
Recidivism. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2015, from
http://www.nij.gov/topics/corrections/recidivism/Pages/welcome.aspx
Reentry Programs for Women Inmates. (n.d.). Retrieved March 19, 2015, from
http://www.nij.gov/journals/252/Pages/reentry.aspx
Seiter, R., & Kadela, K. (2003). Prisoner Reentry: What Works, What Does Not, and What Is
Promising. Crime & Delinquency, 49(3), 360-388.
Thorn, P. (2009). Reducing the Rates of Recidivism among Recently Released Women: The
Perceived Role of Religion. Chicago School of Professional Psychology.
Travis, J., & Visher, C. A. (2003). Transitions from prison to community: understanding
individual pathways. Annual Review of Sociology, 29, 89+.
Willging, C., Malcoe, L., Cyr, S., Zywiak, W., & Lapham, S. (2013). Behavioral Health and
Social Correlates of Reincarceration Among Hispanic, Native American, and White
Rural Women. Psychiatric Services, 64(6), 590-590.

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Response letter:
I would first like to thank my reviewers for their insightful criticisms, as they assisted me
in creating a comprehensive and scholarly piece of writing. First, I eliminated my abstract, as I
realized that is not needed in a literature review or proposal piece of work. Following further
research, I kept the sections I had originally used (introduction, history, programs, conclusion).
One reviewer thought I could break up the programs section further with more headings, but I
thought that would take away from the flow of the section and did not want to separate each
paragraph in its own section. I also incorporated more information into my context note that
specifically mentioned the probable audiences and purposes better.
Reviewers mentioned that the hook of the paper must not be to broad, and therefore I
adjusted that first paragraph with a greater focus on the cyclical nature of prisons and women
specifically. Another specific alteration that was suggested was removing basic information in
the beginning of the essay. I accomplished this to a point, but because my essay is a proposal
with a broader professional and scholarly audience, I made sure to include some information
specifically about prison recidivism statistics and information that not all criminal justice
professionals would have a specific knowledge base about. Both reviewers mentioned that I
could be more critical of the writing pieces and therefore I incorporated expanded critiques of the
arguments, which I think assisted in the strength of my document.
It was difficult to compare and contrasts programs, because the majority of sources only
looked at one program type and therefore there was not a lot of comparative information, but I
was able to use what I know to do this to a point. My main argument is that more comparative
research is needed so I was not surprised that comparing and contrasting was difficult to
accomplish. One thing that I have been working on throughout the semester is transitions

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between paragraphs. The student that reviewed my essay did mention that transitional language
was there, but could be improved so I went back and included more specific transitions between
paragraphs. I would like to conclude with again thanking both my peer and professor reviewers
for their insightful critiques and suggestions.