PHYSICS OF MOTION

A book by H. S. Ahamad

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Contents
Articles
Physics 1
Acceleration 13
Force 16
Cross product 38
Torque 50
Center of mass 58
Uniform circular motion 69
Angular acceleration 72
Angular velocity 73
Centripetal force 77
Right-hand rule 90
Coriolis effect 93
Angular momentum 111
Rotation 119
Rigid body 123
Moment of inertia 128
Radius of gyration 135
Rotational energy 137
Rotation around a fixed axis 138
Parallel axis theorem 144
Perpendicular axis theorem 146
List of moment of inertia tensors 147
List of moments of inertia 148
Simple harmonic motion 151
Pendulum 157
Precession 181
Larmor precession 186
Thomas precession 187
Gyroscope 190
Orbit 196

References
Article Sources and Contributors 207
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 212
Article Licenses
License 215
Physics 1

Physics
Physics (Greek: physis – φύσις meaning "nature") is a natural science; it is the study of matter[1] and its motion
through spacetime and all that derives from these, such as energy and force.[2] More broadly, it is the general
analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave.[3] [4]
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[5] Over the
last two millennia, physics had been considered synonymous with philosophy, chemistry, and certain branches of
mathematics and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique
modern science in its own right.[6] However, in some subject areas such as in mathematical physics and quantum
chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult to distinguish.
Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its understanding have often translated into
new technologies, but also because new ideas in physics often resonate with the other sciences, mathematics and
philosophy.
For example, advances in the understanding of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly to the development
of new products which have dramatically transformed modern-day society (e.g., television, computers, domestic
appliances, and nuclear weapons); advances in thermodynamics led to the development of motorized transport; and
advances in mechanics inspired the development of calculus.

Scope and aims

Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from the smallest
sub-atomic particles (such as quarks, neutrinos and electrons), to the
largest galaxies. Included in this are the very most basic objects from
which all other things are composed, and therefore physics is
sometimes said to be the "fundamental science".[7]
Physics aims to describe the various phenomena that occur in nature in
terms of simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect the
things we see around us to root causes, and then to try to connect these
This parabola-shaped lava flow illustrates
Galileo's law of falling bodies as well as causes together in the hope of finding an ultimate reason for why
blackbody radiation – the temperature is nature is as it is.
discernible from the color of the blackbody.
For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain rocks
(lodestone) were attracted to one another by some invisible force. This
effect was later called magnetism, and was first rigorously studied in the 17th century.
A little earlier than the Chinese, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as amber, that when rubbed with fur
would cause a similar invisible attraction between the two. This was also first studied rigorously in the 17th century,
and came to be called electricity.
Thus, physics had come to understand two observations of nature in terms of some root cause (electricity and
magnetism). However, further work in the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just two different aspects
of one force – electromagnetism. This process of "unifying" forces continues today (see section Current research for
more information).
Physics 2

The scientific method

Physics uses the scientific method to test the validity of a physical theory, using a methodical approach to compare
the implications of the theory in question with the associated conclusions drawn from experiments and observations
conducted to test it. Experiments and observations are to be collected and matched with the predictions and
hypotheses made by a theory, thus aiding in the determination or the validity/invalidity of the theory.
Theories which are very well supported by data and have never failed any competent empirical test are often called
scientific laws, or natural laws. Of course, all theories, including those called scientific laws, can always be replaced
by more accurate, generalized statements if a disagreement of theory with observed data is ever found.[8]

Theory and experiment

The culture of physics has a higher degree of separation between
theory and experiment than many other sciences. Since the twentieth
century, most individual physicists have specialized in either
theoretical physics or experimental physics. In contrast, almost all the
successful theorists in biology and chemistry (e.g. American quantum
chemist and biochemist Linus Pauling) have also been
experimentalists, although this is changing as of late.

Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both agree with

existing experiments and successfully predict future results, while
experimentalists devise and perform experiments to test theoretical
predictions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and
experiment are developed separately, they are strongly dependent upon The astronaut and Earth are both in free-fall
each other. Progress in physics frequently comes about when
experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot
explain, or when new theories generate experimentally testable
predictions, which inspire new experiments.

It is also worth noting there are some physicists who work at the
interplay of theory and experiment who are called phenomenologists.
Phenomenologists look at the complex phenomena observed in
experiment and work to relate them to fundamental theory.
Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration from philosophy
and metaphysics; electromagnetism was unified this way.[9] Beyond
the known universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with
hypothetical issues,[10] such as parallel universes, a multiverse, and Lightning is an electric current
higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in hopes of solving
particular problems with existing theories. They then explore the consequences of these ideas and work toward
making testable predictions.

Experimental physics informs, and is informed by, engineering and technology. Experimental physicists involved in
basic research design and perform experiments with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers, whereas
those involved in applied research often work in industry, developing technologies such as magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well explored
by theorists.
Physics 3

Relation to mathematics and the other sciences

In the Assayer (1622), Galileo noted that mathematics is the language in which Nature expresses its laws.[11] Most
experimental results in physics are numerical measurements, and theories in physics use mathematics to give
numerical results to match these measurements.
Physics relies upon mathematics to provide the logical framework in which physical laws may be precisely
formulated and predictions quantified. Whenever analytic solutions of equations are not feasible, numerical analysis
and simulations may be utilized. Thus, scientific computation is an integral part of physics, and the field of
computational physics is an active area of research.
A key difference between physics and mathematics is that since physics is ultimately concerned with descriptions of
the material world, it tests its theories by comparing the predictions of its theories with data procured from
observations and experimentation, whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract patterns, not limited by those
observed in the real world. The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large area of research
intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as mathematical physics.
Physics is also intimately related to many other sciences, as well as applied fields like engineering and medicine. The
principles of physics find applications throughout the other natural sciences as some phenomena studied in physics,
such as the conservation of energy, are common to all material systems. Other phenomena, such as
superconductivity, stem from these laws, but are not laws themselves because they only appear in some systems.
Physics is often said to be the "fundamental science" (chemistry is sometimes included), because each of the other
disciplines (biology, chemistry, geology, material science, engineering, medicine etc.) deals with particular types of
material systems that obey the laws of physics.[7] For example, chemistry is the science of collections of matter (such
as gases and liquids formed of atoms and molecules) and the processes known as chemical reactions that result in the
change of chemical substances.
The structure, reactivity, and properties of a chemical compound are determined by the properties of the underlying
molecules, which may be well-described by areas of physics such as quantum mechanics, or quantum chemistry,
thermodynamics, and electromagnetism.

Philosophical implications
Physics in many ways stems from ancient Greek philosophy. From Thales' first attempt to characterize matter, to
Democritus' deduction that matter ought to reduce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of a crystalline
firmament, and Aristotle's book Physics, different Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of nature. Well
into the 18th century, physics was known as "Natural philosophy".
By the 19th century physics was realized as a positive science and a distinct discipline separate from philosophy and
the other sciences. Physics, as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of science to give an adequate
description of the scientific method.[12] The scientific method employs a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori
reasoning and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity of a given theory.[13]

“
Truth is ever to be found in the simplicity, and not in the multiplicity and confusion of things.

”
—Isaac Newton

The development of physics has answered many questions of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions.
Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature
of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical outlooks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[14]
Physics 4

Many physicists have written about the philosophical implications of their work, for instance Laplace, who
championed causal determinism,[15] and Erwin Schrödinger, who wrote on Quantum Mechanics.[16] The
mathematical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist by Stephen Hawking,[17] a view Penrose discusses
in his book, The Road to Reality.[18] Hawking refers to himself as an "unashamed reductionist" and takes issue with
Penrose's views.[19]

History
Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of the
natural world. One great mystery was the predictable behavior of
celestial objects such as the Sun and the Moon. Several theories were
proposed, the majority of which were disproved.
The Greek philosophers Thales (ca. 624 BC–ca. 546 BC), and
Leucippus (first half of 5th century BC) refused to accept various
supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural
phenomena, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. Early
physical theories were largely couched in philosophical terms, and
never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular today.
Many of the commonly accepted works of Ptolemy and Aristotle are
not always found to match everyday observations.

Even so, many Greek, Chinese, and Indian philosophers and

astronomers gave many correct descriptions in atomism and
Aristotle
astronomy, and the Greek thinker Archimedes derived many correct
quantitative descriptions of mechanics and hydrostatics. A more
experimental physics began taking shape among medieval Muslim physicists, while modern physics largely took
shape among early modern European physicists.

Core theories of physics

While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that are used by all physicists. Each of
these theories were experimentally tested numerous times and found correct as an approximation of Nature (within a
certain domain of validity).
For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately describes the motion of objects, provided they are much
larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active
research; for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th
century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton (1642–1727).
These central theories are important tools for research into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of
his or her specialization, is expected to be literate in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum mechanics,
thermodynamics and statistical mechanics, electromagnetism, and special relativity.
Physics 5

Research fields
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly divided into condensed matter physics; atomic, molecular, and
optical physics; particle physics; astrophysics; geophysics and biophysics. Some physics departments also support
research in Physics education.
Since the twentieth century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly specialized, and today most
physicists work in a single field for their entire careers. "Universalists" such as Albert Einstein (1879–1955) and Lev
Landau (1908–1968), who worked in multiple fields of physics, are now very rare.[20]

Condensed matter

Condensed matter physics is the field

of physics that deals with the
macroscopic physical properties of
matter. In particular, it is concerned
with the "condensed" phases that
appear whenever the number of
constituents in a system is extremely
large and the interactions between the
constituents are strong.

The most familiar examples of

condensed phases are solids and
liquids, which arise from the bonding
and electromagnetic force between
atoms. More exotic condensed phases Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, confirming the discovery of a new
phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate
include the superfluid and the
Bose-Einstein condensate found in
certain atomic systems at very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhibited by conduction electrons in
certain materials, and the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on atomic lattices.

Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics
grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term condensed matter
physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when he renamed his research group — previously solid-state
theory — in 1967.
In 1978, the Division of Solid State Physics at the American Physical Society was renamed as the Division of
Condensed Matter Physics.[21] Condensed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, materials science,
nanotechnology and engineering.

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions on the
scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms. The three areas are grouped together because of their
interrelationships, the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of the energy scales that are relevant. All
three areas include both classical and quantum treatments; they can treat their subject from a microscopic view (in
contrast to a macroscopic view).
Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Current research focuses on activities in quantum control,
cooling and trapping of atoms and ions, low-temperature collision dynamics, the collective behavior of atoms in
weakly interacting gases (Bose-Einstein Condensates and dilute Fermi degenerate systems), precision measurements
of fundamental constants, and the effects of electron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic physics is
Physics 6

influenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperfine splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomenon such as fission and fusion are
considered part of high energy physics.
Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and their internal and external interactions with matter and
light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it tends to focus not on the control of classical light fields by
macroscopic objects, but on the fundamental properties of optical fields and their interactions with matter in the
microscopic realm.

High energy/particle physics

Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter

and energy, and the interactions between them. It may also be called
"high energy physics", because many elementary particles do not occur
naturally, but are created only during high energy collisions of other
particles, as can be detected in particle accelerators.
Currently, the interactions of elementary particles are described by the
Standard Model. The model accounts for the 12 known particles of
matter that interact via the strong, weak, and electromagnetic
fundamental forces. Dynamics are described in terms of matter
particles exchanging messenger particles that carry the forces. These
messenger particles are known as gluons; W− and W+ and Z bosons; A simulated event in the CMS detector of the
and the photons, respectively. The Standard Model also predicts a Large Hadron Collider, featuring a possible
appearance of the Higgs boson.
particle known as the Higgs boson, the existence of which has not yet
been verified.

Astrophysics

Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the

theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar
structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the solar
system, and related problems of cosmology. Because
astrophysics is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically
apply many disciplines of physics, including
mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics,
thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, relativity,
nuclear and particle physics, and atomic and molecular
physics.

The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio signals

The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra
Deep Field
were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science of
radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of
astronomy have been expanded by space exploration.
Perturbations and interference from the earth’s
atmosphere make space-based observations necessary
for infrared, ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray
astronomy.

Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert Einstein’s
theory of relativity plays a central role in all modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th century, Hubble's
discovery that the universe was expanding, as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival explanations known as
Physics 7

the steady state universe and the Big Bang.

The Big Bang was confirmed by the success of Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic
microwave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einstein's general
relativity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have recently established a precise model of the evolution of
the universe, which includes cosmic inflation, dark energy and dark matter.

Fundamental physics
While physics aims to discover
universal laws, its theories lie in
explicit domains of applicability.
Loosely speaking, the laws of classical
physics accurately describe systems
whose important length scales are
greater than the atomic scale and
whose motions are much slower than
the speed of light. Outside of this
domain, observations do not match
their predictions. Albert Einstein
contributed the framework of special The basic domains of physics

relativity, which replaced notions of

absolute time and space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description of systems whose components have
speeds approaching the speed of light. Max Planck, Erwin Schrödinger, and others introduced quantum mechanics, a
probabilistic notion of particles and interactions that allowed an accurate description of atomic and subatomic scales.
Later, quantum field theory unified quantum mechanics and special relativity. General relativity allowed for a
dynamical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive systems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be
well described. General relativity has not yet been unified with the other fundamental descriptions.
Physics 8

Application and influence

Applied physics is a general term for physics research which is
intended for a particular use. An applied physics curriculum usually
contains a few classes in an applied discipline, like geology or
electrical engineering. It usually differs from engineering in that an
applied physicist may not be designing something in particular, but
rather is using physics or conducting physics research with the aim of
developing new technologies or solving a problem.

The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics. Applied

physicists can also be interested in the use of physics for scientific
research. For instance, people working on accelerator physics might
seek to build better particle detectors for research in theoretical
physics.
Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, Statics, a subfield
of mechanics, is used in the building of bridges and other structures.
The understanding and use of acoustics results in better concert halls; Archimedes' screw uses simple machines to lift
similarly, the use of optics creates better optical devices. An liquids.
understanding of physics makes for more realistic flight simulators,
video games, and movies, and is often critical in forensic investigations.

With the standard consensus that the laws of physics are universal and do not change with time, physics can be used
to study things that would ordinarily be mired in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the origin of the Earth, one
can reasonably model Earth's mass, temperature, and rate of rotation, over time. It also allows for simulations in
engineering which drastically speed up the development of a new technology.
But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity in the physicist's methods, and so many other important fields are
influenced by physics: e.g. presently the fields of econophysics plays an important role, as well as sociophysics.

Current research
Research in physics is continually progressing on a large number of
fronts.
In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theoretical
problem is that of high-temperature superconductivity. Many
condensed matter experiments are aiming to fabricate workable
spintronics and quantum computers.
In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for
physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost
among these are indications that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These Feynman diagram signed by R. P. Feynman

experimental results appear to have solved the long-standing solar

neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos remains an area of active theoretical and experimental
research. In the next several years, particle accelerators will begin probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which
experimentalists are hoping to find evidence[22] for the Higgs boson and supersymmetric particles.
Physics 9

Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity

into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over
half a century, have not yet been decisively resolved. The current
leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum
gravity.
Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be
satisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energy
cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universe
and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies. A typical event studied and described by the
science of physics: a magnet levitating above a
Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect.
astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena involving
complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved
by a clever application of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; examples include the formation of sandpiles,
nodes in trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in
shaken heterogeneous collections.

These complex phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, including the
availability of modern mathematical methods and computers, which enabled complex systems to be modeled in new
ways. Complex physics has become part of increasingly interdisciplinary research, as exemplified by the study of
turbulence in aerodynamics and the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932, Horace Lamb
said:

“
I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I hope for enlightenment. One is quantum
electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.

” [23]
—Horace Lamb

See also
General
• Glossary of classical physics
• List of elementary physics formulae
• Index of physics articles
• Perfection in physics and chemistry
• Philosophy of physics
• List of important publications in physics
• Physics (Aristotle) – an early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and define motion from a
philosophical point of view
• Unsolved problems in physics
Related fields
• Astronomy
• Chemistry
• Engineering
• Mathematics
• Science
Physics 10

Interdisciplinary fields incorporating physics

• Biophysics
• Econophysics
• Geophysics
• Neurophysics
• Psychophysics

Further reading
Popular reading
• Feynman, Richard (1994). Character of Physical Law. Random House. ISBN 0-679-60127-9.
• Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate
Theory. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70811-1.
• Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam. ISBN 0-553-10953-7.
• Kaku, Michio (1995). Hyperspace: A Scientific Odyssey Through Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the 10th
Dimension. Anchor. ISBN 0-385-47705-8.
• Leggett, Anthony (1988). The Problems of Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289186-3.
• Kakalios, James (2005). The physics of superheroes. Gotham books. ISBN 1-592-40242-9.
• Rogers, Eric (1960). Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science.
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08016-X.
• Walker, Jearl (1977). The Flying Circus of Physics. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-02984-X.
• Fontanella, John (2006). The Physics of Basketball. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-801-88513-2.
General textbooks
• Crowell, Benjamin (2001). Simple Nature [24].
• Feynman, Richard; Leighton, Robert; Sands, Matthew (1989). Feynman Lectures on Physics. Addison-Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-51003-0.
• Feynman, Richard. Exercises for Feynman Lectures Volumes 1-3. Caltech. ISBN 2-35648-789-1.
• Knight, Randall (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: A Strategic Approach. Benjamin Cummings. ISBN
0-8053-8685-8.
• Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics 8th ed. ISBN 978-0-471-75801-3.
• Hewitt, Paul (2001). Conceptual Physics with Practicing Physics Workbook (9th ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN
0-321-05202-1.
• Giancoli, Douglas (2005). Physics: Principles with Applications (6th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-060620-0.
• Schiller, Christoph (2007). Motion Mountain: The Free Physics Textbook [25].
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern
Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0810-8.
• Wilson, Jerry; Buffa, Anthony (2002). College Physics (5th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-067644-6.
• Verma, H. C. (2005). Concepts of Physics. Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 81-7709-187-5.
Physics 11

External links
General
• HyperPhysics website [26] – HyperPhysics, a physics and astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University
• PhysicsCentral [27] – Web portal run by the American Physical Society [28]
• Physics.org [29] – Web portal run by the Institute of Physics [30]
• The Skeptic's Guide to Physics [31]
• Usenet Physics FAQ [32] – A FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics newsgroups
• Website of the Nobel Prize in physics [33]
• World of Physics [34] – An online encyclopedic dictionary of physics
• Nature: Physics [35]
• Physics [36] announced July 17, 2008 by the American Physical Society
• Physics/Publications [37] at the Open Directory Project
• Physicsweb.org [38]
• Physics Central [39] - includes articles on astronomy, particle physics, and mathematics.
• The Vega Science Trust [40] - science videos, including physics
• Video: Physics "Lightning" Tour with Justin Morgan [41]
• 52-part video course: The Mechanical Universe...and Beyond [42] Note: also available at 01 - Introduction Physics
[43]
at Google Video (Adobe Flash video)
• Encyclopedia of Physics [44] at Scholarpedia
• de Haas, Paul, "Historic Papers in Physics (20th Century)" [45]
Organizations
• AIP.org [46] – Website of the American Institute of Physics
• APS.org [47] – Website of the American Physical Society
• IOP.org [48] – Website of the Institute of Physics
• PlanetPhysics.org [49]
• Royal Society [50] – Although not exclusively a physics institution, it has a strong history of physics
• SPS National [51] – Website of the Society of Physics Students
pcd:Fisike

