Serraiocco 1

Lucas Serraiocco
Mr. Acre
2 April 2015
AP Calculus
Sequences and Series
Two of the major concepts of calculus are that of sequences and series. A
sequence can be defined as any ordered set of terms. There is no definite amount of
terms in a sequence. One such example is all the even numbers from 10 to 20. Another
sequence can be all odd numbers. This shows how there can be a finite amount of
terms as well as an infinite amount. The two most common types of sequences are
arithmetic and geometric. An arithmetic sequence is defined as one in which each
consecutive term as a constant value added to it. An example could be the set 1,2,3,4,5
where each successive value has 1 added to it. A geometric sequence will have terms
that differ by a constant ratio. An example would be the set 2,4,8,16,24 in which each
successive term is multiplied by 2.
A series is defined as the sum of the numbers in a sequence. The series of even
numbers is shown below.
2+4+6+8+10..,.
This would continue for all even numbers. A series is not only limited to infinite
sets. A series that finds the sum of a finite set is defined as a partial sum. An example of
this would be the series of even numbers from 10 to 20 shown below.
10+12+14+16+18+20 = 90

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Some comparisons can be drawn between these two concepts as they are
closely related. A sequence focuses on the consecutive set of terms while the series
pays more attention to the sum of these successive terms. Each can be used to
describe a set of numbers.
Convergence Vs. Divergence
A series can be categorized by the way it behaves, such as whether it converges
or diverges. If a series converges, the sum of the number of terms (denoted n) as it
approaches infinity will be equal to some finite number. However, there are scenarios in
which a series does not converge. If this occurs, the series is said to diverge. This
happens when each consecutive term causes the sum of the series to grow at an
increasing rate. Eventually, the sum of the terms will get to infinity. The series of the
even numbers is an example of a diverging series. There are certain situations where it
is possible for a sequence to converge but the series will diverge. One such example is

that of

1
n . This is because as n increases, the terms will get closer to zero which

implies convergence. However, the series says otherwise. Below are the first five terms.
1 1 1 1
1+ + + +
2 3 4 5

This shows that when each consecutive term is added, the sum of the series
approaches infinity which implies divergence.

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Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Another important concept is that of Taylor and Maclaurin series. First, a Taylor
series is defined as a power series which means it expresses a function f(x) both
numerically and graphically. A power series also will contain a variable and have
increasing exponents. In order to derive a power series, the function must contain
differentiable derivatives in order to calculate each constant that is associated with each
term which is then divided by n factorial, denoted n! An example of a power series is
shown below with the function sin(x) being expanded.

sin ( x )=x

1 3 1 5 1 7
x+ x x
3!
5!
7!

There is a direct relationship between the number of terms and the accuracy of a
Taylor series. This means that the more terms present, the more accurate the
calculation and vice versa. The primary use of a Taylor series is to expand a function
around a certain point a. The general set up is shown below.
f ' ' ( a)
f ( n) ( a )
2 f ' ' ' (a)
3
f ( x )=f ( a ) +f ' (a)(xa)+
( xa ) +
( xa) + +
( xa)n
2!
3!
n!
The Taylor series is a versatile tool due to its ability to expand power series for
functions that are being translated along the x-axis, or where x does not equal zero, but
some variable, a.

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A Maclaurin series is a variation of the Taylor series when a is equal to zero. An

example is shown below.

Figure 1. Example of a Maclaurin Series

Figure 1 shows the expansion of a function when the a value is determined to
be zero. This info allows for comparisons to be drawn between the two types of series.
However, there is practically no difference between them since one is just a variation of
the other.
Approximations
Another application for sequences and series is calculating error. This error can
be defined as the difference between the approximated value of a function using a
power series and the actual value. There are three methods of calculating this error.
These include calculating the actual error, alternating series, and Lagrange. When using

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the actual error method, the value that is found using the power series is subtracted
from the actual value. For example, the actual value of cosine(1.2) is equal to 0.362357.
The value of cosine(1.2) can also be found using the power series expansion. In this
example, the fifth partial sum is used.
cos x 1

1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8
x x x x
2!
4!
6!
8!

In the equation, 1.2 is plugged in for x which results in an approximation of 0.3623594.

The error can now be found by subtracting the two values and taking the absolute
value. In this case the error turns out to be 0.0000016.
The second method uses an alternating series to determine how many terms to

calculate in order to be within a given error. For example, given the series:

(1)n+1
2nn2
n=1

. This error test would want to know how many terms need to be added to assure the
approximation is accurate to two decimal places. First, a few terms of the sequence
must be calculated. In this case the first four terms are:

0.50.0625+0.01380.0039 .

To perform this test, the sum of the terms must be less than the absolute value of the
first term.

The last method that will be analyzed is Lagrange. This method is a way to find
the upper bound of an error by a finite number of terms. In other words, Lagrange
calculates the max error possible. The Lagrange method states that the error is no
greater than:

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( n +1)

f
(c )
(xa)n+1
( n+1 ) !
For example, if the value of cosine of 1.2 is being calculated to four terms using the
expansion, the fifth term would be used in the equation. In this case, the function is
being expanded around 0. The calculation of the Lagrange is as follows:
f ( 5 ) (c)
(xa)5
( 5) !

1
(1.2 )5 =0.020736
5!

This value means that the error is at the most 0.020736. Overall, all three types of error
are effective in their own way in calculating the error.

