Hertz and the Speed of Radio Waves

Hertz used interference between radio waves following two different

measured paths to determine the wavelength of the waves. He knew the
frequency and so was able to calculate the speed v = f, confirming that they
were indeed electromagnetic waves.
Radio waves and electromagnetic radiation

Hertz and the Photoelectric Effect

See notes page below

A missed opportunity!

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

first

A First-hand Investigation

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

If a charge is moved, ,a disturbance is created in the
electric field lines associated with that charge
The disturbance in the electric field propagates outward
at the speed of light
Propagating disturbance
moving to the right

References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

A simplified 2-D animation of the disturbance in the field
is shown in this movie

QuickTime and a
Animation decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

If the charge oscillates, ,a field disturbance having wave
properties is created
The disturbance propagates outward at the speed of
light

References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

An electromagnetic wave is created by
an oscillating dipole.
A dipole is a pair of oppositely charged
particles.
An alternating dipole produces an
electromagnetic wave with a frequency
equal to that of the oscillations of the
dipole.
An AC voltage applied to a length of
conductor becomes a dipole aerial.
References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

An alternating current
in an aerial creates an
electromagnetic wave
consisting of electric
and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each
other.
References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

QuickTime and a
Cinepak decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

This animation represents a propagating electromagnetic wave

References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

Radio waves are a part of the electromagnetic spectrum

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

The output terminals of an induction coil act as a simple dipole

transmitter, producing electromagnetic waves, including radio waves
over a wide frequency range.
References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

The radio waves can be detected with a radio receiver tuned off the
station (so that the station signal does not swamp the weak radio
waves from the induction coil)
References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

Current in
antenna

Receiver
Reception of radio waves is dependent on the energy carried by the radio
wave fields producing a current in a receiving antenna.
Induction of a current occurs because the antenna is a conductor.
The antenna may be a simple length of wire, or sometimes a coil of wire
around an iron core, which can be moved by a tuning dial to alter the
response of the antenna so that waves of different frequency can be received.
The length of the antenna determines which frequencies are best received.

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

Radio waves can be transmitted most easily along a line-of-sight path

Communication using microwaves requires line-of-sight repeater transmitters
The Earths ionosphere can be used to reflect the waves

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

Almost all electronic devices produce electromagnetic radiation.

calculators, computers, cell phones, TVs, radios etc
Legislation requires computers to be shielded to prevent radio
interference
the shielding is usually a metal case enclosing the computer

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

Attenuation
Radio waves, like all electromagnetic waves, obey the inverse square law.The
further the receiver is from the source, the weaker the radio signal.
References: Electromagnetic Waves, emwavgeneration.mov, emwavepropagating.mov

Production and Reception of Radio Waves

1 km

transmitter

Attenuation
The intensity of the radio wave
decreases as the square of the
distance from the source.

2 km

3 km

4 km

The Photoelectric Effect

UV

Demonstration
Two negatively charged electroscopes
with polished zinc plates on top of them
Observation and Investigation

Ultraviolet light shone onto one

of the metal plates (the other
one is the control) causes the
electroscope it is resting on to
lose its charge more rapidly than
the control.
Why is a control necessary?
A control is necessary because
both electroscopes lose their
charge. The important fact is
that the UV light causes one to
lose charge more rapidly.
first

The Photoelectric Effect

UV e e e

Photoelectrons are ordinary electrons

Ultraviolet light produces photoelectrons
These are ejected from the zinc surface
Observation and Investigation

Explanation
The UV light causes electrons in
the zinc to be ejected from the
metal surface, resulting in a loss
of negative charge from the
metal, causing electrons to
move from the electroscope to
the zinc.
The electroscope is thus
discharged - this is the
photoelectric effect

first

The Photoelectric Effect

An excellent quantitative simulation of the photoelectric effect

http://home.a-city.de/walter.fendt/phe/photoeffect.htm
first

Observation and Investigation

stopping voltage

The Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect

The filter can be changed to select a specific wavelength from the source
Light above the threshold frequency will eject electrons from the cathode
A variable stopping voltage (note polarity) is adjusted to reduce the current to zero
The stopping voltage is proportional to the incident light frequency
At a given frequency light, the current is proportional to the light intensity
first