References
[1] R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963), The Feynman Lectures on Physics, ISBN 0-201-02116-1 Hard-cover. p.1-1 Feynman
begins with the atomic hypothesis, as his most compact statement of all scientific knowledge: "If, in some cataclysm, all of scientific
knowledge were to be destroyed, and only one sentence passed on to the next generations ..., what statement would contain the most
information in the fewest words? I believe it is ... that all things are made up of atoms – little particles that move around in perpetual motion,
attracting each other when they are a little distance apart, but repelling upon being squeezed into one another. ..." vol. I p. I–2
[2] James Clerk Maxwell (1878), Matter and Motion (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=noRgWP0_UZ8C& printsec=titlepage& dq=matter+
and+ motion& source=gbs_summary_r& cad=0). New York: D. Van Nostrand. p.1: "Nature of Physical Science – Physical science is that
department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature." | accessdate=2008-11-04
[3] H.D. Young & R.A. Freedman, University Physics with Modern Physics: 11th Edition: International Edition (2004), Addison Wesley.
Chapter 1, section 1.1, page 2 has this to say: "Physics is an experimental science. Physicists observe the phenomena of nature and try to find
patterns and principles that relate these phenomena. These patterns are called physical theories or, when they are very well established and of
broad use, physical laws or principles."
Steve Holzner, Physics for Dummies (2006), Wiley. Chapter 1, page 7 says: "Physics is the study of your world and the world and universe
around you." See Amazon Online Reader: Physics For Dummies (For Dummies(Math & Science)) (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ reader/
0764554336), retrieved 24 Nov 2006
[4] Note: The term 'universe' is defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and
momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe' may also be used in slightly different
contextual senses, denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical world.
Physics 12

[5] Evidence exists that the earliest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000BC, such as the Sumerians, Ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley
Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a very basic understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
[6] Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the development of scientific method.
[7] The Feynman Lectures on Physics Volume I. Feynman, Leighton and Sands. ISBN 0-201-02115-3 See Chapter 3 : "The Relation of Physics
to Other Sciences" for a general discussion. For the philosophical issue of whether other sciences can be "reduced" to physics, see
reductionism and special sciences).
[8] Some principles, such as Newton's laws of motion, are still generally called "laws" even though they are now known to be limiting cases of
newer theories. Thus, for example, in Thomas Brody (1993, Luis de la Peña and Peter Hodgson, eds.) The Philosophy Behind Physics ISBN
0-387-55914-0, pp 18–24 (Chapter 2), explains the 'epistemic cycle' in which a student of physics discovers that physics is not a finished
product but is instead the process of creating [that product].
[9] See, for example, the influence of Kant and Ritter on Oersted.
[10] Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth century physics was denigrated by
some, including Ernst Mach's critique of Ludwig Boltzmann's formulation of statistical mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was
no longer deemed hypothetical.
[11] "Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our eyes. I mean the universe, but we cannot understand it if we do not first
learn the language and grasp the symbols in which it is written. This book is written in the mathematical language, and the symbols are
triangles, circles and other geometrical figures, without whose help it is humanly impossible to comprehend a single word of it, and without
which one wanders in vain through a dark labyrinth." – Galileo (1623), The Assayer, as quoted by G. Toraldo Di Francia (1976), The
Investigation of the Physical World ISBN 0-521-29925-X p.10
[12] Rosenberg, Alex (2006). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34317-8. See Chapter 1 for a discussion on the necessity of
philosophy of science.
[13] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 14 "Bayesianism and Modern Theories of Evidence" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the
philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3
[14] Peter Godfrey-Smith (2003), Chapter 15 "Empiricism, Naturalism, and Scientific Realism?" Theory and Reality: an introduction to the
philosophy of science ISBN 0-226-30063-3
[15] See Laplace, Pierre Simon, A Philosophical Essay on Probabilities, translated from the 6th French edition by Frederick Wilson Truscott and
Frederick Lincoln Emory, Dover Publications (New York, 1951)
[16] See "The Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics" Ox Bow Press (1995) ISBN 1881987094. and "My View of the World" Ox Bow Press
(1983) ISBN 0918024307.
[17] Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose (1996), The Nature of Space and Time ISBN 0-691-05084-8 p.4 "I think that Roger is a Platonist at
heart but he must answer for himself."
[18] Roger Penrose, The Road to Reality ISBN 0-679-45443-8
[19] Penrose, Roger; Abner Shimony, Nancy Cartwright, Stephen Hawking (1997). The Large, the Small and the Human Mind. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 0-521-78572-3.
[20] Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics. For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated at CERN by Tim
Berners-Lee, was created in service to the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended for use by physicists worldwide. The same
might be said for arXiv.org
[21] "Division of Condensed Matter Physics Governance History" (http:/ / dcmp. bc. edu/ page. php?name=governance_history). . Retrieved
2007-02-13.
[22] 584 co-authors "Direct observation of the strange 'b' baryon " Fermilab-Pub-07/196-E, June 12, 2007 http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ 0706.
1690v2 finds a mass of 5.774 GeV for the
[23] Goldstein, Sydney (1969). "Fluid Mechanics in the First Half of this Century". Annual Reviews in Fluid Mechanics 1: 1–28. doi:
10.1146/annurev.fl.01.010169.000245 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1146/ annurev. fl. 01. 010169. 000245).
[24] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 0sn/
[25] http:/ / www. motionmountain. net/
[26] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ hframe. html
[27] http:/ / www. physicscentral. com/
[28] http:/ / www. aps. org/
[29] http:/ / www. physics. org/
[30] http:/ / www. iop. org/
[31] http:/ / musr. physics. ubc. ca/ ~jess/ hr/ skept/
[32] http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ physics/
[33] http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/
[34] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/
[35] http:/ / www. nature. com/ naturephysics
[36] http:/ / physics. aps. org/
[37] http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ / Science/ Physics/ Publications/ /
[38] http:/ / physicsweb. org
[39] http:/ / physlib. com/
Physics 13

[40] http:/ / www. vega. org. uk/

[41] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ JustinMorganPhysicsLightningTour/
[42] http:/ / www. learner. org/ resources/ series42. html
[43] http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=
[44] http:/ / www. scholarpedia. org/ article/ Encyclopedia_of_physics
[45] http:/ / home. tiscali. nl/ physis/ HistoricPaper/
[46] http:/ / www. aip. org/ index. html
[47] http:/ / www. aps. org
[48] http:/ / www. iop. org
[49] http:/ / planetphysics. org/
[50] http:/ / www. royalsoc. ac. uk
[51] http:/ / www. spsnational. org

Acceleration
For the waltz composed by Johann Strauss, see Accelerationen.
In physics, and more specifically kinematics,
acceleration is the change in velocity over time.[1]
Because velocity is a vector, it can change in two ways:
a change in magnitude and/or a change in direction. In
one dimension, i.e. a line, acceleration is the rate at
which something speeds up or slows down. However,
as a vector quantity, acceleration is also the rate at
which direction changes.[2] [3] Acceleration has the
dimensions L T−2. In SI units, acceleration is measured
in metres per second squared (m/s2).

In common speech, the term acceleration commonly is

used for an increase in speed (the magnitude of
velocity); a decrease in speed is called deceleration. In
physics, a change in the direction of velocity also is an
acceleration: for rotary motion, the change in direction
of velocity results in centripetal (toward the center)
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. At any point on a
trajectory, the magnitude of the acceleration is given by the rate of
change of velocity in both magnitude and direction at that point. The
true acceleration at time t is found in the limit as time interval Δt →
0.

acceleration; where as the rate of change of speed is a

tangential acceleration.

In classical mechanics, for a body with constant mass, the acceleration of the body is proportional to the resultant
(total) force acting on it (Newton's second law):
Acceleration 14

Components of acceleration for a planar curved motion. The

tangential component at is due to the change in speed of traversal,
and points along the curve in the direction of the velocity vector. The
centripetal component ac is due to the change in direction of the
velocity vector and is normal to the trajectory, pointing toward the
center of curvature of the path.

where F is the resultant force acting on the body, m is the mass of the body, and a is its acceleration.

Average and instantaneous acceleration

Average acceleration is the change in velocity (Δv) divided by the change in time (Δt). Instantaneous acceleration is
the acceleration at a specific point in time.

Tangential and centripetal acceleration

The velocity of a particle moving on a curved path as a function of time can be written as:

with v(t) equal to the speed of travel along the path, and

a unit vector tangent to the path pointing in the direction of motion at the chosen moment in time. Taking into
account both the changing speed v(t) and the changing direction of ut, the acceleration of a particle moving on a
curved path on a planar surface can be written using the chain rule of differentiation as:

where un is the unit (outward) normal vector to the particle's trajectory, and R is its instantaneous radius of curvature
based upon the osculating circle at time t. These components are called the tangential acceleration and the radial
Acceleration 15

acceleration, respectively. The negative of the radial acceleration is the centripetal acceleration, which points
inward, toward the center of curvature.
Extension of this approach to three-dimensional space curves that cannot be contained on a planar surface leads to
the Frenet-Serret formulas.[4] [5]

Relation to relativity
After completing his theory of special relativity, Albert Einstein realized that forces felt by objects undergoing
constant proper acceleration are actually feeling themselves being accelerated, so that, for example, a car's
acceleration forwards would result in the driver feeling a slight pressure between herself and her seat. In the case of
gravity, which Einstein concluded is not actually a force, this is not the case; acceleration due to gravity is not felt by
an object in free-fall. This was the basis for his development of general relativity, a relativistic theory of gravity.

See also
• Uniform acceleration
• Angular acceleration
• Gravitational acceleration
• Coordinate vs. physical acceleration
• Derivatives of position
• Equations of Motion
• Proper Acceleration
• 0 to 60 mph
• Shock (mechanics)
• Specific force

External links
• Acceleration and Free Fall [6] - a chapter from an online textbook
• Science aid: Movement [7]
• Science.dirbix: Acceleration [8]
• Acceleration Calculator [9]
• Motion Characteristics for Circular Motion [10]
• Practical Guide to Accelerometers [11]
• Acceleration Converter [12] Converts common acceleration units.
• Acceleration Calculator [13] Simple acceleration unit converter

References
[1] Crew, Henry (2008). The Principles of Mechanics. BiblioBazaar, LLC. pp. 43. ISBN 0559368712.
[2] Bondi, Hermann (1980). Relativity and Common Sense. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 3. ISBN 0486240215.
[3] Lehrman, Robert L. (1998). Physics the Easy Way. Barron's Educational Series. pp. 27. ISBN 0764102362.
[4] Larry C. Andrews & Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC& pg=PA164& dq=particle+ "planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2LpH6ofhuuC2UiED0pf38wbspY8A#PPA164,M1). SPIE Press. p. 164. ISBN 0819445061. .
[5] Ch V Ramana Murthy & NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC& pg=PA337&
vq=frenet& dq=isbn=8121920825& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3S5vGMS-NnraAEmpBf6B9bB2wK6A). New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.. p. 337. ISBN 81-219-2082-5. .
[6] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 1np/ ch03/ ch03. html
[7] http:/ / www. scienceaid. co. uk/ physics/ forces/ motion. html
[8] http:/ / science. dirbix. com/ physics/ acceleration
[9] http:/ / www. ajdesigner. com/ constantacceleration/ cavelocitya. php
Acceleration 16

[10] http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ gbssci/ phys/ Class/ circles/ u6l1b. html
[11] http:/ / www. sensr. com/ pdf/ practical-guide-to-accelerometers. pdf
[12] http:/ / www. convertbuster. com/ Tools/ AccelerationConverter/ tabid/ 103/ Default. aspx
[13] http:/ / www. unitjuggler. com/ convert-acceleration-from-ms2-to-fts2. html

Force
See also Force (disambiguation).
In physics, the concept of force is used to
describe an influence which causes a free
massive body to undergo an acceleration.
Forces which do not act uniformly on all
parts of a body will also cause mechanical
stresses.[1]

Force can also be described by intuitive

concepts such as a push or pull that can
cause an object with mass to change its
velocity (which includes to begin moving
from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate, or
which can cause a flexible object to deform.
Related concepts to accelerating forces
include thrust - any force which increases
the velocity of the object, drag - any force
which decreases the velocity of any object,
and torque - the tendency of a force to cause
changes in rotational speed about an axis.
Alternatively, mechanical stress is a Forces are often described as pushes or pulls. They can be due to phenomena such
technical term for the efforts which cause as gravity, magnetism, or anything else that might cause a mass to accelerate.

deformation of matter, be it solid, liquid, or

gaseous. While mechanical stress can remain embedded in a solid object, gradually deforming it, mechanical stress
in a fluid determines changes in its pressure and volume.[2] [3]

An applied force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. Newton's second law states that an
object with a constant mass will accelerate in proportion to the net force acting upon and in inverse proportion to its
mass. Equivalently, the net force, on an object equals the rate at which its momentum changes.[4]
Philosophers in antiquity have used the concept of force in the study of stationary and moving objects. Aristotle
attempted to define this concept in detail but incorporated fundamental misunderstandings that lasted many
centuries. Archimedes developed a better understanding of force by observing simple machines, but many in his time
still believed Aristotle's concept of force.[5] When the Age of Enlightenment began, Sir Isaac Newton corrected these
misunderstandings with mathematical insight that remained unchanged for nearly three hundred years.[3] By the
early 20th century, Einstein developed the theory of Special Relativity to correctly predict how forces increase
exponentially for particles approaching the speed of light.
With modern insights into quantum mechanics and technology that can accelerate particles close to the speed of
light, particle physics has devised a Standard Model to describe forces between particles smaller than atoms. The
Standard Model predicts that exchange particles called gauge bosons are the fundamental means by which forces are
emitted and absorbed. Only four main interactions are known: in order of decreasing strength, they are: strong,
Force 17

electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational.[2] High-energy particle physics observations made during the 1970s and
1980s confirmed that the weak and electromagnetic forces are expressions of a more fundamental electroweak
interaction.[6]

Pre-Newtonian concepts
Since antiquity, the concept of force has been recognized as integral to the
functioning of each of the simple machines. The mechanical advantage given
by a simple machine allowed for less force to be used in exchange for that
force acting over a greater distance. Analysis of the characteristics of forces
ultimately culminated in the work of Archimedes who was especially famous
for formulating a treatment of buoyant forces inherent in fluids.[5]

Aristotle provided a philosophical discussion of the concept of a force as an

integral part of Aristotelian cosmology. In Aristotle's view, the natural world
held four elements that existed in "natural states". Aristotle believed that it
was the natural state of objects with mass on Earth, such as the elements
water and earth, to be motionless on the ground and that they tended towards
that state if left alone. He distinguished between the innate tendency of
objects to find their "natural place" (e.g., for heavy bodies to fall), which led
to "natural motion", and unnatural or forced motion, which required Aristotle famously described a force as
[7] anything which causes an object to
continued application of a force. This theory, based on the everyday
undergo "unnatural motion"
experience of how objects move, such as the constant application of a force
needed to keep a cart moving, had conceptual trouble accounting for the
behavior of projectiles, such as the flight of arrows. The place where forces were applied to projectiles was only at
the start of the flight, and while the projectile sailed through the air, no discernible force acts on it. Aristotle was
aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path provided the needed force to
continue the projectile moving. This explanation demands that air is needed for projectiles and that, for example, in a
vacuum, no projectile would move after the initial push. Additional problems with the explanation include the fact
that air resists the motion of the projectiles.[8]

These shortcomings would not be fully explained and corrected until the seventeenth century work of Galileo
Galilei, who was influenced by the late medieval idea that objects in forced motion carried an innate force of
impetus. Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to
disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion early in the seventeenth century. He showed that the bodies were
accelerated by gravity to an extent which was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity
unless acted on by a force, for example friction.[9]
Force 18

Newtonian mechanics
Sir Isaac Newton sought to describe the motion of all objects using the concepts of inertia and force, and in doing so,
he found that they obey certain conservation laws. In 1687, Newton went on to publish his thesis Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica.[3] [10] In this work, Newton set out three laws of motion that to this day are the
way forces are described in physics.[10]

Newton's first law

Newton's first law of motion states that objects continue to move in a state of constant velocity unless acted upon by
an external net force or resultant force.[10] This law is an extension of Galileo's insight that constant velocity was
associated with a lack of net force (see a more detailed description of this below). Newton proposed that every object
with mass has an innate inertia that functions as the fundamental equilibrium "natural state" in place of the
Aristotelian idea of the "natural state of rest". That is, the first law contradicts the intuitive Aristotelian belief that a
net force is required to keep an object moving with constant velocity. By making rest physically indistinguishable
from non-zero constant velocity, Newton's first law directly connects inertia with the concept of relative velocities.
Specifically, in systems where objects are moving with different velocities, it is impossible to determine which
object is "in motion" and which object is "at rest". In other words, to phrase matters more technically, the laws of
physics are the same in every inertial frame of reference, that is, in all frames related by a Galilean transformation.
For example, while traveling in a moving vehicle at a constant velocity, the laws of physics do not change from
being at rest. A person can throw a ball straight up in the air and catch it as it falls down without worrying about
applying a force in the direction the vehicle is moving. This is true even though another person who is observing the
moving vehicle pass by also observes the ball follow a curving parabolic path in the same direction as the motion of
the vehicle. It is the inertia of the ball associated with its constant velocity in the direction of the vehicle's motion
that ensures the ball continues to move forward even as it is thrown up and falls back down. From the perspective of
the person in the car, the vehicle and every thing inside of it is at rest: It is the outside world that is moving with a
constant speed in the opposite direction. Since there is no experiment that can distinguish whether it is the vehicle
that is at rest or the outside world that is at rest, the two situations are considered to be physically indistinguishable.
Inertia therefore applies equally well to constant velocity motion as it does to rest.
The concept of inertia can be further generalized to explain the tendency of objects to continue in many different
forms of constant motion, even those that are not strictly constant velocity. The rotational inertia of planet Earth is
what fixes the constancy of the length of a day and the length of a year. Albert Einstein extended the principle of
inertia further when he explained that reference frames subject to constant acceleration, such as those free-falling
toward a gravitating object, were physically equivalent to inertial reference frames. This is why, for example,
astronauts experience weightlessness when in free-fall orbit around the Earth, and why Newton's Laws of Motion are
more easily discernible in such environments. If an astronaut places an object with mass in mid-air next to herself, it
will remain stationary with respect to the astronaut due to its inertia. This is the same thing that would occur if the
astronaut and the object were in intergalactic space with no net force of gravity acting on their shared reference
frame. This principle of equivalence was one of the foundational underpinnings for the development of the general
theory of relativity.[11]
Force 19

Newton's second law

A modern statement of Newton's second law is a vector differential
equation:[12]

Though Sir Isaac Newton's most famous

equation is
\scriptstyle{\vec{F}=m\vec{a}}, he
actually wrote down a different form for
his second law of motion that did not use
differential calculus.

where is the momentum of the system, and is the net (vector sum) force. In equilibrium, there is zero net force
by definition, but (balanced) forces may be present nevertheless. In contrast, the second law states an unbalanced
force acting on an object will result in the object's momentum changing over time.[10]
By the definition of momentum,

where m is the mass and is the velocity.

