The Case for Music Education in America

report on recent research into how the

brain processes music, and how this research can

revolutionize American education

Written by Alex McCollom

In 2008, the worst economic downturn since the Great Depression hit
the United States, and it hit hard. Stocks took a nosedive, companies went
under (or almost did), and everyone from the poorest of the poor to the
Federal Government themselves were hard-pressed for cash. As a result,
many companies, local governments, and other organizations had to reconfigure their balance sheets often drastically the impact of which is still

playing out today. Based on data collected from the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities and
the US Inflation Calculator, 37 of the 50 states have reduced their education spending per student over the last five years, after adjusting for inflation (Oliff, Mai, and Leachman). For many of
these local school districts, theyve been loath to generate more of their own money through an
additional hike in the property tax as that would have negatively impacted residents of such a
school district at a time when their wallets were already extremely tight. However, as their other
source of funding, state and federal dollars, has decreased over the last 6 years, theyve been
seeking other ways to keep their essential functions in operation. For many schools, sequestration has meant reducing or eliminating arts programs and similar extracurricular departments. The greatest effect of such budget cuts is that music programs have been violently
slashed in school districts across the nation. What many administrators arent fully informed on,
though, is that these are the same music programs that have been proven to improve student
wellbeing and perhaps more importantly to administrators test scores that are all too often
tied to federal funding for their school districts. If this nation is going to grow in developing essential analytic and critical thinking skills in the coming decades, then continued and increased

funding for music programs in our nations public schools is a necessity that can be ignored and
underfunded no longer.

The Brain Game: How the brain changes as a result of Music Education
In the last two decades, much has been accomplished with regards to research in the field
of cortical plasticity 1 and music education (Cherry). While the individual results have varied,
an analysis of the work in the field as a whole yields one main conclusion that theres an overall trend towards a positive correlation between the two subject areas, as opposed to them being
unrelated in occurrence. In other words, the field of research that has addressed this issue has
shown, in the most general of terms, that the brain physically changes and connects in different
ways for people that continually participate in musical activities. This ability of the brain to
make connections between otherwise disconnected portions of the cerebral cortex is critical to
ones ability to learn and develop mentally as an individual. The next page provides a summary
of some of the key research thats been done in this field to date.
1

Cortical Plasticity - When people repeatedly practice an activity or access a memory, their neural networks groups of neurons that fire together,
creating electrochemical pathways -- shape themselves according to that activity or memory. When people stop practicing new things, the brain will
eventually eliminate, or "prune," the connecting cells that formed the pathways. Like in a system of freeways connecting various cities, the more cars
going to certain destination, the wider the road that carries them needs to be. The fewer cars traveling that way, however, the fewer lanes are needed.
(Cherry).

The following studies summarized below were selected as a part of a rigorous process
to determine which scholarly work was most relevant to the issue at hand. While diverse in their approaches, a key criterion that they all share is their willingness to take

the next step. They all gambled that the average human brain was capable of adapting
dramatically, and often more than a decade after normal brain growth was believed to end.
The results found through them have relatively opened the door for a new era of study into
the depths of neuroplasticity and its modern applications.

A study led by Dr. Pantev and first published

Dr. Christo Pantev

in the Annals o f the New York Acad em y o f Sci-

Director of the Insti-

ences in 2003 was one of the first in its field to indicate

tute for Biomag-

that not only did learning certain skills, such as

netism and Biosignal

how to play a musical instrument, increase the

Analysis in Muenster,

ability of one to perform that skill. Their research

Germany (WWU

also showed that by engaging multiple sectors of

Muenster)

the brain in an activity such as both buzzing the

lips and pressing down the fingers to play the
trumpet one was able to further reshape the