Observation and Investigation

The Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect and
Albert Einstein
Einstein was awarded the Nobel
Prize for his explanation of the
photoelectric effect (not for
relativity!)
He proposed that
light consisted of quanta (later
called photons)
either ALL of a photons energy
was absorbed by an electron or
NONE of it was

The Photoelectric Effect and Breathalysers

Alcohol reacts with chemicals in

the breathalyser, causing a
colour change dependent on the
amount of alcohol in the sample.
The chemicals absorb varying
amounts of the IR light,
depending on their colour.

A lamp (A) produces a broadband

(multiple-wavelength) IR beam.
The IR beam passes through the
sample chamber (D) and is focussed
by a lens (E) onto a filter wheel (F).
The filter wheel contains narrow band
filters specific for the wavelengths of
the bonds in ethanol. The light
passing through each filter is detected
by the photocell (G), where it is
converted to an electrical pulse.
The electrical pulse is relayed to a
microprocessor, which interprets the
pulses and calculates the BAC based
on the absorption of infrared light.

Application (ref: http://www.howstuffworks.com/breathalyzer3.htm)

The Photoelectric Effect and Solar Cells

A photon enters the semiconductor
It may be absorbed and raise an electron
from the valence to the conduction band
The absorption process generates
electron-hole pairs
Immediately after their creation, the
electron and hole decay to energy states
near the edges of their respective bands

A solar cell is more correctly called a photovoltaic cell

A photovoltaic cell converts light energy to electrical energy
Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photovoltaic Cells

Contact between p and n
type semiconductors
produces an electric field
at the junction region.
The direction of this field
is from the n-layer to the
p-layer.

Electric field region

Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photovoltaic Cells

At the p-n junction, conduction band
electrons move from the n-layer to
holes in the p-layer, creating a field
Light falling on a p-n junction device,
disturbs the electric field equilibrium
Light energy produces free electrons
in the p-layer allowing current to flow,
establishing a voltage at the external
terminals
Thus light energy has produced a
voltage providing electrical energy

Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photovoltaic Cells

An alternative explanation

Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photovoltaic Cells

An alternative explanation

Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photovoltaic Cells

An alternative explanation

Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photovoltaic Cells

An alternative explanation

Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photovoltaic Cells

An alternative explanation

Application of photoelectric effect

The Photoelectric Effect and Photocells

A photocell is probably better called a photoconductive cell
A photoconductive cell is also known as a photoresistor it is the earliest photoelectric device
developed.
Photoconductive cells are used to turn street lights on and off automatically, as counting devices
on production lines, in various alarm systems, and in supermarkets as the sensor that scans
codes on grocery items at checkout counters and in photography as the light meters used to
measure the intensity of illumination.
Energy of light in modern photoconductive cell is used to free electrons from their valence
bonds in a semiconductor material. At room temperature, 21C (294.16K), the number of free
charges in a semiconductor is relatively limited. Light-released electrons raises its conductivity.
The resistance may change from several hundred thousand ohms in the dark to a few hundred
ohms in sunlight. To increase the dark resistance and reduce the dark current, the conducting
path is often laid down in a zigzag manner on a ceramic wafer.
A number of substances are photoconductive. Some of which are lead sulfide (PbS), lead
selenide (PbSe), and lead telluride (PbTe) are sensitive to infrared radiation, whereas cadmium
sulfide (CdS) has sensitivity to light in the visual range.

Application

The Blackbody Radiation Model

In the second half of the 19th century, the
study of heat lead to major scientific and
industrial developments.
Scientists were interested in understanding
the nature of radiation emitted by hot
objects.
The dependence of the radiation on the
temperatures of the objects was investigated
and the amount of radiation emitted at
different wavelengths for objects at different
temperatures was determined...