The product rule shows that

For closed systems (systems of constant total mass), the time derivative of mass is zero and the equation becomes

By substituting the definition of acceleration, the algebraic version of this common simplification of Newton's
second law is derived:

It is sometimes called the "second most famous formula in physics".[13] Newton never explicitly stated the formula
in the reduced form above.
Newton's second law asserts the proportionality of acceleration and mass to force. Accelerations can be defined
through kinematic measurements. However, while kinematics are well-described through reference frame analysis in
advanced physics, there are still deep questions that remain as to what is the proper definition of mass. General
relativity offers an equivalence between space-time and mass, but lacking a coherent theory of quantum gravity, it is
unclear as to how or whether this connection is relevant on microscales. With some justification, Newton's second
Force 20

law can be taken as a quantitative definition of mass by writing the law as an equality; the relative units of force and
mass then are fixed.
The use of Newton's second law as a definition of force has been disparaged in some of the more rigorous
textbooks,[2] [14] because it is essentially a mathematical truism. The equality between the abstract idea of a "force"
and the abstract idea of a "changing momentum vector" ultimately has no observational significance because one
cannot be defined without simultaneously defining the other. What a "force" or "changing momentum" is must either
be referred to an intuitive understanding of our direct perception, or be defined implicitly through a set of
self-consistent mathematical formulas. Notable physicists, philosophers and mathematicians who have sought a more
explicit definition of the concept of "force" include Ernst Mach, Clifford Truesdell and Walter Noll.[15]
Newton's second law can be used to measure the strength of forces. For instance, knowledge of the masses of planets
along with the accelerations of their orbits allows scientists to calculate the gravitational forces on planets.

Newton's third law

Newton's third law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of
different objects. For any two objects (call them 1 and 2), Newton's third law states that any force that is applied to
object 1 due to the action of object 2 is automatically accompanied by a force applied to object 2 due to the action of
object 1[16]

This law implies that forces always occur in action-and-reaction pairs.[10] If object 1 and object 2 are considered to
be in the same system, then the net force on the system due to the interactions between objects 1 and 2 is zero since

This means that in a closed system of particles, there are no internal forces that are unbalanced. That is,
action-and-reaction pairs of forces shared between any two objects in a closed system will not cause the center of
mass of the system to accelerate. The constituent objects only accelerate with respect to each other, the system itself
remains unaccelerated. Alternatively, if an external force acts on the system, then the center of mass will experience
an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the external force divided by the mass of the system.[2]
Combining Newton's second and third laws, it is possible to show that the linear momentum of a system is
conserved. Using

and integrating with respect to time, the equation:

is obtained. For a system which includes objects 1 and 2,

which is the conservation of linear momentum.[17] Using the similar arguments, it is possible to generalizing this to a
system of an arbitrary number of particles. This shows that exchanging momentum between constituent objects will
not affect the net momentum of a system. In general, as long as all forces are due to the interaction of objects with
mass, it is possible to define a system such that net momentum is never lost nor gained.[2]
Force 21

Descriptions
Since forces are perceived as pushes or pulls, this can
provide an intuitive understanding for describing
forces.[3] As with other physical concepts (e.g.
temperature), the intuitive understanding of forces is
quantified using precise operational definitions that
are consistent with direct observations and compared
to a standard measurement scale. Through
experimentation, it is determined that laboratory
measurements of forces are fully consistent with the
conceptual definition of force offered by Newtonian
mechanics.

Forces act in a particular direction and have sizes

dependent upon how strong the push or pull is.
Because of these characteristics, forces are classified
as "vector quantities". This means that forces follow
a different set of mathematical rules than physical
quantities that do not have direction (denoted scalar
quantities). For example, when determining what
happens when two forces act on the same object, it is
necessary to know both the magnitude and the
direction of both forces to calculate the result. If both
of these pieces of information are not known for each
force, the situation is ambiguous. For example, if you Free-body diagrams of an object on a flat surface and an inclined plane.
know that two people are pulling on the same rope Forces are resolved and added together to determine their magnitudes
and the resultant.
with known magnitudes of force but you do not know
which direction either person is pulling, it is
impossible to determine what the acceleration of the rope will be. The two people could be pulling against each other
as in tug of war or the two people could be pulling in the same direction. In this simple one-dimensional example,
without knowing the direction of the forces it is impossible to decide whether the net force is the result of adding the
two force magnitudes or subtracting one from the other. Associating forces with vectors avoids such problems.

Historically, forces were first quantitatively investigated in conditions of static equilibrium where several forces
canceled each other out. Such experiments demonstrate the crucial properties that forces are additive vector
quantities: they have magnitude and direction.[3] When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the resultant,
can be determined by following the parallelogram rule of vector addition: the addition of two vectors represented by
sides of a parallelogram, gives an equivalent resultant vector which is equal in magnitude and direction to the
transversal of the parallelogram.[2] . The magnitude of the resultant varies from the difference of the magnitudes of
the two forces to their sum, depending on the angle between their lines of action.
Free-body diagrams can be used as a convenient way to keep track of forces acting on a system. Ideally, these
diagrams are drawn with the angles and relative magnitudes of the force vectors preserved so that graphical vector
addition can be done to determine the resultant.[18]
As well as being added, forces can also be resolved into independent components at right angles to each other. A
horizontal force pointing northeast can therefore be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east.
Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force. Resolving force vectors into
components of a set of basis vectors is often a more mathematically clean way to describe forces than using
Force 22

magnitudes and directions.[19] This is because, for orthogonal components, the components of the vector sum are
uniquely determined by the scalar addition of the components of the individual vectors. Orthogonal components are
independent of each other because forces acting at ninety degrees to each other have no effect on the magnitude or
direction of the other. Choosing a set of orthogonal basis vectors is often done by considering what set of basis
vectors will make the mathematics most convenient. Choosing a basis vector that is in the same direction as one of
the forces is desirable, since that force would then have only one non-zero component. Orthogonal force vectors can
be three-dimensional with the third component being at right-angles to the other two.[2]

Equilibria
Equilibrium occurs when the resultant force acting on a point particle is zero (that is, the vector sum of all forces is
zero). When dealing with an extense body, it is also necessary that the net torque in it is 0.
There are two kinds of equilibrium: static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium.

Static equilibrium
Static equilibrium was understood well before the invention of classical mechanics. Objects which are at rest have
zero net force acting on them.[20]
The simplest case of static equilibrium occurs when two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. For
example, an object on a level surface is pulled (attracted) downward toward the center of the Earth by the force of
gravity. At the same time, surface forces resist the downward force with equal upward force (called the normal
force). The situation is one of zero net force and no acceleration.[3]
Pushing against an object on a frictional surface can result in a situation where the object does not move because the
applied force is opposed by static friction, generated between the object and the table surface. For a situation with no
movement, the static friction force exactly balances the applied force resulting in no acceleration. The static friction
increases or decreases in response to the applied force up to an upper limit determined by the characteristics of the
contact between the surface and the object.[3]
A static equilibrium between two forces is the most usual way of measuring forces, using simple devices such as
weighing scales and spring balances. For example, an object suspended on a vertical spring scale experiences the
force of gravity acting on the object balanced by a force applied by the "spring reaction force" which equals object's
weight. Using such tools, some quantitative force laws were discovered: that the force of gravity is proportional to
volume for objects of constant density (widely exploited for millennia to define standard weights); Archimedes'
principle for buoyancy; Archimedes' analysis of the lever; Boyle's law for gas pressure; and Hooke's law for springs.
These were all formulated and experimentally verified before Isaac Newton expounded his three laws of motion.[2]
[3]
Force 23

Dynamical equilibrium

Dynamical equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that

certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations
and logic. Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the
concept of an "absolute rest frame" did not exist. Galileo concluded that
motion in a constant velocity was completely equivalent to rest. This was
contrary to Aristotle's notion of a "natural state" of rest that objects with mass
naturally approached. Simple experiments showed that Galileo's
understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest to be correct.
For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship
moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball
fall straight down while the ship moved beneath it. Thus, in an Aristotelian
universe, the falling cannonball would land behind the foot of the mast of a
Galileo Galilei was the first to point out
moving ship. However, when this experiment is actually conducted, the
the inherent contradictions contained in
cannonball always falls at the foot of the mast, as if the cannonball knows to Aristotle's description of forces.
travel with the ship despite being separated from it. Since there is no forward
horizontal force being applied on the cannonball as it falls, the only conclusion left is that the cannonball continues
to move with the same velocity as the boat as it falls. Thus, no force is required to keep the cannonball moving at the
constant forward velocity.[9]

Moreover, any object traveling at a constant velocity must be subject to zero net force (resultant force). This is the
definition of dynamical equilibrium: when all the forces on an object balance but it still moves at a constant velocity.
A simple case of dynamical equilibrium occurs in constant velocity motion across a surface with kinetic friction. In
such a situation, a force is applied in the direction of motion while the kinetic friction force exactly opposes the
applied force. This results in a net zero force, but since the object started with a non-zero velocity, it continues to
move with a non-zero velocity. Aristotle misinterpreted this motion as being caused by the applied force. However,
when kinetic friction is taken into consideration it is clear that there is no net force causing constant velocity
motion.[2]

Special relativity
In the special theory of relativity mass and energy are equivalent (as can be seen by calculating the work required to
accelerate an object). When an object's velocity increases so does its energy and hence its mass equivalent (inertia).
It thus requires more force to accelerate it the same amount than it did at a lower velocity. Newton's second law

remains valid due to the fact that it is a mathematical definition.[21] But in order to be conserved, relativistic
momentum must be redefined as:

where
is the velocity and
is the speed of light.
The relativistic expression relating force and acceleration for a particle with constant non-zero rest mass moving
in the direction is:
Force 24

where the Lorentz factor

[22]

Relativistic force does not produce a constant acceleration, but an ever decreasing acceleration as the object
approaches the speed of light. Note that is undefined for an object with a non zero rest mass at the speed of light,
and the theory yields no prediction at that speed.
One can however restore the form of

for use in relativity through the use of four-vectors. This relation is correct in relativity when is the four-force,
[23]
m is the invariant mass, and is the four-acceleration.

Feynman diagrams
In modern particle physics, forces and the acceleration
of particles are explained as the exchange of
momentum-carrying gauge bosons. With the
development of quantum field theory and general
relativity, it was realized that "force" is a redundant
concept arising from conservation of momentum
(4-momentum in relativity and momentum of virtual
particles in quantum electrodynamics). The
conservation of momentum, from Noether's theorem,
can be directly derived from the symmetry of space and
so is usually considered more fundamental than the
concept of a force. Thus the currently known
fundamental forces are considered more accurately to
be "fundamental interactions".[6] When particle A emits
(creates) or absorbs (annihilates) particle B, a force
accelerates particle A in response to the momentum of
A Feynman diagram for the decay of a neutron into a proton. The W
particle B, thereby conserving momentum as a whole. boson is between two vertices indicating a repulsion.
This description applies for all forces arising from
fundamental interactions. While sophisticated mathematical descriptions are needed to predict, in full detail, the
nature of such interactions, there is a conceptually simple way to describe such interactions through the use of
Feynman diagrams. In a Feynman diagram, each matter particle is represented as a straight line (see world line)
traveling through time which normally increases up or to the right in the diagram. Matter and anti-matter particles
are identical except for their direction of propagation through the Feynman diagram. World lines of particles
intersect at interaction vertices, and the Feynman diagram represents any force arising from an interaction as
occurring at the vertex with an associated instantaneous change in the direction of the particle world lines. Gauge
bosons are emitted away from the vertex as wavy lines (similar to waves) and, in the case of virtual particle
exchange, are absorbed at an adjacent vertex.[24]

The utility of Feynman diagrams is that other types of physical phenomena that are part of the general picture of
fundamental interactions but are conceptually separate from forces can also be described using the same rules. For
example, a Feynman diagram can describe in succinct detail how a neutron decays into an electron, proton, and
neutrino, an interaction mediated by the same gauge boson that is responsible for the weak nuclear force.[24]
Force 25

Fundamental models
All the forces in the universe are based on four fundamental forces. The strong and weak forces act only at very short
distances, and are responsible for the interactions between subatomic particles including nucleons and compound
nuclei. The electromagnetic force acts between electric charges and the gravitational force acts between masses. All
other forces are based on the existence of the four fundamental interactions. For example, friction is a manifestation
of the electromagnetic force acting between the atoms of two surfaces, and the Pauli Exclusion Principle,[25] which
does not allow atoms to pass through each other. The forces in springs, modeled by Hooke's law, are also the result
of electromagnetic forces and the Exclusion Principle acting together to return the object to its equilibrium position.
Centrifugal forces are acceleration forces which arise simply from the acceleration of rotating frames of reference.[2]
The development of fundamental theories for forces proceeded along the lines of unification of disparate ideas. For
example, Isaac Newton unified the force responsible for objects falling at the surface of the Earth with the force
responsible for the orbits of celestial mechanics in his universal theory of gravitation. Michael Faraday and James
Clerk Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces were unified through one consistent theory of
electromagnetism. In the twentieth century, the development of quantum mechanics led to a modern understanding
that the first three fundamental forces (all except gravity) are manifestations of matter (fermions) interacting by
exchanging virtual particles called gauge bosons.[26] This standard model of particle physics posits a similarity
between the forces and led scientists to predict the unification of the weak and electromagnetic forces in electroweak
theory subsequently confirmed by observation. The complete formulation of the standard model predicts an as yet
unobserved Higgs mechanism, but observations such as neutrino oscillations indicate that the standard model is
incomplete. A grand unified theory allowing for the combination of the electroweak interaction with the strong force
is held out as a possibility with candidate theories such as supersymmetry proposed to accommodate some of the
outstanding unsolved problems in physics. Physicists are still attempting to develop self-consistent unification
models that would combine all four fundamental interactions into a theory of everything. Einstein tried and failed at
this endeavor, but currently the most popular approach to answering this question is string theory.[6]
Force 26

Gravity
What we now call gravity was not identified as a universal force until the work of
Isaac Newton. Before Newton, the tendency for objects to fall towards the Earth was
not understood to be related to the motions of celestial objects. Galileo was
instrumental in describing the characteristics of falling objects by determining that the
acceleration of every object in free-fall was constant and independent of the mass of
the object. Today, this acceleration due to gravity towards the surface of the Earth is
usually designated as and has a magnitude of about 9.81 meters per second squared
(this measurement is taken from sea level and may vary depending on location), and
points toward the center of the Earth.[27] This observation means that the force of
gravity on an object at the Earth's surface is directly proportional to the object's mass.
Thus an object that has a mass of will experience a force:

An initially stationary object

which is allowed to fall freely
under gravity drops a distance
which is proportional to the
square of the elapsed time. An
image was taken 20 flashes
per second. During the first
1/20th of a second the ball
drops one unit of distance
(here, a unit is about 12 mm);
by 2/20ths it has dropped a
total of 4 units; by 3/20ths, 9
units and so on.

In free-fall, this force is unopposed and therefore the net force on the object is its weight. For objects not in free-fall,
the force of gravity is opposed by the reactions of their supports. For example, a person standing on the ground
experiences zero net force, since his weight is balanced by a normal force exerted by the ground.[2]
Newton's contribution to gravitational theory was to unify the motions of heavenly bodies, which Aristotle had
assumed were in a natural state of constant motion, with falling motion observed on the Earth. He proposed a law of
gravity that could account for the celestial motions that had been described earlier using Kepler's Laws of Planetary
Motion.[28]
Newton came to realize that the effects of gravity might be observed in different ways at larger distances. In
particular, Newton determined that the acceleration of the Moon around the Earth could be ascribed to the same
Force 27

force of gravity if the acceleration due to gravity decreased as an inverse square law. Further, Newton realized that
the acceleration due to gravity is proportional to the mass of the attracting body.[28] Combining these ideas gives a
formula that relates the mass ( ) and the radius ( ) of the Earth to the gravitational acceleration:

where the vector direction is given by , the unit vector directed outward from the center of the Earth.[10]
In this equation, a dimensional constant is used to describe the relative strength of gravity. This constant has
come to be known as Newton's Universal Gravitation Constant,[29] though its value was unknown in Newton's
lifetime. Not until 1798 was Henry Cavendish able to make the first measurement of using a torsion balance; this
was widely reported in the press as a measurement of the mass of the Earth since knowing the could allow one to
solve for the Earth's mass given the above equation. Newton, however, realized that since all celestial bodies
followed the same laws of motion, his law of gravity had to be universal. Succinctly stated, Newton's Law of
Gravitation states that the force on a spherical object of mass due to the gravitational pull of mass is

where is the distance between the two objects' centers of mass and is the unit vector pointed in the direction
away from the center of the first object toward the center of the second object.[10]
This formula was powerful enough to stand as the basis for all subsequent descriptions of motion within the solar
system until the twentieth century. During that time, sophisticated methods of perturbation analysis[30] were invented
to calculate the deviations of orbits due to the influence of multiple bodies on a planet, moon, comet, or asteroid. The
formalism was exact enough to allow mathematicians to predict the existence of the planet Neptune before it was
observed.[31]
It was only the orbit of the planet Mercury that Newton's Law of Gravitation seemed not to fully explain. Some
astrophysicists predicted the existence of another planet (Vulcan) that would explain the discrepancies; however,
despite some early indications, no such planet could be found. When Albert Einstein finally formulated his theory of
general relativity (GR) he turned his attention to the problem of Mercury's orbit and found that his theory added a
correction which could account for the discrepancy. This was the first time that Newton's Theory of Gravity had
been shown to be less correct than an alternative.[32]
Since then, and so far, general relativity has been acknowledged as the theory which best explains gravity. In GR,
gravitation is not viewed as a force, but rather, objects moving freely in gravitational fields travel under their own
inertia in straight lines through curved space-time – defined as the shortest space-time path between two space-time
events. From the perspective of the object, all motion occurs as if there were no gravitation whatsoever. It is only
when observing the motion in a global sense that the curvature of space-time can be observed and the force is
inferred from the object's curved path. Thus, the straight line path in space-time is seen as a curved line in space, and
it is called the ballistic trajectory of the object. For example, a basketball thrown from the ground moves in a
parabola, as it is in a uniform gravitational field. Its space-time trajectory (when the extra ct dimension is added) is
almost a straight line, slightly curved (with the radius of curvature of the order of few light-years). The time
derivative of the changing momentum of the object is what we label as "gravitational force".[2]

Electromagnetic forces
The electrostatic force was first described in 1784 by Coulomb as a force which existed intrinsically between two
charges.[33] The properties of the electrostatic force were that it varied as an inverse square law directed in the radial
direction, was both attractive and repulsive (there was intrinsic polarity), was independent of the mass of the charged
objects, and followed the law of superposition. Coulomb's Law unifies all these observations into one succinct
statement.[34]
Force 28

Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the electric field to be useful for determining the
electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical
"test charge" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force.[35] Thus the
electric field anywhere in space is defined as

where is the magnitude of the hypothetical test charge.