brain over time. Engaging the brain in such a

manner is the root of the concept of neuroplasticity, another (more general) name for cortical plasticity. In their study, Pantev et al. make the case that the combination of tactile and auditory stimuli
processed simultaneously by the brain during rehearsal and performance of music leads to crossmodal plasticity of the brain, among other things. Traditionally, literature in the field of cross-modal
neuroplasticity has been entirely focused on people with a major impairment; the bulk of existing
research has investigated how impaired individuals adapt and use parts of their brain that they otherwise wouldnt be using, such as how blind people use their visual cortex to hear, or deaf people
use their auditory cortex to enable themselves to see better (Pantev et al.).
Pantev et al. detail how the unique activity set expected to be fulfilled by musicians of varying
types allows for the development of unique and original pathways within the brain, connecting previously weakly connected or unconnected portions of the brain. As previously alluded to, one of the
main areas of focus for this study was on trumpet players and how the act of both depressing notes
and buzzing their lips relates to the act of listening to and adjusting their own playing via auditory
input. Pantev and company found a much stronger correlation between listening and lip buzzing

Research Overview

than they did note depression, which may im-

Dr.

ply that the more active or engaging an activity

Patrick

C.

M.

Wong Director of the

is2, the more readily cross-modal connections

Laboratory

are formed within cortical structures in the

for

Lan-

guage, Learning, and

brain. While the concept of being able to train

the Brain at the Chinese

the brain and grow it through engaging mental

University

exercise would normally be a breakthrough in

of

Hong

Kong (currently based

and of itself, they take their research one step

in

further, broadening their analysis of cross-

Illinois,

USA)

(People)

modal neuroplasticity to also examine violin

players, thus proving that a broad spectrum of
activities can foster cortical plasticity (Pantev et

In a similar study conducted by Wong et al.

al.).

around 2007, a group of scientists built off of

Mandarin-based experiments in tone/pitch differentiation to make the next logical leap in cortical plasticity research3. They hypothesized that
the traits exhibited in the prior studies are not
specific to those that learn Mandarin, but can
rather be applied to any type of formal tonebased learning; they were successful in this endeavor. Their work shows that music education
and instruction in Mandarin yield similar positive benefits to the cortical plasticity of the student. More importantly, they demonstrated that
not only does this effect occur through a cortical
3

See papers by Peretz et al., Tillmann et al., and Giuliano et al.

for more info on studies of tone differentiation using Mandarin

Research Overview
process4, but also a subcortical process, where
essential behavioral patterns and processes are
encoded within the brainstem5 (Wong et al.).
The fact that tonal and harmonic auditory input

can have so far-reaching an impact on neural

plasticity that the changes extend all the way to
the subcortical level only serves to highlight
how large of an impact these findings could
have on both music and brain-related fields at
large, from psychology to education.

Dr. Aniruddh Patel

Associate Professor of Psychology at
Tufts University, author of Music, Language, and the Brain
(Patel)
A visual diagram of the pathway form the auditory cortex to
the brain stem.

Linking to the work done by Pantev et al. and

Third, the music must create positive Emotions

Wong et al. in demonstrating how the auditory

in the performer. Finally, there must be a Repeti-

cortex and the brainstem itself play roles in

tion in the practice of music, with much focused

adapting to perform better as a result of music

Attention paid to the details of the piece being

practice, Patel put forth his own theory as to

performed (Patel). Essentially, the hypothesis in

how this altering of the brain was impacting oth-

and of itself draws on the support of numerous

er activities carried out in the brain. Dubbed the

papers since 2002 which have been pointing to

OPERA hypothesis, it posits the following: First

this conclusion as well as Patels own research.

of all, that there is Overlap in the areas of the

The OPERA hypothesis highlights the important

brain used for music and for speech. Secondly,

implication that if portions of the brain that im-

that performing music puts a higher expectation

pact speech are improved as a result of music,

of Precision on the brain than talking does.

then there are improvements in the ability of one

to speak, both in ones native tongue and when

as demonstrated by Pantev et al.

such as associating buzzing ones lips and pressing down certain fingers with a specific note when playing the trumpet

learning foreign languages.