Sun 15th Aug 2002

Blackbody Radiation Planck and Einstein

These graphs show the radiation
emission curves for hot objects at
different temperatures.
Note that
as the temperature increases, the
peak wavelength emitted by the
black body decreases
as temperature increases, the
total energy emitted increases,
because the total area under the
curve increases
Black body radiation curves at
various temperatures
The concept of a blackbody radiator was first defined by Kirchoff in 1860

The Blackbody Radiation Model

An ideal blackbody radiator has these properties... It
is a perfect absorber and emitter of radiation
re-emits all radiation incident on the blackbody
emits radiation with characteristics dependant only on the
temperature of the object
Examples closely approximating
ideal blackbody radiators include...
the inside of a furnace (such as a
brick kiln or pottery kiln
the surface of the Sun
tiles on the space shuttle during reentry into the atmosphere
A blackbody was first defined by Kirchhoff in 1859-60 as an object that re-emits all of the
radiant energy incident upon it. i.e., it is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
(http://astro.estec.esa.nl/SA-general/Projects/Planck/mplanck/mplanck.html)

Blackbody Radiation Planck and Einstein

Max Planck
Planck was able to account for the shape of the blackbody radiation curves by
postulating that energy was emitted in discrete packets (quanta), rather than
continuously as was the classical theory.
This novel concept was to usher in quantum mechanics, the triumph of
physics in the 20th century.
Einstein was soon to use the quantum concept in explaining the photoelectric
effect - but he never accepted the uncertainty inherent in quantum mechanics.

Blackbody Radiation Planck and Einstein

The solid curve shows
the blackbody spectrum
of an object at 5000 K
The surface of the Sun
is an approximation of
such a blackbody
emitter.
The dotted line shows
the intensity / frequency
The classical theory* was unable to account relationship predicted
for the observed distribution of radiation by the classical theory
intensity at different wavelengths.

* A key concept of classical physics was that quantities

were continuous and could take on any value

Assess and Analyse

Blackbody Radiation Planck and Einstein

UV e e e

E hf

In his 1905 explanation of the photoelectric effect,

Einstein concluded that
electromagnetic radiation must be absorbed by
electrons in the metal in discrete packets (quanta)
electromagnetic radiation is quantised
an oscillating charge (e.g. electron) can accept or
lose energy in small discrete amounts with the
quantum having an energy hf*

* hf = Planks constant x frequency

h = 6.6 x 1034 Js

Blackbody Radiation Planck and Einstein

Therefore Einstein no longer thought of radiation as being
continuous, as demanded by the wave model. He said it
consisted of a series of "packets" of energy.
This meant that radiation was being thought of as a
"packet of energy" but also as a wave because it had a
frequency. These later became known as photons.
Planck had had no explanation for his quantum model for
blackbody radiation but he knew it was necessary and
that it worked - this is called an empirical result.
Einsteins quantum explanation of the
photoelectric effect thus provided an
explanation for Plancks quantum
analysis of blackbody radiation.

E hf
UV e e e

The Particle Theory of Light

Calculate the energy of a photon of red light having a
wavelength of 700 nm. [700 nm = 700 x 109 m]
Calculate the frequency of the light

c f

3 10 f 700 x 10

f 4.29 10

14

Hz

Hence calculate the energy of the light photon

E hf
E 6.626 10

34

4.49 10

E 2.84 10 19 J
Photon energy and frequency

14

The Particle Theory of Light

E hf

c f
Solving Problems

The Einstein - Planck Debate

There was no direct debate between Einstein and Planck.
The intention of the syllabus outcome is unclear
It may refer to the different views Planck and Einstein took about
scientists remaining in Germany during the WWI Nazi era and
continuing to do scientific research.
Planck, along with nearly a hundred leading German intellectuals
signed a manifesto defending Germanys war actions. Planck
stayed on and directed the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute.
Einstein left Germany. Although there was no direct
correspondence between Einstein and Planck, consideration of the
actions of each provides a case study of the complexity of
evaluating the moral responsibility of science to social orders.
See MS word article Planck_Einstein_Debate.doc for further comment.

The nature of science research - social and political forces