Meanwhile, the Lorentz force of magnetism was discovered to exist between two electric currents. It has the same
mathematical character as Coulomb's Law with the proviso that like currents attract and unlike currents repel.
Similar to the electric field, the magnetic field can be used to determine the magnetic force on an electric current at
any point in space. In this case, the magnitude of the magnetic field was determined to be

where is the magnitude of the hypothetical test current and is the length of hypothetical wire through which the
test current flows. The magnetic field exerts a force on all magnets including, for example, those used in compasses.
The fact that the Earth's magnetic field is aligned closely with the orientation of the Earth's axis causes compass
magnets to become oriented because of the magnetic force pulling on the needle.
Through combining the definition of electric current as the time rate of change of electric charge, a rule of vector
multiplication called Lorentz's Law describes the force on a charge moving in an magnetic field.[35] The connection
between electricity and magnetism allows for the description of a unified electromagnetic force that acts on a charge.
This force can be written as a sum of the electrostatic force (due to the electric field) and the magnetic force (due to
the magnetic field). Fully stated, this is the law:

where is the electromagnetic force, is the magnitude of the charge of the particle, is the electric field, is
the velocity of the particle which is crossed with the magnetic field ( ).
The origin of electric and magnetic fields would not be fully explained until 1864 when James Clerk Maxwell
unified a number of earlier theories into a succinct set of four equations. These "Maxwell Equations" fully described
the sources of the fields as being stationary and moving charges, and the interactions of the fields themselves. This
led Maxwell to discover that electric and magnetic fields could be "self-generating" through a wave that traveled at a
speed which he calculated to be the speed of light. This insight united the nascent fields of electromagnetic theory
with optics and led directly to a complete description of the electromagnetic spectrum.[36]
However, attempting to reconcile electromagnetic theory with two observations, the photoelectric effect, and the
nonexistence of the ultraviolet catastrophe, proved troublesome. Through the work of leading theoretical physicists,
a new theory of electromagnetism was developed using quantum mechanics. This final modification to
electromagnetic theory ultimately led to quantum electrodynamics (or QED), which fully describes all
electromagnetic phenomena as being mediated by wave particles known as photons. In QED, photons are the
fundamental exchange particle which described all interactions relating to electromagnetism including the
electromagnetic force.[37]
It is a common misconception to ascribe the stiffness and rigidity of solid matter to the repulsion of like charges
under the influence of the electromagnetic force. However, these characteristics actually result from the Pauli
Exclusion Principle. Since electrons are fermions, they cannot occupy the same quantum mechanical state as other
electrons. When the electrons in a material are densely packed together, there are not enough lower energy quantum
mechanical states for them all, so some of them must be in higher energy states. This means that it takes energy to
pack them together. While this effect is manifested macroscopically as a structural "force", it is technically only the
result of the existence of a finite set of electron states.
Force 29

Nuclear forces
There are two "nuclear forces" which today are usually described as interactions that take place in quantum theories
of particle physics. The strong nuclear force[38] is the force responsible for the structural integrity of atomic nuclei
while the weak nuclear force[39] is responsible for the decay of certain nucleons into leptons and other types of
hadrons.[2]
The strong force is today understood to represent the interactions between quarks and gluons as detailed by the
theory of quantum chromodynamics (QCD).[40] The strong force is the fundamental force mediated by gluons, acting
upon quarks, antiquarks, and the gluons themselves. The strong interaction is the most powerful of the four
fundamental forces.
The strong force only acts directly upon elementary particles. However, a residual of the force is observed between
hadrons (the best known example being the force that acts between nucleons in atomic nuclei) as the nuclear force.
Here the strong force acts indirectly, transmitted as gluons which form part of the virtual pi and rho mesons which
classically transmit the nuclear force (see this topic for more). The failure of many searches for free quarks has
shown that the elementary particles affected are not directly observable. This phenomenon is called colour
confinement.
The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of
neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word "weak" derives from the fact that the field
strength is some 1013 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A
consistent electroweak theory has also been developed which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force
are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 1015 Kelvin. Such temperatures have been probed
in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.

Non-fundamental forces
Some forces are consequences of fundamental. In such situations, idealized models can be utilized to gain physical
insight.

Normal force
The normal force is the repulsive force of interaction between atoms at close contact.
When their electron clouds overlap, Pauli repulsion (due to fermionic nature of
electrons) follows resulting in the force which acts normal to the surface interface
between two objects.[41] The normal force, for example, is responsible for the structural
integrity of tables and floors as well as being the force that responds whenever an FN represents the normal
external force pushes on a solid object. An example of the normal force in action is the force exerted on the object.
impact force on an object crashing into an immobile surface.[2]

Friction
Friction is a surface force that opposes motion. The frictional force is directly related to the normal force which acts
to keep two solid objects separated at the point of contact. There are two broad classifications of frictional forces:
static friction and kinetic friction.
The static friction force ( ) will exactly oppose forces applied to an object parallel to a surface contact up to the
limit specified by the coefficient of static friction ( ) multiplied by the normal force ( ). In other words the
magnitude of the static friction force satisfies the inequality:
.
Force 30

The kinetic friction force ( ) is independent of both the forces applied and the movement of the object. Thus, the
magnitude of the force equals:
,
where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. For most surface interfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is less
than the coefficient of static friction.[2]

Tension
Tension forces can be modeled using ideal strings which are massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and unstretchable.
They can be combined with ideal pulleys which allow ideal strings to switch physical direction. Ideal strings transmit
tension forces instantaneously in action-reaction pairs so that if two objects are connected by an ideal string, any
force directed along the string by the first object is accompanied by a force directed along the string in the opposite
direction by the second object.[42] By connecting the same string multiple times to the same object through the use of
a set-up that uses movable pulleys, the tension force on a load can be multiplied. For every string that acts on a load,
another factor of the tension force in the string acts on the load. However, even though such machines allow for an
increase in force, there is a corresponding increase in the length of string that must be displaced in order to move the
load. These tandem effects result ultimately in the conservation of mechanical energy since the work done on the
load is the same no matter how complicated the machine.[2] [43]

Elastic force
An elastic force acts to return a spring to its natural length. An ideal spring is
taken to be massless, frictionless, unbreakable, and infinitely stretchable.
Such springs exert forces that push when contracted, or pull when extended,
in proportion to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium
position.[44] This linear relationship was described by Robert Hooke in 1676,
for whom Hooke's law is named. If is the displacement, the force
exerted by an ideal spring equals:

Fk is the force that responds to the load

on the spring.

where is the spring constant (or force constant), which is particular to the spring. The minus sign accounts for the
tendency of the elastic force to act in opposition to the applied load.[2]
Force 31

Continuum mechanics
Newton's laws and Newtonian mechanics in general were first developed to
describe how forces affect idealized point particles rather than
three-dimensional objects. However, in real life, matter has extended structure
and forces that act on one part of an object might affect other parts of an
object. For situations where lattice holding together the atoms in an object is
able to flow, contract, expand, or otherwise change shape, the theories of
continuum mechanics describe the way forces affect the material. For
example, in extended fluids, differences in pressure result in forces being
directed along the pressure gradients as follows:

When the drag force ( ) associated

with air resistance becomes equal in
magnitude to the force of gravity on a
falling object ( ), the object reaches
a state of dynamical equilibrium at
terminal velocity.

where is the volume of the object in the fluid and is the scalar function that describes the pressure at all
locations in space. Pressure gradients and differentials result in the buoyant force for fluids suspended in
gravitational fields, winds in atmospheric science, and the lift associated with aerodynamics and flight.[2]
A specific instance of such a force that is associated with dynamic pressure is fluid resistance: a body force that
resists the motion of an object through a fluid due to viscosity. For so-called "Stokes' drag" the force is
approximately proportional to the velocity, but opposite in direction:

where:
is a constant that depends on the properties of the fluid and the dimensions of the object (usually the
cross-sectional area), and
is the velocity of the object.[2]
More formally, forces in continuum mechanics are fully described by a stress tensor with terms that are roughly
defined as

where is the relevant cross-sectional area for the volume for which the stress-tensor is being calculated. This
formalism includes pressure terms associated with forces that act normal to the cross-sectional area (the matrix
diagonals of the tensor) as well as shear terms associated with forces that act parallel to the cross-sectional area (the
off-diagonal elements). The stress tensor accounts for forces that cause all deformations including also tensile
stresses and compressions.
Force 32

Fictitious forces
There are forces which are frame dependent, meaning that they appear due to the adoption of non-Newtonian (that is,
non-inertial) reference frames. Such forces include the centrifugal force and the Coriolis force.[45] These forces are
considered fictitious because they do not exist in frames of reference that are not accelerating.[2]
In general relativity, gravity becomes a fictitious force that arises in situations where spacetime deviates from a flat
geometry. As an extension, Kaluza-Klein theory and string theory ascribe electromagnetism and the other
fundamental forces respectively to the curvature of differently scaled dimensions, which would ultimately imply that
all forces are fictitious.

Rotations and torque

Forces that cause extended objects to rotate are associated with
torques. Mathematically, the torque on a particle is defined as the
cross-product:

Relationship between force (F), torque (τ), and

momentum vectors (p and L) in a rotating system.

where
is the particle's position vector relative to a pivot
is the force acting on the particle.
Torque is the rotation equivalent of force in the same way that angle is the rotational equivalent for position, angular
velocity for velocity, and angular momentum for momentum. All the formal treatments of Newton's Laws that
applied to forces equivalently apply to torques. Thus, as a consequence of Newton's First Law of Motion, there exists
rotational inertia that ensures that all bodies maintain their angular momentum unless acted upon by an unbalanced
torque. Likewise, Newton's Second Law of Motion can be used to derive an alternative definition of torque:

where
is the moment of inertia of the particle
is the angular acceleration of the particle.
This provides a definition for the moment of inertia which is the rotational equivalent for mass. In more advanced
treatments of mechanics, the moment of inertia acts as a tensor that, when properly analyzed, fully determines the
characteristics of rotations including precession and nutation.
Equivalently, the differential form of Newton's Second Law provides an alternative definition of torque:

[46]

where is the angular momentum of the particle.

Newton's Third Law of Motion requires that all objects exerting torques themselves experience equal and opposite
torques,[47] and therefore also directly implies the conservation of angular momentum for closed systems that
Force 33

experience rotations and revolutions through the action of internal torques.

Centripetal force
For an object accelerating in circular motion, the unbalanced force acting on the object equals:[48]

where is the mass of the object, is the velocity of the object and is the distance to the center of the circular
path and is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the
unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces
act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the
speed of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force
that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is
tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or
speeding it up and the radial (centripetal) force which changes its direction.[2]

Kinematic integrals
Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables. For
example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse[49]

which, by Newton's Second Law, must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the Impulse momentum
theorem).
Similarly, integrating with respect to position gives a definition for the work done by a force:[50]

which is equivalent to changes in kinetic energy (yielding the work energy theorem).[50]
Power P is the rate of change dW/dt of the work W, as the trajectory is extended by a position change in a time
[51]
interval dt:

with the velocity.

Potential energy
Instead of a force, often the mathematically related concept of a potential energy field can be used for convenience.
For instance, the gravitational force acting upon an object can be seen as the action of the gravitational field that is
present at the object's location. Restating mathematically the definition of energy (via the definition of work), a
potential scalar field is defined as that field whose gradient is equal and opposite to the force produced at
every point:

Forces can be classified as conservative or nonconservative. Conservative forces are equivalent to the gradient of a
potential while non-conservative forces are not.[2]
Force 34

Conservative forces
A conservative force that acts on a closed system has an associated mechanical work that allows energy to convert
only between kinetic or potential forms. This means that for a closed system, the net mechanical energy is conserved
whenever a conservative force acts on the system. The force, therefore, is related directly to the difference in
potential energy between two different locations in space,[52] and can be considered to be an artifact of the potential
field in the same way that the direction and amount of a flow of water can be considered to be an artifact of the
contour map of the elevation of an area.[2]
Conservative forces include gravity, the electromagnetic force, and the spring force. Each of these forces has models
which are dependent on a position often given as a radial vector emanating from spherically symmetric
potentials.[53] Examples of this follow:
For gravity:

where is the gravitational constant, and is the mass of object n.

For electrostatic forces:

where is electric permittivity of free space, and is the electric charge of object n.
For spring forces:

where is the spring constant.[2]

Nonconservative forces
For certain physical scenarios, it is impossible to model forces as being due to gradient of potentials. This is often
due to macrophysical considerations which yield forces as arising from a macroscopic statistical average of
microstates. For example, friction is caused by the gradients of numerous electrostatic potentials between the atoms,
but manifests as a force model which is independent of any macroscale position vector. Nonconservative forces other
than friction include other contact forces, tension, compression, and drag. However, for any sufficiently detailed
description, all these forces are the results of conservative ones since each of these macroscopic forces are the net
results of the gradients of microscopic potentials.[2]
The connection between macroscopic non-conservative forces and microscopic conservative forces is described by
detailed treatment with statistical mechanics. In macroscopic closed systems, nonconservative forces act to change
the internal energies of the system, and are often associated with the transfer of heat. According to the Second Law
of Thermodynamics, nonconservative forces necessarily result in energy transformations within closed systems from
ordered to more random conditions as entropy increases.[2]
Force 35

Units of measurement
The SI unit of force is the newton (symbol N), which is the force required to accelerate a one kilogram mass at a rate
of one meter per second squared, or kg·m·s−2.[54] The corresponding CGS unit is the dyne, the force required to
accelerate a one gram mass by one centimeter per second squared, or g·cm·s−2. A newton is thus equal to
100,000 dyne.
The gravitational foot-pound-second English unit of force is the pound-force (lbf), defined as the force exerted by
gravity on a pound-mass in the standard gravitational field of 9.80665 m·s−2.[54] The pound-force provides an
alternative unit of mass: one slug is the mass that will accelerate by one foot per second squared when acted on by
one pound-force.[54]
An alternative unit of force in a different foot-pound-second system, the absolute fps system, is the poundal, defined
as the force required to accelerate a one pound mass at a rate of one foot per second squared.[54] The units of slug
and poundal are designed to avoid a constant of proportionality in Newton's second law.
The pound-force has a metric counterpart, less commonly used than the newton: the kilogram-force (kgf) (sometimes
kilopond), is the force exerted by standard gravity on one kilogram of mass.[54] The kilogram-force leads to an
alternate, but rarely used unit of mass: the metric slug (sometimes mug or hyl) is that mass which accelerates at
1 m·s−2 when subjected to a force of 1 kgf. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern SI system, and is
generally deprecated; however it still sees use for some purposes as expressing jet thrust, bicycle spoke tension,
torque wrench settings and engine output torque. Other arcane units of force include the sthène which is equivalent
to 1000 N and the kip which is equivalent to 1000 lbf.

Units of force
newton dyne kilogram-force, pound-force poundal
(SI unit) kilopond

1N ≡ 1 kg·m/s² ≈ 0.10197 kp ≈ 0.22481 lbf ≈ 7.2330 pdl

= 105 dyn

1 dyn ≡ 1 g·cm/s²
= 10−5 N ≈ 1.0197×10−6 ≈ 2.2481×10−6 lbf ≈ 7.2330×10−5
kp pdl

1 kp = 9.80665 N = 980665 dyn ≡ gn·(1 kg) ≈ 2.2046 lbf ≈ 70.932 pdl

1 lbf ≈ 4.448222 N ≈ 444822 dyn ≈ 0.45359 kp ≡ gn·(1 lb) ≈ 32.174 pdl

1 pdl ≈ 0.138255 N ≈ 13825 dyn ≈ 0.014098 kp ≈ 0.031081 lbf ≡ 1 lb·ft/s²

The value of gn as used in the official definition of the kilogram-force is used here for all gravitational units.

References
• Corbell, H.C.; Philip Stehle (1994). Classical Mechanics p 28,. New York: Dover publications. ISBN
0-486-68063-0.
• Cutnell, John d.; Johnson, Kenneth W. (2004). Physics, Sixth Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc..
ISBN 041-44895-8.
• Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. Addison-Wesley. ISBN
0-201-02116-1.
• Halliday, David; Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane (2001). Physics v. 1. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN
0-471-32057-9.
• Parker, Sybil (1993). Encyclopedia of Physics, p 443,. Ohio: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-051400-3.
• Sears F., Zemansky M. & Young H. (1982). University Physics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. ISBN
0-201-07199-1.
Force 36

• Serway, Raymond A. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philadelphia: Saunders College Publishing.
ISBN 0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
• Verma, H.C. (2004). Concepts of Physics Vol 1. (2004 Reprint ed.). Bharti Bhavan. ISBN 81-7709-187-5.