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Sample Problems
5. The function f is defined by the power series

f ( x) 1 (x 1) (x 1) 2 ( x 1) n ... ( x 1) n
n 0

for all real numbers x for which the series converges.

A. Find the interval of convergence of the power series for f. Justify.

B. The power series above is the Taylor series for f about x=-1. Find the sum of the
series for f.
x

g ( x)

C. Let g be the function defined by

f (t )dt

. Find the value of g(-0.5), if it

exists, or explain why g(-0.5) cannot be determined.

D. Let h be the function defined by h(x)=f(x2-1). Find the first three non-zero terms
and general term for the Taylor series for h about x=0. Find the value of h(0.5).

6. Which of the following series diverge? Be sure to address which test you have
chosen and WHY you chose it.

7. Find the interval of convergence. Be sure to check the endpoints.

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8. Write the 5th partial sum of the power series ex. Use this partial sum to approximate
e0.1. Discuss error.
Solutions
5A: In order to calculate the interval of convergence, the ratio test will be used. The set
up is shown below.

L
n

| |
an+1
an

lim

( x +1 )n+ 1
<1
( x +1 )n

|x +1|<1

1< x +1<1

2< x <0

Due to the interval of convergence, the series will converge if x is between -2 and
0. However these endpoints need to be verified. The work is shown below when x is
equal to either -2 or 0.
f ( 0 )=( 0+1 )n= (1 )n

f (2 )=(2+1 )n=(1 )n

First, when x is equal to zero it creates a series in which the sum is increasing by
one. This implies divergence. Next, when x is equal to -2, an alternating series is
created. However, it needs to be noted that the alternating series test will actually fail
here which means another test must be used. For this case, the nth term test was used.
Since the an does not equal zero, the conclusion that it diverges at x=-2 can be made.

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5B: In order to find the sum of the geometric series, the equation

S n=

n1
1r

will be

used where n1 is the first term. It should be noted that the ratio in this scenario is x+1.
The calculation is shown below.

( x +1 )0
S n=
1( x +1 )

S n=

1
x

5C: To find the value of g(-0.5), one must substitute the value of S n in place of F(t) and
integrate. The work is shown below.
0.5

g (0.5 )=
1

1
dt
t

g (0.5 )=ln |0.5| ln |1|

g (0.5 )=ln ( 0.5 ) 0.693

This means that the value of g(-0.5) is equal to 0.693.

5D: The first three terms are shown below.

f ( x )=1+ ( x +1 ) + ( x+1 )2 +

h ( x )=1+x +x +...= x 2 n
2

n=0

h ( x )=f ( x 21 )

x2 1+ 1

2
h ( x )=1+ ( x 1+1 ) +

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Next, 0.5 will be plugged in.

0.5

( 21)
h ( 0.5 )=f

1
( 0.75
)= 43

f (0.75 )=

h ( 0.5 )=

4
3

6A: For this scenario, the limit comparison test will be used in order to determine if the
series converges or diverges. It was used because limit comparison can compare a

an
n b
n

L lim
series to a series that is known to converge or diverge. The equation is

this series, it is going to be compared to

1
n

which is known to diverge. Also,

LHopitals rule will be used to find the L value.

3
2

n +1
2
5 n +7
lim
1
n
n

n
3
n( +1 )
2
1(5 n2 +7)
lim

n 2 +n
lim 2
n 5 n +7

5 2
n +1
2
lim
10 n
n

15 2
n
4
lim
10
n

. For

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LHopitals rule is used in order to get the L value out of indeterminate form. Since

1
n

diverges, so will this series.

6B: The alternating series test will be used here. The assumptions associated with this

test must be met in order to form a sound conclusion. The assumption that the limit of
the terms as n approaches infinity is zero was met. Next, the series is alternating
because of the (-1)n being there. The assumption that the terms are decreasing is met.
Because the series meets all of the requirements, the series does not diverge due to the
alternating series test.

7: In order to find the interval of convergence, the ratio test will be used.
(2 x) n 1
lim

( 2 x)

n2
n 1

n 1

lim

( 2 x)
n 1
*
n
n2
( 2 x)

lim 2 x
n

1 2x 1
1
1
x
2
2

So the interval of convergence is

1
1
x
2
2

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1 (2(1 / 2)) n
:
2 n 0
n 1

(1) n *
n 0

1
n 1

Using the assumptions for the alternating series test, it does converge at -. So - is
included in the interval.
1 (2(1 / 2)) n
:
2 n 0 n 1

1
n 0 n 1

To determine if this converges, the limit comparison test is used.

an
n b
n

L lim

n 1
1
n
n
lim
n n 1
1
lim

Since L is 1, both series behave the same so this series diverges. This means it is not

is
included in the interval. The final interval

1
1
x
2
2
.

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13
8: In order o find the fifth partial sum, the first five terms must be found and added

n! x
together. The equation is

n 0

e 0.1
. Because

is being approximated, 0.1 is

substituted for x.
4

n! 0.1

n 0

1.1051708333334

The approximation for

e 0 .1

is shown above. The actual value is

1.1051709180756. The error is the actual minus the calculated which equals
0.0000000847422. The approximation is accurate to the 7 th decimal place.

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Works Cited
Holmes, Johnny B. "Taylor Series Expansion: A Review." Taylor Series Expansion: A
Review. N.p., 2010. Web. 10 Apr. 2013.