Research, Applied and Contextualized

In their own conclusions, Pantev and com-

The critical link that provides context to all

pany indicated that they felt their findings

of the findings listed above lies in the possi-

could be extended to any instrument where

bility of a relationship between reading and

combinations of auditory and other kinds of

subcortical auditory function. This connection

sensory inputs allowed for a strengthening of

is first reported within the writeup of yet an-

neural pathways endemic to cross-modal

other paper. Written by Banai, et. al. in 2009,

learning (Pantev et al.). A similar conclusion

it was analyzing Amidst establishing what

was reached by Wong et al. at the end of their

was already known, what they were investi-

own paper. Patel established the conditions

gating, and all of the other scientific jargon (as

under which the results achieved by the other

it appears to outsiders), they had the follow-

researchers would be most likely to recur.

ing to say: Just as subcortical function varies

But, they all stopped short of saying that cross

as a function of reading ability, subcortical

-modal learning in the auditory cortex or

enhancements of speech has also been shown

brain stem was possible over the long term.

to vary as a function of the extent and onset of

We at CONTOUR would go one step further

music experience (Banai et al.). The ramifica-

these studies indicate that not only is there a

tions of that statement are huge. The general

positive effect of long-term music exposure

logic in the educational realm, as in many

on speech (linguistic pitch) encoding at the

things in life, has been that if one wants to get

brainstem (Wong et al.), but there is also the

better at something, then one must practice

chance that this positive effect will, with more

doing that thing. What Banai and her fellow

in-depth clinical studies that are both longer

researchers suggest is that with regular music

in duration and larger in sample size, prove

instruction, the human brain changes in ways

to be a powerful force in both raising the

that benefit us far beyond playing the notes

overall level of education students exposed to

on the page (Banai et al). It gives the phrase

cross-modal exercises and specifically im-

reading music a whole new meaning.

prove the linguistic fluency of students pro-

Schools often have students who experience

vided with opportunities for music education.

difficulty reading or speaking, with the most

serious cases often having near-individual in-

structors to help them practice reading and

reading or writing in school to go play an in-

writing through repetition. Now, if schools

strument or just pay attention in music class

follow the logic behind these findings, they

isnt so far-fetched anymore (Krishnan et al.).

could be substituting a portion of the time

It can also be inferred that students with musi-

those students spend doing yet another read-

cal training might also be more predisposed to

ing exercise learning to play an instrument or

learning tonal languages, such as Mandarin,

read notes on a music staff, with similar or

much easier than their non-musical peers.

even better results.

There is a small caveat to these possible im-

The benefits of understanding how music

plementations being effective, however. In an

education impacts the brain dont stop with

article that was directly analyzing the findings

reading. A number of these studies have

reported by Wong et al. and Krishnan et al. in

shown how the repetition of practicing a musi-

their papers, Dr. Patel and his colleague Dr.

cal instrument leads to distinct changes in the

Iverson concluded that,

performance of parts of the brain which direct-

Most data showing an association between

ly impact speech. There have also been studies

musical and linguistic skills (including

which have found that this could directly

Wong et. al.) are correlational. A possible

translate into gains made in language acquisi-

confound in such studies is that individuals

tion and retention. The aforementioned re-

who do versus do not seek out extensive

search and publishings of Krishnan et al.

musical training might have pre-existing

demonstrate that language processing in the

neural differences relevant for speech pro-

brain occurs before the noise even has a

cessing.

chance to reach the cerebral cortex, and that

the way that the subcortical portions of the
brain process this input can be altered through
external experience, such as learning to play
an instrument. In effect, it proves that the idea

of telling a student thats struggling with their

In short, there is the possibility that the resultant differences in brain response between
musicians and non-musicians are actually
caused by something other than the fact that
one group spent time practicing music daily

and the other didnt. It should be noted, though, that this can be claimed of most any study or research. Its near impossible to control for 100% of the variability in as complex an experiment as the
ones whose findings are summarized above. Even Patel and Iverson go on to say in their articles
conclusion that the findings of the research should be discussed in terms of their practical applications towards, education and rehabilitation. (Patel and Iverson). The possibility of boosting a
struggling students writing and composition grade in the span of a few months or the overall state
standardized test score for reading a district receives within only a few years is an exciting prospect.
Its one that the educators of today and tomorrow need to be keeping an eye on.