External links
• Video lecture on Newton's three laws [55] by Walter Lewin from MIT OpenCourseWare
• A Java simulation on vector addition of forces [56]
• Force Unit Converter [57]

References
[1] "glossary" (http:/ / eobglossary. gsfc. nasa. gov/ Library/ glossary. php3?mode=alpha& seg=f& segend=h). Earth Observatory. NASA. .
Retrieved 2008-04-09. "Force: Any external agent that causes a change in the motion of a free body, or that causes stress in a fixed body."
[2] e.g. Feynman, R. P., Leighton, R. B., Sands, M. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol 1. Addison-Wesley.; Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow
(1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 133–134. ISBN 0070350485..
[3] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp18–38
[4] See for example pages 9-1 and 9-2 of Feynman, Leighton and Sands (1963).
[5] Heath,T.L.. "The Works of Archimedes (1897). The unabridged work in PDF form (19 MB)" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/
worksofarchimede029517mbp). Archive.org. . Retrieved 2007-10-14.
[6] Weinberg, S. (1994). Dreams of a Final Theory. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0-679-74408-8
[7] Land, Helen The Order of Nature in Aristotle's Physics: Place and the Elements (1998)
[8] Hetherington, Norriss S. (1993). Cosmology: Historical, Literary, Philosophical, Religious, and Scientific Perspectives. Garland Reference
Library of the Humanities. p. 100. ISBN 0815310854.
[9] Drake, Stillman (1978). Galileo At Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5
[10] Newton, Isaac (1999). The Principia Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN
0-520-08817-4. This is a recent translation into English by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, with help from Julia Budenz.
[11] DiSalle, Robert (2002-03-30). "Space and Time: Inertial Frames" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ spacetime-iframes/ ). Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. . Retrieved 2008-03-24.
[12] Newton's Principia Mathematica actually used a finite difference version of this equation based upon impulse. See Impulse.
[13] For example, by Rob Knop PhD in his Galactic Interactions blog on February 26, 2007 at 9:29 a.m. (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ interactions/
2007/ 02/ the_greatest_mystery_in_all_of. php)
[14] One exception to this rule is: Landau, L. D.; Akhiezer, A. I.; Lifshitz, A. M. (1967). General Physics; mechanics and molecular physics
(First English ed.). Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0080033040. Translated by: J. B. Sykes, A. D. Petford, and C. L. Petford. Library of
Congress Catalog Number 67-30260. In section 7, pages 12–14, this book defines force as dp/dt.
[15] e.g. W. Noll, “On the Concept of Force”, in part B of Walter Noll's website. (http:/ / www. math. cmu. edu/ ~wn0g/ noll).
[16] Henderson, Tom (1996-2007). "Lesson 4: Newton's Third Law of Motion" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ gbssci/ phys/ Class/
newtlaws/ u2l4a. html). The Physics Classroom. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[17] Dr. Nikitin (2007). "Dynamics of translational motion" (http:/ / physics-help. info/ physicsguide/ mechanics/ translational_dynamics. shtml).
. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[18] "Introduction to Free Body Diagrams" (http:/ / eta. physics. uoguelph. ca/ tutorials/ fbd/ intro. html). Physics Tutorial Menu. University of
Guelph. . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[19] Henderson, Tom (2004). "The Physics Classroom" (http:/ / www. glenbrook. k12. il. us/ GBSSCI/ PHYS/ Class/ vectors/ u3l1b. html). The
Physics Classroom and Mathsoft Engineering & Education, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[20] "Static Equilibrium" (http:/ / www. uvi. edu/ Physics/ SCI3xxWeb/ Structure/ StaticEq. html). Physics Static Equilibrium (forces and
torques). University of the Virgin Islands. . Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[21] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. pp. 855–876. ISBN 047123124X.
[22] "Seminar: Visualizing Special Relativity" (http:/ / www. anu. edu. au/ Physics/ Searle/ Obsolete/ Seminar. html). THE RELATIVISTIC
RAYTRACER. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[23] Wilson, John B.. "Four-Vectors (4-Vectors) of Special Relativity: A Study of Elegant Physics" (http:/ / SciRealm. com/ 4Vectors. html). The
Science Realm: John's Virtual Sci-Tech Universe. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[24] Shifman, Mikhail (1999). ITEP LECTURES ON PARTICLE PHYSICS AND FIELD THEORY. World Scientific. ISBN 981-02-2639-X.
[25] Nave, R. "Pauli Exclusion Principle" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ pauli. html). HyperPhysics***** Quantum Physics. .
Retrieved 2008-01-02.
[26] "Fermions & Bosons" (http:/ / particleadventure. org/ frameless/ fermibos. html). The Particle Adventure. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
Force 37

[27] Cook, A. H. (16-160-1965). "A New Absolute Determination of the Acceleration due to Gravity at the National Physical Laboratory" (http:/
/ www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v208/ n5007/ abs/ 208279a0. html). Nature 208: 279. doi: 10.1038/208279a0 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1038/ 208279a0). . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[28] University Physics, Sears, Young & Zemansky, pp59–82
[29] "Sir Isaac Newton: The Universal Law of Gravitation" (http:/ / csep10. phys. utk. edu/ astr161/ lect/ history/ newtongrav. html). Astronomy
161 The Solar System. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[30] Watkins, Thayer. "Perturbation Analysis, Regular and Singular" (http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ faculty/ watkins/ perturb. htm). Department of
Economics. San José State University. .
[31] Kollerstrom, Nick (2001). "Neptune's Discovery. The British Case for Co-Prediction." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051111190351/
http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/ nk/ neptune/ index. htm). University College London. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. ucl. ac. uk/ sts/
nk/ neptune/ index. htm) on 2005-11-11. . Retrieved 2007-03-19.
[32] Einstein, Albert (1916). "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" (http:/ / www. alberteinstein. info/ gallery/ gtext3. html)
(PDF). Annalen der Physik 49: 769–822. . Retrieved 2006-09-03.
[33] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 519. ISBN 047123124X.
[34] Coulomb, Charles (1784). "Recherches théoriques et expérimentales sur la force de torsion et sur l'élasticité des fils de metal". Histoire de
l’Académie Royale des Sciences: 229–269.
[35] Feynman, Leighton and Sands (2006). The Feynman Lectures on Physics The Definitive Edition Volume II. Pearson Addison Wesley. ISBN
0-8053-9047-2.
[36] Duffin, William (1980). Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd Ed.. McGraw-Hill. pp. 364–383. ISBN 0-07-084111-X.
[37] For a complete library on quantum mechanics see Quantum_mechanics#References
[38] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 940. ISBN 047123124X.
[39] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 951. ISBN 047123124X.
[40] Stevens, Tab (10/07/2003). "Quantum-Chromodynamics: A Definition - Science Articles" (http:/ / www. physicspost. com/
science-article-168. html). . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[41] Cutnell. Physics, Sixth Edition. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 93. ISBN 047123124X.
[42] "Tension Force" (http:/ / www. mtsu. edu/ ~phys2010/ Lectures/ Part_2__L6_-_L11/ Lecture_9/ Tension_Force/ tension_force. html).
Non-Calculus Based Physics I. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[43] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2006-02-02). "Strings, pulleys, and inclines" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node48. html). .
Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[44] "Elasticity, Periodic Motion" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ permot2. html). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. .
Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[45] Mallette, Vincent (1982-2008). "Inwit Publishing, Inc. and Inwit, LLC -- Writings, Links and Software Distributions - The Coriolis Force"
(http:/ / www. algorithm. com/ inwit/ writings/ coriolisforce. html). Publications in Science and Mathematics, Computing and the Humanities.
Inwit Publishing, Inc.. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[46] "Newton's Second Law for Rotation" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ n2r. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics *****
Rotation. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[47] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2007-01-07). "Newton's third law of motion" (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 336k/ lectures/ node26. html). .
Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[48] Nave, R. "Centripetal Force" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ cf. html). HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Rotation. .
[49] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2010), Engineering Mechanics, 12th edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, p. 222, ISBN 0-13-607791-9
[50] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-3.
[51] Feynman, Leighton & Sands (1963), vol. 1, p. 13-2.
[52] Singh, Sunil Kumar (2007-08-25). "Conservative force" (http:/ / cnx. org/ content/ m14104/ latest/ ). Connexions. . Retrieved 2008-01-04.
[53] Davis, Doug. "Conservation of Energy" (http:/ / www. ux1. eiu. edu/ ~cfadd/ 1350/ 08PotEng/ ConsF. html). General physics. . Retrieved
2008-01-04.
[54] Wandmacher, Cornelius; Johnson, Arnold (1995). Metric Units in Engineering. ASCE Publications. p. 15. ISBN 0784400709.
[55] http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ OcwWeb/ Physics/ 8-01Physics-IFall1999/ VideoLectures/ detail/ Video-Segment-Index-for-L-6. htm
[56] http:/ / phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Vector. htm
[57] http:/ / www. lorenz-messtechnik. de/ english/ company/ force_unit_calculation. php
Cross product 38

Cross product
In mathematics, the cross product is a binary operation on two vectors in a three-dimensional Euclidean space that
results in another vector which is perpendicular to the plane containing the two input vectors. The algebra defined by
the cross product is neither commutative nor associative. It contrasts with the dot product which produces a scalar
result. In many engineering and physics problems, it is desirable to be able to construct a perpendicular vector from
two existing vectors, and the cross product provides a means for doing so. The cross product is also useful as a
measure of "perpendicularness"—the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors is equal to the product of their
magnitudes if they are perpendicular and scales down to zero when they are parallel. The cross product is also
known as the vector product, or Gibbs vector product.
The cross product is only defined in three or seven dimensions. Like the dot product, it depends on the metric of
Euclidean space. Unlike the dot product, it also depends on the choice of orientation or "handedness". Certain
features of the cross product can be generalized to other situations. For arbitrary choices of orientation, the cross
product must be regarded not as a vector, but as a pseudovector. For arbitrary choices of metric, and in arbitrary
dimensions, the cross product can be generalized by the exterior product of vectors, defining a two-form instead of a
vector.

The cross-product in respect to a right-handed

coordinate system
Cross product 39

Definition
The cross product of two vectors a and b is denoted by a × b. In
physics, sometimes the notation a∧b is used,[1] though this is avoided
in mathematics to avoid confusion with the exterior product.
In a three-dimensional Euclidean space, with a right-handed coordinate
system, a × b is defined as a vector c that is perpendicular to both a
and b, with a direction given by the right-hand rule and a magnitude
equal to the area of the parallelogram that the vectors span.
The cross product is defined by the formula[2]

Finding the direction of the cross product by the

right-hand rule

where θ is the measure of the smaller angle between a and b (0° ≤ θ ≤ 180°), a and b are the magnitudes of vectors a
and b, and is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing a and b in the direction given by the right-hand
rule as illustrated. If the vectors a and b are collinear (i.e., the angle θ between them is either 0° or 180°), by the
above formula, the cross product of a and b is the zero vector 0.
The direction of the vector is given by the right-hand rule, where one simply points the forefinger of the right hand
in the direction of a and the middle finger in the direction of b. Then, the vector is coming out of the thumb (see
the picture on the right). Using this rule implies that the cross-product is anti-commutative, i.e., b × a = -(a × b). By
pointing the forefinger toward b first, and then pointing the middle finger toward a, the thumb will be forced in the
opposite direction, reversing the sign of the product vector.
Using the cross product requires the handedness of the coordinate system to be taken into account (as explicit in the
definition above). If a left-handed coordinate system is used, the direction of the vector is given by the left-hand
rule and points in the opposite direction.
This, however, creates a problem because transforming from one arbitrary reference system to another (e.g., a mirror
image transformation from a right-handed to a left-handed coordinate system), should not change the direction of .
The problem is clarified by realizing that the cross-product of two vectors is not a (true) vector, but rather a
pseudovector. See cross product and handedness for more detail.

Computing the cross product

Coordinate notation
The unit vectors i, j, and k from the given orthogonal coordinate system satisfy the following equalities:
i×j=k     j×k=i     k×i=j
Together with the skew-symmetry and bilinearity of the cross product, these three identities are sufficient to
determine the cross product of any two vectors. In particular, the following identities are also seen to hold
j × i = −k           k × j = −i           i × k = −j
i × i = j × j = k × k = 0.
With these rules, the coordinates of the cross product of two vectors can be computed easily, without the need to
determine any angles: Let
Cross product 40

a = a1i + a2j + a3k = (a1, a2, a3)

and
b = b1i + b2j + b3k = (b1, b2, b3).
The cross product can be calculated by distributive cross-multiplication:
a × b = (a1i + a2j + a3k) × (b1i + b2j + b3k)
a × b = a1i × (b1i + b2j + b3k) + a2j × (b1i + b2j + b3k) + a3k × (b1i + b2j + b3k)
a × b = (a1i × b1i) + (a1i × b2j) + (a1i × b3k) + (a2j × b1i) + (a2j × b2j) + (a2j × b3k) + (a3k × b1i) + (a3k ×
b2j) + (a3k × b3k).
Since scalar multiplication is commutative with cross multiplication, the right hand side can be regrouped as
a × b = a1b1(i × i) + a1b2(i × j) + a1b3(i × k) + a2b1(j × i) + a2b2(j × j) + a2b3(j × k) + a3b1(k × i) + a3b2(k ×
j) + a3b3(k × k).
This equation is the sum of nine simple cross products. After all the multiplication is carried out using the basic cross
product relationships between i, j, and k defined above,
a × b = a1b1(0) + a1b2(k) + a1b3(−j) + a2b1(−k) + a2b2(0) + a2b3(i) + a3b1(j) + a3b2(−i) + a3b3(0).
This equation can be factored to form
a × b = (a2b3 − a3b2) i + (a3b1 − a1b3) j + (a1b2 − a2b1) k = (a2b3 − a3b2, a3b1 − a1b3, a1b2 − a2b1).

Matrix notation
The definition of the cross product can also be represented by the determinant of a matrix:

This determinant can be computed using Sarrus' rule. Consider the table

From the first three elements on the first row draw three diagonals sloping downward to the right (for example, the
first diagonal would contain i, a2, and b3), and from the last three elements on the first row draw three diagonals
sloping downward to the left (for example, the first diagonal would contain i, a3, and b2). Then multiply the elements
on each of these six diagonals, and negate the last three products. The cross product would be defined by the sum of
these products:
Cross product 41

Properties

Geometric meaning
The magnitude of the cross product can be interpreted
as the positive area of the parallelogram having a and b
as sides (see Figure 1):

Figure 1: The area of a parallelogram as a cross

product

Figure 2: The volume of a parallelepiped using dot and

cross-products; dashed lines show the projections of c onto a × b and
of a onto b × c, a first step in finding dot-products.

Indeed, one can also compute the volume V of a parallelepiped having a, b and c as sides by using a combination of
a cross product and a dot product, called scalar triple product (see Figure 2):

Figure 2 demonstrates that this volume can be found in two ways, showing geometrically that the identity holds that
a "dot" and a "cross" can be interchanged without changing the result. That is:

Because the magnitude of the cross product goes by the sine of the angle between its arguments, the cross product
can be thought of as a measure of "perpendicularness" in the same way that the dot product is a measure of
"parallelness". Given two unit vectors, their cross product has a magnitude of 1 if the two are perpendicular and a
magnitude of zero if the two are parallel.
Cross product 42

Algebraic properties
The cross product is anticommutative,
a × b = −b × a,
distributive over addition,
a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c),
and compatible with scalar multiplication so that
(r a) × b = a × (r b) = r (a × b).
It is not associative, but satisfies the Jacobi identity:
a × (b × c) + b × (c × a) + c × (a × b) = 0.
It does not obey the cancellation law:
If a × b = a × c and a ≠ 0 then:
(a × b) − (a × c) = 0 and, by the distributive law above:
a × (b − c) = 0
Now, if a is parallel to (b − c), then even if a ≠ 0 it is possible that (b − c) ≠ 0 and therefore that b ≠ c.
However, if both a · b = a · c and a × b = a × c, then it can be concluded that b = c. Indeed,
a · (b - c) = 0, and
a × (b - c) = 0
so that b - c is both parallel and perpendicular to the non-zero vector a. This is only possible if b - c = 0.
The distributivity, linearity and Jacobi identity show that R3 together with vector addition and cross product forms a
Lie algebra. In fact, the Lie algebra is that of the real orthogonal group in 3 dimensions, SO(3).
Further, two non-zero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if a × b = 0.
It follows from the geometrical definition above that the cross product is invariant under rotations about the axis
defined by a×b.
There is also this property relating cross products and the triple product:
(a × b) × (a × c) = (a · (b × c)) a.
The cross product obeys this identity under matrix transformations:

where is a 3 by 3 matrix and is the transpose of the inverse

The cross product of two vectors in 3-D always lies in the null space of the matrix with the vectors as rows. In other
words
Cross product 43

Triple product expansion

The triple product expansion, also known as Lagrange's formula, is a formula relating the cross product of three
vectors (called the vector triple product) with the dot product:
a × (b × c) = b(a · c) − c(a · b).
The mnemonic "BAC minus CAB" is used to remember the order of the vectors in the right hand member. This
formula is used in physics to simplify vector calculations. A special case, regarding gradients and useful in vector
calculus, is given below.

This is a special case of the more general Laplace-de Rham operator .

The following identity also relates the cross product and the dot product:

This is a special case of the multiplicativity of the norm in the quaternion algebra, and a restriction to
of Lagrange's identity.

Alternative ways to compute the cross product

Quaternions
The cross product can also be described in terms of quaternions, and this is why the letters i, j, k are a convention for
the standard basis on : it is thought of as the imaginary quaternions.
For instance, the above given cross product relations among i, j, and k agree with the multiplicative relations among
the quaternions i, j, and k. In general, if a vector [a1, a2, a3] is represented as the quaternion a1i + a2j + a3k, the cross
product of two vectors can be obtained by taking their product as quaternions and deleting the real part of the result.
The real part will be the negative of the dot product of the two vectors.
Alternatively and more straightforwardly, using the above identification of the 'purely imaginary' quaternions with
, the cross product may be thought of as half of the commutator of two quaternions.

Conversion to matrix multiplication

A cross product between two vectors (which can only be defined in three-dimensional space) can be rewritten in
terms of pure matrix multiplication as the product of a skew-symmetric matrix and a vector, as follows:

where

Also, if is itself a cross product:

then
Cross product 44

This notation provides another way of generalizing cross product to the higher dimensions by substituting
pseudovectors (such as angular velocity or magnetic field) with such skew-symmetric matrices. It is clear that such
physical quantities will have n(n-1)/2 independent components in n dimensions, which coincides with number of
dimensions for three-dimensional space, and this is why vectors can be used (and most often are used) to represent
such quantities.
This notation is also often much easier to work with, for example, in epipolar geometry.
From the general properties of the cross product follows immediately that
  and  
and from fact that is skew-symmetric it follows that

The above-mentioned triple product expansion (bac-cab rule) can be easily proven using this notation.
The above definition of means that there is a one-to-one mapping between the set of 3×3 skew-symmetric
matrices, also known as the Lie algebra of SO(3), and the operation of taking the cross product with some vector .

Index notation
The cross product can alternatively be defined in terms of the Levi-Civita symbol,

where the indices correspond, as in the previous section, to orthogonal vector components. This
characterization of the cross product is often expressed more compactly using the Einstein summation convention as

in which repeated indices are summed from 1 to 3. Note that this representation is another form of the
skew-symmetric representation of the cross product:

In classical mechanics: representing the cross-product with the Levi-Civita symbol can cause
mechanical-symmetries to be obvious when physical-systems are isotropic in space. (Quick example: consider a
particle in a Hooke's Law potential in three-space, free to oscillate in three dimensions; none of these dimensions are
"special" in any sense, so symmetries lie in the cross-product-represented angular-momentum which are made clear
by the abovementioned Levi-Civita representation).

Mnemonic
The word xyzzy can be used to remember the definition of the cross product.
If

where:

then:
Cross product 45

The second and third equations can be obtained from the first by simply vertically rotating the subscripts, x → y → z
→ x. The problem, of course, is how to remember the first equation, and two options are available for this purpose:
either to remember the relevant two diagonals of Sarrus's scheme (those containing i), or to remember the xyzzy
sequence.
Since the first diagonal in Sarrus's scheme is just the main diagonal of the above-mentioned matrix, the first
three letters of the word xyzzy can be very easily remembered.

Applications

Computational geometry
The cross product can be used to calculate the normal for a triangle or polygon, an operation frequently performed in
computer graphics.
In computational geometry of the plane, the cross product is used to determine the sign of the acute angle defined by
three points , and . It corresponds to the direction of the cross product of the two
coplanar vectors defined by the pairs of points and , i.e., by the sign of the expression
. In the "right-handed" coordinate system, if the result is 0, the points are
collinear; if it is positive, the three points constitute a negative angle of rotation around from to , otherwise
a positive angle. From another point of view, the sign of tells whether lies to the left or to the right of line
.

Mechanics
Moment of a force applied at point B around point A is given as:

Other
The cross product occurs in the formula for the vector operator curl. It is also used to describe the Lorentz force
experienced by a moving electrical charge in a magnetic field. The definitions of torque and angular momentum also
involve the cross product.
The trick of rewriting a cross product in terms of a matrix multiplication appears frequently in epipolar and
multi-view geometry, in particular when deriving matching constraints.
Cross product 46

Cross product as an exterior product

The cross product can be viewed in terms of the exterior product. This
view allows for a natural geometric interpretation of the cross product.
In exterior calculus the exterior product (or wedge product) of two
vectors is a bivector. A bivector is an oriented plane element, in much
the same way that a vector is an oriented line element. Given two
vectors a and b, one can view the bivector a∧b as the oriented
parallelogram spanned by a and b. The cross product is then obtained
by taking the Hodge dual of the bivector a∧b, identifying 2-vectors
with vectors:

The cross product in relation to the exterior

product. In red are the unit normal vector, and the
"parallel" unit bivector.

This can be thought of as the oriented multi-dimensional element "perpendicular" to the bivector. Only in three
dimensions is the result an oriented line element – a vector – whereas, for example, in 4 dimensions the Hodge dual
of a bivector is two-dimensional – another oriented plane element. So, in three dimensions only is the cross product
of a and b the vector dual to the bivector a∧b: it is perpendicular to the bivector, with orientation dependent on the
coordinate system's handedness, and has the same magnitude relative to the unit normal vector as a∧b has relative to
the unit bivector; precisely the properties described above.

Cross product and handedness

When measurable quantities involve cross products, the handedness of the coordinate systems used cannot be
arbitrary. However, when physics laws are written as equations, it should be possible to make an arbitrary choice of
the coordinate system (including handedness). To avoid problems, one should be careful to never write down an
equation where the two sides do not behave equally under all transformations that need to be considered. For
example, if one side of the equation is a cross product of two vectors, one must take into account that when the
handedness of the coordinate system is not fixed a priori, the result is not a (true) vector but a pseudovector.
Therefore, for consistency, the other side must also be a pseudovector.
More generally, the result of a cross product may be either a vector or a pseudovector, depending on the type of its
operands (vectors or pseudovectors). Namely, vectors and pseudovectors are interrelated in the following ways under
application of the cross product:
• vector × vector = pseudovector
• vector × pseudovector = vector
• pseudovector × pseudovector = pseudovector
Because the cross product may also be a (true) vector, it may not change direction with a mirror image
transformation. This happens, according to the above relationships, if one of the operands is a (true) vector and the
other one is a pseudovector (e.g., the cross product of two vectors). For instance, a vector triple product involving
three (true) vectors is a (true) vector.
A handedness-free approach is possible using exterior algebra.
Cross product 47

Generalizations
There are several ways to generalize the cross product to the higher dimensions.

Lie algebra
The cross product can be seen as one of the simplest Lie products, and is thus generalized by Lie algebras, which are
axiomatized as binary products satisfying the axioms of multilinearity, skew-symmetry, and the Jacobi identity.
Many Lie algebras exist, and their study is a major field of mathematics, called Lie theory.
For example, the Heisenberg algebra gives another Lie algebra structure on In the basis the product is

Using octonions
A cross product for 7-dimensional vectors can be obtained in the same way by using the octonions instead of the
quaternions. The nonexistence of such cross products of two vectors in other dimensions is related to the result that
the only normed division algebras are the ones with dimension 1, 2, 4, and 8.

Wedge product
In general dimension, there is no direct analogue of the binary cross product. There is however the wedge product,
which has similar properties, except that the wedge product of two vectors is now a 2-vector instead of an ordinary
vector. As mentioned above, the cross product can be interpreted as the wedge product in three dimensions after
using Hodge duality to identify 2-vectors with vectors.
The wedge product and dot product can be combined to form the Clifford product.

Multilinear algebra
In the context of multilinear algebra, the cross product can be seen as the (1,2)-tensor (a mixed tensor) obtained from
the 3-dimensional volume form,[3] a (0,3)-tensor, by raising an index.
In detail, the 3-dimensional volume form defines a product by taking the determinant of the matrix
given by these 3 vectors. By duality, this is equivalent to a function (fixing any two inputs gives a
function by evaluating on the third input) and in the presence of an inner product (such as the dot product;
more generally, a non-degenerate bilinear form), we have an isomorphism and thus this yields a map
which is the cross product: a (0,3)-tensor (3 vector inputs, scalar output) has been transformed into a
(1,2)-tensor (2 vector inputs, 1 vector output) by "raising an index".
Translating the above algebra into geometry, the function "volume of the parallelepiped defined by " (where
the first two vectors are fixed and the last is an input), which defines a function , can be represented uniquely
as the dot product with a vector: this vector is the cross product From this perspective, the cross product is
defined by the scalar triple product,
In the same way, in higher dimensions one may define generalized cross products by raising indices of the
n-dimensional volume form, which is a -tensor. The most direct generalizations of the cross product are to
define either:
• a -tensor, which takes as input vectors, and gives as output 1 vector – an -ary vector-valued
product, or
• a -tensor, which takes as input 2 vectors and gives as output skew-symmetric tensor of rank n−2 – a
binary product with rank n−2 tensor values. One can also define -tensors for other k.
These products are all multilinear and skew-symmetric, and can be defined in terms of the determinant and parity.
Cross product 48

The -ary product can be described as follows: given vectors in define their generalized
cross product as:
• perpendicular to the hyperplane defined by the
• magnitude is the volume of the parallelotope defined by the which can be computed as the Gram determinant
of the
• oriented so that is positively oriented.
This is the unique multilinear, alternating product which evaluates to , and so forth
for cyclic permutations of indices.
In coordinates, one can give a formula for this n-ary analogue of the cross product in Rn+1 by:

This formula is identical in structure to the determinant formula for the normal cross product in R3 except that the
row of basis vectors is the last row in the determinant rather than the first. The reason for this is to ensure that the
ordered vectors (v1,...,vn,Λ(v1,...,vn)) have a positive orientation with respect to (e1,...,en+1). If n is even, this
modification leaves the value unchanged, so this convention agrees with the normal definition of the binary product.
In the case that n is odd, however, the distinction must be kept. This n-ary form enjoys many of the same properties
as the vector cross product: it is alternating and linear in its arguments, it is perpendicular to each argument, and its
magnitude gives the hypervolume of the region bounded by the arguments. And just like the vector cross product, it
can be defined in a coordinate independent way as the Hodge dual of the wedge product of the arguments.

History
In 1773, Joseph Louis Lagrange introduced the component form of both the dot and cross products in order to study
the tetrahedron in three dimensions.[4] In 1843 the Irish mathematical physicist Sir William Rowan Hamilton
introduced the quaternion product, and with it the terms "vector" and "scalar". Given two quaternions [0, u] and [0,
v], where u and v are vectors in R3, their quaternion product can be summarized as [−u·v, u×v]. James Clerk
Maxwell used Hamilton's quaternion tools to develop his famous electromagnetism equations, and for this and other
reasons quaternions for a time were an essential part of physics education.
However, Oliver Heaviside in England and Josiah Willard Gibbs in Connecticut felt that quaternion methods were
too cumbersome, often requiring the scalar or vector part of a result to be extracted. Thus, about forty years after the
quaternion product, the dot product and cross product were introduced—to heated opposition. Pivotal to (eventual)
acceptance was the efficiency of the new approach, allowing Heaviside to reduce the equations of electromagnetism
from Maxwell's original 20 to the four commonly seen today.
Largely independent of this development, and largely unappreciated at the time, Hermann Grassmann created a
geometric algebra not tied to dimension two or three, with the exterior product playing a central role. William
Kingdon Clifford combined the algebras of Hamilton and Grassmann to produce Clifford algebra, where in the case
of three-dimensional vectors the bivector produced from two vectors dualizes to a vector, thus reproducing the cross
product.
The cross notation, which began with Gibbs, inspired the name "cross product". Originally appearing in privately
published notes for his students in 1881 as Elements of Vector Analysis, Gibbs's notation—and the name—later
reached a wider audience through Vector Analysis (Gibbs/Wilson), a textbook by a former student. Edwin Bidwell
Wilson rearranged material from Gibbs's lectures, together with material from publications by Heaviside, Föpps, and
Hamilton. He divided vector analysis into three parts:
Cross product 49

First, that which concerns addition and the scalar and vector products of vectors. Second, that which concerns
the differential and integral calculus in its relations to scalar and vector functions. Third, that which contains
the theory of the linear vector function.
Two main kinds of vector multiplications were defined, and they were called as follows:
• The direct, scalar, or dot product of two vectors
• The skew, vector, or cross product of two vectors
Several kinds of triple products and products of more than three vectors were also examined. The above mentioned
triple product expansion was also included.

See also
• Multiple cross products – Products involving more than three vectors.
• Dot product
• Cartesian product – A product of two sets.
• × (the symbol)
• Bivector
• Pseudovector

Notes
[1] Jeffreys, H and Jeffreys, BS (1999). Methods of mathematical physics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 41158050?tab=details). Cambridge
University Press. .
[2] Wilson 1901
[3] By a volume form one means a function that takes in n vectors and gives out a scalar, the volume of the parallelotope defined by the vectors:
This is an n-ary multilinear skew-symmetric form. In the presence of a basis, such as on this is given by the
determinant, but in an abstract vector space, this is added structure. In terms of G-structures, a volume form is an -structure.
[4] Lagrange, JL (1773). "Solutions analytiques de quelques problèmes sur les pyramides triangulaires". Oeuvres. vol 3.

References
• Cajori, Florian (1929), A History Of Mathematical Notations Volume II (http://www.archive.org/details/
historyofmathema027671mbp), Open Court Publishing, p.  134, ISBN 978-0-486-67766-8
• Wilson, Edwin Bidwell (1901), Vector Analysis: A text-book for the use of students of mathematics and physics,
founded upon the lectures of J. Willard Gibbs (http://www.archive.org/details/117714283), Yale University
Press

External links
• Weisstein, Eric W., " Cross Product (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CrossProduct.html)" from MathWorld.
• A quick geometrical derivation and interpretation of cross products (http://behindtheguesses.blogspot.com/
2009/04/dot-and-cross-products.html)
• Z.K. Silagadze (2002). Multi-dimensional vector product. Journal of Physics. A35, 4949 (http://uk.arxiv.org/
abs/math.la/0204357) (it is only possible in 7-D space)
• Real and Complex Products of Complex Numbers (http://www.cut-the-knot.org/arithmetic/algebra/
RealComplexProducts.shtml)
• An interactive tutorial (http://physics.syr.edu/courses/java-suite/crosspro.html) created at Syracuse
University - (requires java)
• W. Kahan (2007). Cross-Products and Rotations in Euclidean 2- and 3-Space. University of California, Berkeley
(PDF). (http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/MathH110/Cross.pdf)
Torque 50

Torque
Torque, also called moment or moment of force (see the terminology
below), is the tendency of a force to rotate an object about an axis,[1]
fulcrum, or pivot. Just as a force is a push or a pull, a torque can be
thought of as a twist.
Loosely speaking, torque is a measure of the turning force on an object
such as a bolt or a flywheel. For example, pushing or pulling the
handle of a wrench connected to a nut or bolt produces a torque
(turning force) that loosens or tightens the nut or bolt.
Relationship between force F, torque τ, linear
The terminology for this concept is not straightforward: In physics, it is
momentum p, and angular momentum L in a
usually called "torque", and in mechanical engineering, it is called system which has rotation constrained in one
"moment".[2] However, in mechanical engineering, the term "torque" plane only. (Forces and moments due to gravity
means something different,[3] described below. In this article, the word and friction not considered.)

"torque" is always used in the physics sense, synonymous with

"moment" in engineering.

The symbol for torque is typically τ, the Greek letter tau. When it is called moment, it is commonly denoted M.
The magnitude of torque depends on three quantities: First, the force applied; second, the length of the lever arm[4]
connecting the axis to the point of force application; and third, the angle between the two. In symbols:

where
τ is the torque vector and τ is the magnitude of the torque,
r is the displacement vector (a vector from the point from which torque is measured to the point where force is
applied), and r is the length (or magnitude) of the lever arm vector,
F is the force vector, and F is the magnitude of the force,
× denotes the cross product,
θ is the angle between the force vector and the lever arm vector.
The length of the lever arm is particularly important; choosing this length appropriately lies behind the operation of
levers, pulleys, gears, and most other simple machines involving a mechanical advantage.
The SI unit for torque is the newton meter (N·m). In Imperial and U.S. customary units, it is measured in foot pounds
(ft·lbf) (also known as 'pound feet') and for smaller measurement of torque: inch pounds (in·lbf) or even inch ounces
(in·ozf). For more on the units of torque, see below.
Torque 51

Terminology
In mechanical engineering (unlike physics), the terms "torque" and "moment" are not interchangeable. "Moment" is
the general term for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis (the concept which
in physics is called torque).[3] "Torque" is a special case of this: If the applied force vectors add to zero (i.e., their
"resultant" is zero), then the forces are called a "couple" and their moment is called a "torque".[3]
For example, a rotational force down a shaft, such as a turning screw-driver, forms a couple, so the resulting moment
is called a "torque". By contrast, a lateral force on a beam produces a moment (called a bending moment), but since
the net force is nonzero, this bending moment is not called a "torque".
This article follows physics terminology by calling all moments by the term "torque", whether or not they are
associated with a couple.

History
The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers. The
rotational analogues of force, mass, and acceleration are torque, moment of inertia, and angular acceleration,
respectively.

Definition and relation to angular momentum

A force applied at a right angle to a lever
multiplied by its distance from the lever's
fulcrum (the length of the lever arm) is its
torque. A force of three newtons applied two
meters from the fulcrum, for example, exerts
the same torque as a force of one newton
applied six meters from the fulcrum. The
direction of the torque can be determined by
using the right hand grip rule: if the fingers
of the right hand curl in the direction of
rotation and the thumb points along the axis
of rotation, then the thumb also points in the
direction of the torque.[5]

More generally, the torque on a particle

(which has the position r in some reference
frame) can be defined as the cross product:
A particle is located at position r relative to its axis of rotation. When a force F is
applied to the particle, only the perpendicular component F⊥ produces a torque.
This torque τ = r × F has magnitude τ = |r| |F⊥| = |r| |F| sinθ and is directed
outward from the page.

where r is the particle's position vector relative to the fulcrum, and F is the force acting on the particle. The
magnitude τ of the torque is given by

where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the particle, F is the magnitude of the force applied, and θ is the
angle between the position and force vectors. Alternatively,
Torque 52

where F⊥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle. Any force directed parallel to
the particle's position vector does not produce a torque.[6]
It follows from the properties of the cross product that the torque vector is perpendicular to both the position and
force vectors. It points along the axis of rotation, and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule.[6]
The torque on a body determines the rate of change of the body's angular momentum,

where L is the angular momentum vector and t is time. If multiple torques are acting on the body, it is instead the net
torque which determines the rate of change of the angular momentum:

For rotation about a fixed axis,

where I is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity. It follows that

where α is the angular acceleration of the body, measured in rad s−2.

Proof of the equivalence of definitions

The definition of angular momentum for a single particle is:

where "×" indicates the vector cross product and p is the particle's linear momentum. The time-derivative of this is:

This result can easily be proven by splitting the vectors into components and applying the product rule. Now using
the definitions of velocity v = dr/dt, acceleration a = dv/dt and linear momentum p = mv,

The cross product of any vector with itself is zero, so the second term vanishes. Hence with the definition of force F
= ma (Newton's 2nd law),

Then by definition, torque τ = r × F.

If multiple forces are applied, Newton's second law instead reads Fnet = ma, and it follows that

The proof relies on the assumption that mass is constant; this is valid only in non-relativistic systems in which no
mass is being ejected.
Torque 53

Units
Torque has dimensions of force times distance. Official SI literature suggests using the unit newton meter (N·m) or
the unit joule per radian.[7] The unit newton meter is properly denoted N·m or N m.[8] This avoids ambiguity—for
example, mN is the symbol for millinewton.
The joule, which is the SI unit for energy or work, is dimensionally equivalent to a newton meter, but it is not used
for torque. Energy and torque are entirely different concepts, so the practice of using different unit names for them
helps avoid mistakes and misunderstandings.[7] The dimensional equivalence of these units, of course, is not simply
a coincidence: A torque of 1 N·m applied through a full revolution will require an energy of exactly 2π joules.
Mathematically,

where E is the energy, τ is magnitude of the torque, and θ is the angle moved (in radians). This equation motivates
the alternate unit name joules per radian.[7]
Other non-SI units of torque include "pound-force-feet", "foot-pounds-force", "inch-pounds-force",
"ounce-force-inches", and "meter-kilograms-force". For all these units, the word "force" is often left out,[9] for
example abbreviating "pound-force-foot" to simply "pound-foot". (In this case, it would be implicit that the "pound"
is pound-force and not pound-mass.)

Special cases and other facts

Moment arm formula

A very useful special case, often given as the definition
of torque in fields other than physics, is as follows:

Moment arm diagram

The construction of the "moment arm" is shown in the figure below, along with the vectors r and F mentioned
above. The problem with this definition is that it does not give the direction of the torque but only the magnitude,
and hence it is difficult to use in three-dimensional cases. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement vector r,
the moment arm will be equal to the distance to the centre, and torque will be a maximum for the given force. The
equation for the magnitude of a torque, arising from a perpendicular force:

For example, if a person places a force of 10 N on a spanner (wrench) which is 0.5 m long, the torque will be 5 N m,
assuming that the person pulls the spanner by applying force perpendicular to the spanner.
Torque 54

Static equilibrium
For an object to be in static equilibrium, not only must the sum of
the forces be zero, but also the sum of the torques (moments)
about any point. For a two-dimensional situation with horizontal
and vertical forces, the sum of the forces requirement is two
equations: ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0, and the torque a third equation: Στ
= 0. That is, to solve statically determinate equilibrium problems
in two-dimensions, we use three equations.

Net Force vs. Torque

When the net force on the system is zero, the torque measured
from any point in space is the same. For example, the torque on a The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and
current-carrying loop in a uniform magnetic field is the same −Fg causes a change in the angular momentum L in the
regardless of your point of reference. direction of that torque. This causes the top to precess.

Machine torque
Torque is part of the basic specification of an engine: the power output
of an engine is expressed as its torque multiplied by its rotational speed
of the axis. Internal-combustion engines produce useful torque only
over a limited range of rotational speeds (typically from around
1,000–6,000 rpm for a small car). The varying torque output over that
range can be measured with a dynamometer, and shown as a torque
curve. The peak of that torque curve occurs somewhat below the
overall power peak. The torque peak cannot, by definition, appear at
higher rpm than the power peak.
Torque curve of a motorcycle ("BMW K 1200 R
Understanding the relationship between torque, power and engine
2005"). The horizontal axis is the speed (in rpm)
speed is vital in automotive engineering, concerned as it is with that the wheels are turning, and the vertical axis is
transmitting power from the engine through the drive train to the the torque (in Newton metres) that the engine is
wheels. Power is a function of torque and engine speed. The gearing of capable of providing at that speed.

the drive train must be chosen appropriately to make the most of the
motor's torque characteristics. Power at the drive wheels is equal to engine power less mechanical losses regardless
of any gearing between the engine and drive wheels.

Steam engines and electric motors tend to produce maximum torque close to zero rpm, with the torque diminishing
as rotational speed rises (due to increasing friction and other constraints). Reciprocating steam engines can start
heavy loads from zero RPM without a clutch.
Torque 55

Relationship between torque, power and energy

If a force is allowed to act through a distance, it is doing mechanical work. Similarly, if torque is allowed to act
through a rotational distance, it is doing work. Mathematically, for rotation about a fixed axis through the center of
mass,

where W is work, τ is torque, and θ1 and θ2 represent (respectively) the initial and final angular positions of the
body.[10] It follows from the work-energy theorem that W also represents the change in the rotational kinetic energy
Krot of the body, given by

where I is the moment of inertia of the body and ω is its angular speed.[10]
Power is the work per unit time, given by

where P is power, τ is torque, ω is the angular velocity, and · represents the scalar product.
Mathematically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given power output. Note that the power
injected by the torque depends only on the instantaneous angular speed - not on whether the angular speed increases,
decreases, or remains constant while the torque is being applied (this is equivalent to the linear case where the power
injected by a force depends only on the instantaneous speed - not on the resulting acceleration, if any).
In practice, this relationship can be observed in power stations which are connected to a large electrical power grid.
In such an arrangement, the generator's angular speed is fixed by the grid's frequency, and the power output of the
plant is determined by the torque applied to the generator's axis of rotation.
Consistent units must be used. For metric SI units power is watts, torque is newton meters and angular speed is
radians per second (not rpm and not revolutions per second).
Also, the unit newton meter is dimensionally equivalent to the joule, which is the unit of energy. However, in the
case of torque, the unit is assigned to a vector, whereas for energy, it is assigned to a scalar.