Look

Familiar?

For many students that struggle

learning to read and write in elementary school, the constant repetition can often frustrate them to
the point that they refuse to do
any more of it or wont put forth
their best effort. Many researchers are starting to discover that
music lessons may be a viable alternative that work the same portion of the brain, but are
a seemingly different activity to the student.

Photo courtesy of Texas Tech Universitys Student Disability Services Website

Current and Future Applications

In todays hyperconnected world, Americans are finally feeling pressured to compete against not

just other Americans for jobs and college admissions, but against people from around the world. Education policy planners for the United States are beginning to feel that pressure even more with the
latest round of PISA results. An international test administered once every three years by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development among its member countries, PISA measures

student performance in reading, math, and sci-

United States. Per student spending in the US

ence as they apply to the real world (Layton).

was around $10,000 per elementary-aged stu-

As the graph from the OECD indicates, students

dent and climbed upwards to approximately

in the US have been underperforming com-

$12,000 per student in middle or high school, as

pared to their global peers. Across the board,

of 2010 (The Associated Press). Countries in de-

America has watched the effects of No Child

veloped nations such as Switzerland came close,

Left Behind like a basketball thats about to go

but many other nations were nowhere near the

wide of the net, but cant be corrected mid-

same level of funding, with some as low as

flight. In the last 3-year period alone, the US has

$2,000-$3,000 per student per year. American

dropped 10 ranks in reading, and fell behind the

teacher salaries are competitive globally, post-

global average scores in math and science

secondary spending is double the OECD aver-

(Fensterwald).

age, and yet the United States has habitually

It hasnt been for lack of trying, however.

When looked at from the perspective of fund-

lagged come exam time (The Associated Press,

Institute of Education Sciences).

ing, no one even comes close to beating the

The United States lags behind in Math, and is barely average in reading and science. Image taken from the Washington
Post, which published this image with permission from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

Of important note is the one area that outshined all others on the Program for International Student Assessment the full name of
the PISA exams was Shanghai. Reaching far
above their next closest competitors and with
a percentage of students in the highest proficiency group that was ten times the global average, they are clearly doing something right.
Even when Massachusetts, the top performing
American State, is compared on its own
against Shanghai, the Chinese still come out
on top (Layton). Many factors can contribute
to this difference. However, it bears remembering that research has shown overlap in the
parts of the brain used in speaking a tonal lan-

guage (such as Mandarin Chinese) and playing

a musical instrument. If musicians are showing the benefits of increased reading and
writing performance as per the OPERA hypothesis, then the logical next step is to say
that students who grow up speaking tonal languages (i.e. the majority of China) receive the
same benefit regardless of the level of music
instruction they receive, if any. Due to the relative lack of precision and attention required
as compared to baroque masterworks in the
musical realm, they effect is likely much smaller, but future studies should prove that this
link exists.

Conclusions:
If the United States is to mitigate this advantage and continue to

produce students that are highly competitive in the global workforce,

music education must be more fully integrated into the existing music
framework. Through almost a hundred studies and lab experiments,
the results achieved by scientists across the world point to one unify-

ing concept music education makes students become better students.

In an age where the extracurriculars are being cut out like never before; where theres always another test to take, another core concept to
learn, another Scantron to fill out; where students get disillusioned
with school because its the same four classes day in and day out,
enough is enough. Its time for educators across America to hear the
music, and increase music education funding in their schools.

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