Conversion to other units

For different units of power, torque, or angular speed, a conversion factor must be inserted into the equation. Also, if
rotational speed (revolutions per time) is used in place of angular speed (radians per time), a conversion factor of
must be added because there are radians in a revolution:

where rotational speed is in revolutions per unit time.

Useful formula in SI units:

where 60,000 comes from 60 seconds per minute times 1000 watts per kilowatt.
Some people (e.g. American automotive engineers) use horsepower (imperial mechanical) for power, foot-pounds
(lbf·ft) for torque and rpm (revolutions per minute) for angular speed. This results in the formula changing to:

The constant below in, ft·lbf./min, changes with the definition of the horsepower; for example, using metric
horsepower, it becomes ~32,550.
Use of other units (e.g. BTU/h for power) would require a different custom conversion factor.
Torque 56

Derivation
For a rotating object, the linear distance covered at the circumference in a radian of rotation is the product of the
radius with the angular speed. That is: linear speed = radius × angular speed. By definition, linear distance=linear
speed × time=radius × angular speed × time.
By the definition of torque: torque=force × radius. We can rearrange this to determine force=torque ÷ radius. These
two values can be substituted into the definition of power:

The radius r and time t have dropped out of the equation. However angular speed must be in radians, by the assumed
direct relationship between linear speed and angular speed at the beginning of the derivation. If the rotational speed
is measured in revolutions per unit of time, the linear speed and distance are increased proportionately by in the
above derivation to give:

If torque is in lbf·ft and rotational speed in revolutions per minute, the above equation gives power in ft·lbf/min. The
horsepower form of the equation is then derived by applying the conversion factor 33000 ft·lbf/min per horsepower:

because

Principle of Moments
The Principle of Moments, also known as Varignon's theorem (not to be confused with the geometrical theorem of
the same name) states that the sum of torques due to several forces applied to a single point is equal to the torque due
to the sum (resultant) of the forces. Mathematically, this follows from:

See also
• Conversion of units
• Angular momentum
• Mechanical equilibrium
• Moment (physics)
• Rigid body dynamics
• Statics
• Torque converter
• Torque screwdriver
• Torque limiter
• Torque wrench
• Torque tester
• Torsion (mechanics)
• Couple (mechanics)
Torque 57

External links
• Power and Torque Explained [11] A clear explanation of the relationship between Power and Torque, and how
they relate to engine performance.
• "Horsepower and Torque" [12] An article showing how power, torque, and gearing affect a vehicle's performance.
• "Torque vs. Horsepower: Yet Another Argument" [13] An automotive perspective
• a discussion of torque and angular momentum in an online textbook [14]
• Torque and Angular Momentum in Circular Motion [15] on Project PHYSNET [16].
• An interactive simulation of torque [17]
• Torque Unit Converter [18]
• www.mechanismen.be-what is a moment (dutch) [19]
.

References
[1] Serway, R. A. and Jewett, Jr. J. W. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. 6th Ed. Brooks Cole. ISBN 0-53440-842-7.
[2] Physics for Engineering by Hendricks, Subramony, and Van Blerk, page 148, Web link (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=8Kp-UwV4o0gC& pg=PA148)
[3] Dynamics, Theory and Applications by T.R. Kane and D.A. Levinson, 1985, pp. 90-99: Free download (http:/ / ecommons. library. cornell.
edu/ handle/ 1813/ 638)
[4] Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman.
ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
[5] "Right Hand Rule for Torque" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ tord. html). . Retrieved 2007-09-08.
[6] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (1970). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. p. 184–85.
[7] From the official SI website (http:/ / www. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter2/ 2-2/ 2-2-2. html): "...For example, the quantity torque
may be thought of as the cross product of force and distance, suggesting the unit newton metre, or it may be thought of as energy per angle,
suggesting the unit joule per radian."
[8] "SI brochure Ed. 8, Section 5.1" (http:/ / www1. bipm. org/ en/ si/ si_brochure/ chapter5/ 5-1. html). Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures. 2006. . Retrieved 2007-04-01.
[9] See, for example: "CNC Cookbook: Dictionary: N-Code to PWM" (http:/ / www. cnccookbook. com/ MTCNCDictNtoPWM. htm). .
Retrieved 2008-12-17.
[10] Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. p. 267–68.
[11] http:/ / www. epi-eng. com/ ET-PwrTrq. htm
[12] http:/ / craig. backfire. ca/ pages/ autos/ horsepower
[13] http:/ / kevinthenerd. googlepages. com/ torque_vs_hp. html
[14] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 2cl/ ch05/ ch05. html
[15] http:/ / www. physnet. org/ modules/ pdf_modules/ m34. pdf
[16] http:/ / www. physnet. org
[17] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Torque. htm
[18] http:/ / www. lorenz-messtechnik. de/ english/ company/ torque_unit_calculation. php
[19] http:/ / www. mechanismen. be/ theoretische_mechanica/ momenten/ momenten-theorie-1. htm
Center of mass 58

Center of mass
The center of mass of a system of particles is the point at which the system's whole mass can be considered to be
concentrated for the purpose of calculations. The center of mass is a function only of the positions and masses of the
particles that compose the system. In the case of a rigid body, the position of its center of mass is fixed in relation to
the object (but not necessarily in contact with it). In the case of a loose distribution of masses in free space, such as,
say, shot from a shotgun, the position of the center of mass is a point in space among them that may not correspond
to the position of any individual mass.
The center of mass is often called the center of gravity but this is only true in a system where the gravitational
forces are uniform. For example, on the Earth where the differences in the pull of gravity may safely be ignored.
Barycenter may also refer to the center of mass although this is most commonly used when referring to the point at
which the gravitational forces exerted by two objects are equal.
The center of mass of a body does not always coincide with its intuitive geometric center, and one can exploit this
freedom. Engineers try to design a sports car's center of mass as low as possible to make the car handle better. When
high jumpers perform a "Fosbury Flop", they bend their body in such a way that it is possible for the jumper to clear
the bar while his or her center of mass does not.[1]
The center of momentum frame is an inertial frame defined as the inertial frame in which the center of mass of a
system is at rest. A specific center of momentum frame in which the center of mass is not only at rest, but also at the
origin of the coordinate system, is sometimes called the center of mass frame, or center of mass coordinate system.

Definition
The center of mass of a system of particles is defined as the average of their positions, , weighted by their
masses, :

For a continuous distribution with mass density and total mass , the sum becomes an integral:

If an object has uniform density then its center of mass is the same as the centroid of its shape.

Examples
• The center of mass of a two-particle system lies on the line connecting the particles (or, more precisely, their
individual centers of mass). The center of mass is closer to the more massive object; for details, see below.
• The center of mass of a ring is at the center of the ring (in the air).
• The center of mass of a solid triangle lies on all three medians and therefore at the centroid, which is also the
average of the three vertices.
• The center of mass of a rectangle is at the intersection of the two diagonals.
• In a spherically symmetric body, the center of mass is at the center. This approximately applies to the Earth: the
density varies considerably, but it mainly depends on depth and less on the latitude and longitude coordinates.
• More generally, for any symmetry of a body, its center of mass will be a fixed point of that symmetry.
Center of mass 59

History
The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, and engineer
Archimedes of Syracuse. Archimedes showed that the torque exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points
along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point — their center of
mass. In work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its
center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects
of uniform density of various well-defined shapes, in particular a triangle, a hemisphere, and a frustum (of a circular
paraboloid).
In the Middle Ages, theories on the center of mass were further developed by Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī, Zakaria Razi
(Latinized as Rhazes), Omar Khayyám, and al-Khazini.[2]
Newton's second law is refomulated with respect to the center of mass in Euler's first law.

Derivation of center of mass

The following equations of motion assume that there is a system of particles governed by internal and external
forces. An internal force is a force caused by the interaction of the particles within the system. An external force is a
force that originates from outside the system, and acts on one or more particles within the system. The external force
need not be due to a uniform field.
For any system with no external forces, the center of mass moves with constant velocity. This applies for all systems
with classical internal forces, including magnetic fields, electric fields, chemical reactions, and so on. More formally,
this is true for any internal forces that satisfy the weak form of Newton's Third Law.
The total momentum for any system of particles is given by

Where M indicates the total mass, and vcm is the velocity of the center of mass. This velocity can be computed by
taking the time derivative of the position of the center of mass.
An analogue to Newton's Second Law is

Where F indicates the sum of all external forces on the system, and acm indicates the acceleration of the center of
mass.
Letting the total internal force of the system.

where is the total mass of the system and is a vector yet to be defined, since:

and

then

We therefore have a vectorial definition for center of mass in terms of the total forces in the system. This is
particularly useful for two-body systems.
Center of mass 60

Alternative derivation
Consider first two bodies, with masses m1 and m2, and position vectors r1 and r2. Write M = m1 + m2 for the total
mass of the 2-body system, and R for the position vector of the center of mass.
It is reasonable to require, for any system of masses, that the center of mass lie within the convex hull of the system.
In particular, for a pair of mass points, this means that the tip of R must lie on the line segment joining the tips of r1
and r2. By geometry, R - r1 = k(r2 - R) for some positive constant k. Taking magnitudes on both sides of this
equation, we get d1 = kd2, where d1 is the distance from the center of mass to body 1, and d2 is the distance from the
center of mass to body 2. The constant k should obviously depend only on the masses m1 and m2, and we will
examine the nature of this dependence.
Assuming the total mass M is nonzero, it is clear that if m2 = 0, the center of mass should coincide with body 1, and
d1 = 0. This means d2 = D, the total distance between the two bodies, and m1 = M. Symmetry demands that these
relations remain true when the subscripts 1 and 2 are interchanged everywhere.
The simplest model satisfying these requirements is the linear one, d1 = (D/M)m2 and d2 = (D/M)m1.
Under this model, we have k = d1/d2 = m2/m1. Therefore, after multiplying our vector equation by m1, we find that
m1(R - r1) = m2(r2 − R), or (m1 + m2)R = m1r1 + m2r2. Thus,

Now suppose there is a third body, of mass m3 and position r3. Temporarily break the symmetry between the three
bodies, and define the 3-body center of mass as the 2-body center of mass determined by body 3 together with a
single body of mass M0 = m1 + m2 placed at the center of mass of bodies 1 and 2, whose position vector we now
denote by R0. The formula derived above gives

Since R turns out to be symmetric in the mi and ri, it would not have mattered had we started by combining bodies 2
and 3, or bodies 1 and 3, instead of bodies 1 and 2. This kind of reasoning clearly extends to any number of masses,
and yields the formula

So our simple model of the 2-body center of mass uniquely and consistently determines the corresponding formula in
any number of mass points. Writing M = m1 + m2 + ... + mn, the above formula for the center of mass may be
expressed in the form

Differentiating both sides yields the principle that

i.e., the sum of the momenta of a number of bodies is the momentum of their center of mass. It is this principle that
gives precise expression to the intuitive notion that the system as a whole behaves like a mass of M placed at R, and
justifies our simple linear model of the one-dimensional center of mass.
Center of mass 61

Rotation and centers of mass

The center of mass is often called the center of gravity because any
uniform gravitational field g acts on a system as if the mass M of the
system were concentrated at the center of mass R. This is seen in at
least two ways:
• The gravitational potential energy of a system is equal to the
potential energy of a point particle having the same mass M located
at R.
• The gravitational torque on a system equals the torque of a force Mg
acting at R:

Diagram of an educational toy that balances on a

point: the CM (C) settles below its support (P).
Any object whose CM is below the fulcrum will
not topple.

The suspending chair trick makes use of the

human body's center of mass, and the fact that it's
surprisingly high.

If the gravitational field acting on a body is not uniform, then the center of mass does not necessarily exhibit these
convenient properties concerning gravity. As the situation is put in Feynman's influential textbook The Feynman
Lectures on Physics:
"The center of mass is sometimes called the center of gravity, for the reason that, in many cases, gravity may
be considered uniform. ...In case the object is so large that the nonparallelism of the gravitational forces is
significant, then the center where one must apply the balancing force is not simple to describe, and it departs
slightly from the center of mass. That is why one must distinguish between the center of mass and the center of
gravity."
Many authors have been less careful, stating that when gravity is not uniform, "the center of gravity" departs from
the CM. This usage seems to imply a well-defined "center of gravity" concept for non-uniform fields. Symon, in his
textbook Mechanics, shows that the center of gravity of an extended body must always be defined relative to an
external point, at which location resides a point mass that is exerting a gravitational force on the object in question.
Center of mass 62

In fact, as Symon says:

"For two extended bodies, no unique centers of gravity can in general be defined, even relative to each other,
except in special cases, as when the bodies are far apart, or when one of them is a sphere....The general
problem of determining the gravitational forces between bodies is usually best treated by means of the
concepts of the field theory of gravitation..."
Even when considering tidal forces on planets, it is sufficient to use centers of mass to find the overall motion. In
practice, for non-uniform fields, one simply does not speak of a "center of gravity".[3]

CM frame
The angular momentum vector for a system is equal to the angular momentum of all the particles around the center
of mass, plus the angular momentum of the center of mass, as if it were a single particle of mass :

This is a corollary of the Parallel Axis Theorem.

Engineering

Aeronautical significance
The center of mass is an important point on an aircraft, which significantly affects the stability of the aircraft. To
ensure the aircraft is safe to fly, it is critical that the center of mass fall within specified limits. This range varies by
aircraft, but as a rule of thumb it is centered about a point one quarter of the way from the wing leading edge to the
wing trailing edge (the quarter chord point). If the center of mass is ahead of the forward limit, the aircraft will be
less maneuverable, possibly to the point of being unable to rotate for takeoff or flare for landing. If the center of
mass is behind the aft limit, the moment arm of the elevator is reduced, which makes it more difficult to recover
from a stalled condition. The aircraft will be more maneuverable, but also less stable, and possibly so unstable that it
is impossible to fly.
Center of mass 63

Barycenter in astrophysics and astronomy

The barycenter (or barycentre; from
the Greek βαρύκεντρον) is the point
between two objects where they
balance each other. For example, it is
the center of mass where two or more
celestial bodies orbit each other. When
a moon orbits a planet, or a planet
orbits a star, both bodies are actually
orbiting around a point that lies outside
the center of the primary (the larger
body). For example, the moon does not
orbit the exact center of the Earth, but
a point on a line between the Earth and
the Moon approximately 1,710 km
below the surface of the Earth, where
their respective masses balance. This is
the point about which the Earth and
Moon orbit as they travel around the
Sun.

The barycenter is one of the foci of the

Motion of Barycenter of solar system relative to the Sun.
elliptical orbit of each body. This is an
important concept in the fields of
astronomy, astrophysics, and the like (see two-body problem).
In a simple two-body case, r1, the distance from the center of the primary to the barycenter is given by:

where:
a is the distance between the centers of the two bodies;
m1 and m2 are the masses of the two bodies.
r1 is essentially the semi-major axis of the primary's orbit around the barycenter—and r2 = a − r1 the semi-major
axis of the secondary's orbit. Where the barycenter is located within the more massive body, that body will appear to
"wobble" rather than following a discernible orbit.
The following table sets out some examples from our solar system. Figures are given rounded to three significant
figures. The last two columns show R1, the radius of the first (more massive) body, and r1/R1, the ratio of the
distance to the barycenter and that radius: a value less than one shows that the barycenter lies inside the first body.
Center of mass 64

Examples
Larger m1 Smaller m2 a r1 R1 r1/R1
body (mE=1) body (mE=1) (km) (km) (km)

Remarks

Earth 1 Moon 0.0123 384,000 4,670 6,380 0.732

The Earth has a perceptible "wobble".

Pluto 0.0021 Charon 0.000254 19,600 2,110 1,150 1.83

(0.121 mPluto)

Both bodies have distinct orbits around the barycenter, and as such Pluto and Charon were considered as a double planet by many before the
redefinition of planet in August 2006.

Sun 333,000 Earth 1 150,000,000 449 696,000 0.000646

(1 AU)

The Sun's wobble is barely perceptible.

Sun 333,000 Jupiter 318 778,000,000 742,000 696,000 1.07

(0.000955 mSun) (5.20 AU)

The Sun orbits a barycenter just above its surface.

If m1 ≫ m2—which is true for the Sun and any planet—then the ratio r1/R1 approximates to:

Hence, the barycenter of the Sun-planet system will lie outside the Sun only if:

That is, where the planet is heavy and far from the Sun.
If Jupiter had Mercury's orbit (57,900,000 km, 0.387 AU), the Sun-Jupiter barycenter would be only 5,500 km from
the center of the Sun (r1/R1 ~ 0.08). But even if the Earth had Eris' orbit (68 AU), the Sun-Earth barycenter would
still be within the Sun (just over 30,000 km from the center).
To calculate the actual motion of the Sun, you would need to sum all the influences from all the planets, comets,
asteroids, etc. of the solar system (see n-body problem). If all the planets were aligned on the same side of the Sun,
the combined center of mass would lie about 500,000 km above the Sun's surface.
The calculations above are based on the mean distance between the bodies and yield the mean value r1. But all
celestial orbits are elliptical, and the distance between the bodies varies between the apses, depending on the
eccentricity, e. Hence, the position of the barycenter varies too, and it is possible in some systems for the barycenter
to be sometimes inside and sometimes outside the more massive body. This occurs where:

Note that the Sun-Jupiter system, with eJupiter = 0.0484, just fails to qualify: 1.05 ≯ 1.07 > 0.954.
Center of mass 65

Animations
Images are representative, not simulated.

Two bodies of similar mass Two bodies with a difference in Two bodies with a major difference Two bodies with an extreme
orbiting around a common mass orbiting around a common in mass orbiting around a common difference in mass orbiting around a
barycenter. (similar to the 90 barycenter, as in the Pluto-Charon barycenter (similar to the common barycenter (similar to the
Antiope system) system. Earth-Moon system) Sun-Earth system)

Two bodies with similar mass orbiting around a common barycenter

with elliptic orbits (a common situation for binary stars)

Locating the center of mass

Of an arbitrary 2D physical shape

This method is useful when one wishes to find the centroid of a complex planar shape with unknown dimensions. It
relies on finding the center of mass of a thin body of homogenous density having the same shape as the complex
planar shape.

Step 1: An arbitrary 2D shape. Step 2: Suspend the shape from a location near Step 3: Suspend the shape from another location not too
an edge. Drop a plumb line and mark on the close to the first. Drop a plumb line again and mark. The
object. intersection of the two lines is the center of mass.
Center of mass 66

Of an L-shaped object
This is a method of determining the center of mass of an L-shaped object.

1. Divide the shape into two rectangles, as shown in fig 2. Find the center of masses of these two rectangles by
drawing the diagonals. Draw a line joining the centers of mass. The center of mass of the shape must lie on this
line AB.
2. Divide the shape into two other rectangles, as shown in fig 3. Find the centers of mass of these two rectangles by
drawing the diagonals. Draw a line joining the centers of mass. The center of mass of the L-shape must lie on this
line CD.
3. As the center of mass of the shape must lie along AB and also along CD, it is obvious that it is at the intersection
of these two lines, at O. The point O might not lie inside the L-shaped object.

Of a composite shape
This method is useful when one wishes to find the location of the centroid or center of mass of an object that is easily
divided into elementary shapes, whose centers of mass are easy to find (see List of centroids). Here the center of
mass will only be found in the x direction. The same procedure may be followed to locate the center of mass in the y
direction.

The
shape. It is easily divided into a square, triangle, and circle. Note that the circle will have negative area.

From the List of centroids, we note the coordinates of the individual centroids.
Center of mass 67

From equation 1 above:

units.

The center of mass of this figure is at a distance of 8.5 units from the left corner of the figure.

By tracing around the perimeter of an object

A direct development of the planimeter known as an integraph, or
integerometer (though a better term is probably moment planimeter),
can be used to establish the position of the centroid or center of mass
of an irregular shape. This method can be applied to a shape with an
irregular, smooth or complex boundary where other methods are too
difficult. It was regularly used by ship builders to ensure the ship
would not capsize. See Locating the center of mass by mechanical
means [4].

See also
• Center of gravity of an aircraft
• Center of percussion
• Center of pressure
• Metacentric height
• Roll center
• Two-body problem
• Weight distribution

References
• Feynman, Richard; Robert Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Addison Wesley.
ISBN 0-201-02116-1.
• Goldstein, Herbert; Charles Poole, John Safko (2002). Classical Mechanics (3e ed.). Addison Wesley. ISBN
0-201-65702-3.
• Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics (2e ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN
0-07-035048-5.
• Marion, Jerry; Stephen Thornton (1995). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (4e ed.). Harcourt. ISBN
0-03-097302-3.
• Murray, Carl; Stanley Dermott (1999). Solar System Dynamics. Cambridge UP. ISBN 0-521-57295-9.
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Symon, Keithe R. (1971). Mechanics (3rd edition ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-07392-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
Center of mass 68

External links
• Centre of mass model [5] - A Background model for segmentation of moving objects in image processing.
• barycenter fold [6] by Paul Niquette.
• Center of Gravity [7] Encyclopaedia Britannica.
• Locating the center of mass by mechanical means [4].
• The dynamic centre of gravity [8] Engineer Xavier Borg - Blaze Labs Research
• Measuring Center of Gravity [9] Space Electronics, manufacturer of center of gravity measurement instruments.
• Motion of the Center of Mass [10] shows that the motion of the center of mass of an object in free fall is the same
as the motion of a point object.
• The solar system's barycenter [11] Simulations showing the effect each planet contributes to the solar system's
barycenter
• Polygon Center of Mass [12] An algorithm that would calculate the center of mass of a polygonal figure consisting
of n points (x, y).

References
[1] Van Pelt, Michael (2005). Space Tourism: Adventures in Earth Orbit and Beyond. Springer. pp. 185. ISBN 0387402136.
[2] Salah Zaimeche PhD (2005). Merv (http:/ / www. muslimheritage. com/ uploads/ Merv. pdf), Foundation for Science Technology and
Civilization.
[3] Symon, K. R. (1971). Mechanics, 3rd ed., Reading: Addison-Wesley.
[4] http:/ / web. mat. bham. ac. uk/ C. J. Sangwin/ Publications/ integrometer. pdf
[5] http:/ / portal. acm. org/ citation. cfm?id=1247738. 1247811
[6] http:/ / niquette. com/ puzzles/ barycntp. htm
[7] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ article-9037797/ centre-of-gravity
[8] http:/ / www. blazelabs. com/ dynamic-cg. pdf
[9] http:/ / www. space-electronics. com
[10] http:/ / www. kettering. edu/ ~drussell/ Demos/ COM/ com-a. html
[11] http:/ / orbitsimulator. com/ gravity/ articles/ ssbarycenter. html
[12] http:/ / www. astone. com/ sky/ cntr/
Uniform circular motion 69

Uniform circular motion

In physics, uniform circular motion describes the
motion of a body traversing a circular path at constant
speed. The distance of the body from the axis of
rotation remains constant at all times. Though the
body's speed is constant, its velocity is not: velocity, a
vector quantity, depends on both the body's speed and
its direction of travel. This changing velocity indicates
the presence of an acceleration; this centripetal
acceleration is of constant magnitude and directed at all
times towards the axis of rotation. This acceleration is,
in turn, produced by a centripetal force which is also
constant in magnitude and directed towards the axis of
rotation.
Figure 1: Velocity v and acceleration a in
uniform circular motion at angular rate ω; the
speed is constant, but the velocity is always
Velocity
tangent to the orbit; the acceleration has constant
Figure 1 illustrates velocity and acceleration vectors for magnitude, but always points toward the center of
rotation
uniform motion at four different points in the orbit.
Because the velocity v is tangent to the circular path,
no two velocities point in the same direction. Although
the object has a constant speed, its direction is always
changing. This change in velocity is caused by an
acceleration a, whose magnitude is (like that of the
velocity) held constant, but whose direction also is
always changing. The acceleration points radially
inwards (centripetally) and is perpendicular to the
velocity. This acceleration is known as centripetal
acceleration.

For a path of radius r, when an angle θ is swept out, the

distance traveled on the periphery of the orbit is s = rθ.
Therefore, the speed of travel around the orbit is Figure 2: The velocity vectors at time t and time t + dt are moved
from the orbit on the left to new positions where their tails coincide,
on the right. Because the velocity is fixed in magnitude at v = r ω,
the velocity vectors also sweep out a circular path at angular rate ω.
As dt → 0, the acceleration vector a becomes perpendicular to v,
which means it points toward the center of the orbit in the circle on
the left. Angle ω dt is the very small angle between the two velocities
and tends to zero as dt→ 0
Uniform circular motion 70

Figure 3: (Left) Ball in circular motion – rope provides centripetal force to keep
ball in circle (Right) Rope is cut and ball continues in straight line with velocity at
the time of cutting the rope, in accord with Newton's law of inertia, because
centripetal force is no longer there

where the angular rate of rotation is ω. (By rearrangement, ω = v/r.) Thus, v is a constant, and the velocity vector v
also rotates with constant magnitude v, at the same angular rate ω.

Acceleration
The left-hand circle in Figure 2 is the orbit showing the velocity vectors at two adjacent times. On the right, these
two velocities are moved so their tails coincide. Because speed is constant, the velocity vectors on the right sweep
out a circle as time advances. For a swept angle dθ = ω dt the change in v is a vector at right angles to v and of
magnitude v dθ, which in turn means that the magnitude of the acceleration is given by

Centripetal force
The acceleration is due to an inward-acting force, which is known as the centripetal force (meaning "center-seeking
force"). It is the force that keeps an object in uniform circular motion. From Newton's second law of motion, the
centripetal force Fc for an object in uniform circular motion is related to the object's acceleration by

where m is the mass of the object.

Since the magnitude of the acceleration is given by a = v2/r, the magnitude of the centripetal force is given by

The centripetal force can be provided by many different things, such as tension (as in a sling), friction (as between
tires and road for a turning car), or gravity (as between the Sun and the Earth).
Figure 3 shows an example of the role of centripetal force in maintaining a circular orbit: a mass tied to a rope and
spinning around in a horizontal circle. The tension in the rope is the centripetal force, and it is the force keeping the
object in uniform circular motion.
Uniform circular motion 71

If the rope is cut at a particular time, the ball continues to move in the direction of its velocity at the moment of
cutting, traveling tangent to the circular path.
In Figure 3, the rope holding the ball of mass m is cut about 3⁄4 of the way around the orbit. After the rope is cut, the
tension force/centripetal force is no longer acting upon the object so there is no force holding the object in uniform
circular motion. Therefore it continues going in the direction when it was last in contact with the force. This is
commonly mistaken for Centrifugal Force.
Consider the example of a car racing in a circular track. Similar to the tension force, the radially directed component
of frictional force between the tires of the car and the road provides the centripetal force keeping the car in the circle.
If the road were a frictionless plane, the car would not be able to move in uniform circular motion, and would instead
travel in a straight line. For example, if there is a slick spot on the track, the car leaves the track much in the manner
shown in Figure 3, accompanied by some spinning about its own axis to conserve angular momentum.

External links
• Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips [1] from the University of New South Wales

See also
• Example: Circular motion
• Circular motion
• Centripetal force
• Fictional force
• Reactive centrifugal force
• Sling (weapon)

References
[1] http:/ / www. physclips. unsw. edu. au/
Angular acceleration 72

Angular acceleration
Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity over time. In SI units, it is measured in radians per
second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α).[1]

Mathematical definition
The angular acceleration can be defined as either:

, or

where is the angular velocity, is the linear tangential acceleration, and r is the radius of curvature.

Equations of motion
For rotational motion, Newton's second law can be adapted to describe the relation between torque and angular
acceleration:
,
where is the total torque exerted on the body, and is the mass moment of inertia of the body.

Constant acceleration
For all constant values of the torque, , of an object, the angular acceleration will also be constant. For this special
case of constant angular acceleration, the above equation will produce a definitive, constant value for the angular
acceleration:

Non-constant acceleration
For any non-constant torque, the angular acceleration of an object will change with time. The equation becomes a
differential equation instead of a constant value. This differential equation is known as the equation of motion of the
system and can completely describe the motion of the object. It is also the best way to calculate the angular velocity.

See also
• Angular momentum
• Angular speed
• Angular velocity
• Rotation
• Spin

References
[1] http:/ / theory. uwinnipeg. ca/ physics/ circ/ node3. html
Angular velocity 73

Angular velocity
In physics, the angular velocity is a vector quantity
(more precisely, a pseudovector) which specifies the
angular speed of an object and the axis about which the
object is rotating. The SI unit of angular velocity is
radians per second, although it may be measured in
other units such as degrees per second, revolutions per
second, degrees per hour, etc. When measured in cycles
or rotations per unit time (e.g. revolutions per minute),
it is often called the rotational velocity and its
magnitude the rotational speed. Angular velocity is
usually represented by the symbol omega (Ω or ω). The
direction of the angular velocity vector is perpendicular
to the plane of rotation, in a direction which is usually Angular velocity describes the speed of rotation and the orientation
of the instantaneous axis about which the rotation occurs. The
specified by the right hand grip rule.[1]
direction of the angular velocity vector will be along the axis of
rotation; in this case (counter-clockwise rotation) the vector points
up.
The angular velocity of a particle

Two dimensions
The angular velocity of a particle in a 2-dimensional
plane is the easiest to understand. As shown in the
figure on the right (typically expressing the angular
measures φ and θ in radians), if we draw a line from
the origin (O) to the particle (P), then the velocity
vector (v) of the particle will have a component along
the radius (radial component, v∥) and a component
perpendicular to the radius (cross-radial component, v
). However, it must be remembered that the
velocity vector can be also decomposed into
tangential and normal components.

A radial motion produces no change in the distance of

the particle relative to the origin, so for purposes of
finding the angular velocity the parallel (radial)
component can be ignored. Therefore, the rotation is
completely produced by the tangential motion (like
The angular velocity of the particle at P with respect to the origin O is
that of a particle moving along a circumference), and determined by the perpendicular component of the velocity vector v.
the angular velocity is completely determined by the
perpendicular (tangential) component.
It can be seen that the rate of change of the angular position of the particle is related to the cross-radial velocity by:[1]

Utilizing θ, the angle between vectors v∥ and v, or equivalently as the angle between vectors r and v, gives:
Angular velocity 74

Combining the above two equations and defining the angular velocity as ω=dΦ/dt yields:

In two dimensions the angular velocity is a single number which has no direction. A single number which has no
direction is either a scalar or a pseudoscalar, the difference being that a scalar does not change its sign when the x
and y axes are exchanged (or inverted), while a pseudoscalar does. The angle as well as the angular velocity is a
pseudoscalar. The positive direction of rotation is taken, by convention, to be in the direction towards the y axis from
the x axis. If the axes are inverted, but the sense of a rotation does not, then the sign of the angle of rotation, and
therefore the angular velocity as well, will change.
It is important to note that the pseudoscalar angular velocity of a particle depends upon the choice of the origin.

Three dimensions
In three dimensions, the angular velocity becomes a bit more complicated. The angular velocity in this case is
generally thought of as a vector, or more precisely, a pseudovector. It now has not only a magnitude, but a direction
as well. The magnitude is the angular speed, and the direction describes the axis of rotation. The right-hand rule
indicates the positive direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, namely:
If you curl the fingers of your right hand to follow the direction of the rotation, then the direction of the
angular velocity vector is indicated by your right thumb.
Just as in the two dimensional case, a particle will have a component of its velocity along the radius from the origin
to the particle, and another component perpendicular to that radius. The combination of the origin point and the
perpendicular component of the velocity defines a plane of rotation in which the behavior of the particle (for that
instant) appears just as it does in the two dimensional case. The axis of rotation is then a line normal to this plane,
and this axis defined the direction of the angular velocity pseudovector, while the magnitude is the same as the
pseudoscalar value found in the 2-dimensional case. Define a unit vector which points in the direction of the
angular velocity pseudovector. The angular velocity may be written in a manner similar to that for two dimensions:

which, by the definition of the cross product, can be written:

For a moving frame

Euler's rotation theorem states that, in an instant, for any dt there always exists a momentary axis of rotation.
Therefore, any transversal section of the body by a plane perpendicular to this axis has to behave as a two
dimensional rotation. The angular speed vector will be defined over the rotation axis (eigenvector of the linear map),
and such as its value is the derivative of the angle rotated with respect to time.
Angular velocity 75

Higher dimensions
In general, the angular velocity in an n-dimensional space is the time derivative of the angular displacement tensor
which is a second rank skew-symmetric tensor. This tensor will have n(n-1)/2 independent components and this
number is the dimension of the Lie algebra of the Lie group of rotations of an n-dimensional inner product space.[2]
It turns out that in three dimensional space angular velocity can be represented by vector because number of
independent components is equal to number of dimensions of space.

Angular velocity of a rigid body

In order to deal with the motion of a rigid body, it is
best to consider a coordinate system that is fixed with
respect to the rigid body, and to study the coordinate
transformations between this coordinate and the fixed
"laboratory" system. As shown in the figure on the
right, the lab system's origin is at point O, the rigid
body system origin is at O' and the vector from O to
O' is R. A particle (i) in the rigid body is located at
point P and the vector position of this particle is Ri in
the lab frame, and at position ri in the body frame. It
is seen that the position of the particle can be written: Position of point P located in the rigid body (shown in blue). Ri is the
position with respect to the lab frame, centered at O  and ri is the
position with respect to the rigid body frame, centered at O'  . The
origin of the rigid body frame is at vector position R from the lab
frame.

The defining characteristic of a rigid body is that the distance between any two points in a rigid body is unchanging
in time. This means that the length of the vector is unchanging. By Euler's rotation theorem, we may replace the
vector with where is a rotation matrix and is the position of the particle at some fixed point in
time, say t=0. This replacement is useful, because now it is only the rotation matrix which is changing in time
and not the reference vector , as the rigid body rotates about point O'. The position of the particle is now written
as:

Taking the time derivative yields the velocity of the particle:

where Vi is the velocity of the particle (in the lab frame) and V is the velocity of O' (the origin of the rigid body
frame). Since is a rotation matrix its inverse is its transpose. So we substitute :

Continue by taking the time derivative of :

Angular velocity 76

Applying the formula (AB)T = BTAT:

is the negative of its transpose. Therefore it is a skew symmetric 3x3 matrix. We can therefore take its dual

to get a 3 dimensional vector. is called the angular velocity tensor. If we take the dual of this tensor, matrix

multiplication is replaced by the cross product. Its dual is called the angular velocity pseudovector, ω.

Substituting ω into the above velocity expression:

It can be seen that the velocity of a point in a rigid body can be divided into two terms - the velocity of a reference
point fixed in the rigid body plus the cross product term involving the angular velocity of the particle with respect to
the reference point. This angular velocity is the "spin" angular velocity of the rigid body as opposed to the angular
velocity of the reference point O' about the origin O.
It is an important point that the spin angular velocity of every particle in the rigid body is the same, and that the
spin angular velocity is independent of the choice of the origin of the rigid body system or of the lab system. In other
words, it is a physically real quantity which is a property of the rigid body, independent of one's choice of coordinate
system. The angular velocity of the reference point about the origin of the lab frame will, however, depend on these
choices of coordinate system. It is often convenient to choose the center of mass of the rigid body as the origin of the
rigid body system, since a considerable mathematical simplification occurs in the expression for the angular
momentum of the rigid body.
If the reference point is the "Instantaneous axis of rotation" the expression of velocity of a point in the rigid body
will have just the angular velocity term. This is because the velocity of instantaneous axis of rotation is zero. An
example of instantaneous axis of rotation is the hinge of a door. Another example is the point of contact of a pure
rolling spherical rigid body.

See also
• Angular frequency
• Angular acceleration
• Angular momentum
• Areal velocity
• Isometry
• Lie algebra
• Orthogonal group
• Rigid body dynamics
• Rotation group
Angular velocity 77

References
[1] Hibbeler, Russell C. (2009). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA314& dq=angular+
velocity& rview=1). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 314, 153. ISBN 9780136077916. .(EM1)
[2] Rotations and Angular Momentum (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ classical/ galilei2. pdf) on the Classical Mechanics page of the
website of John Baez (http:/ / math. ucr. edu/ home/ baez/ README. html), especially Questions 1 and 2.

• Symon, Keith (1971). Mechanics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. ISBN 0-201-07392-7.

• Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (1997). Mechanics. Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-750-62896-0.

External links
A college text-book of physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QBc5AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA88&
dq=angular+velocity+of+a+particle&lr=&rview=1) By Arthur Lalanne Kimball (Angular Velocity of a particle)

Centripetal force
Centripetal force is a force that makes a body follow a curved path:it
is always directed orthogonal to the velocity of the body, toward the
instantaneous center of curvature of the path.[1] [2] The term centripetal
force comes from the Latin words centrum ("center") and petere ("tend
towards", "aim at"), signifying that the force is directed inward toward
the center of curvature of the path. Isaac Newton's description was: "A
centripetal force is that by which bodies are drawn or impelled, or in
any way tend, towards a point as to a center."[3]

Formula Figure 1: A simple example corresponding to

uniform circular motion. A ball is tethered to a
The magnitude of the centripetal force on an object of mass m moving rotational axis and is rotating counterclockwise
at a speed v along a path with radius of curvature r is:[4] around the specified path at a constant angular
rate ω. The velocity of the ball is a vector
tangential to the orbit, and is continuously
changing direction, a change requiring a radially
inward directed centripetal force. The centripetal
force is provided by the tether, which is in a state
of tension.

The direction of the force is toward the center of the circle in which the object is moving, or the osculating circle, the
circle that best fits the local path of the object, if the path is not circular.[5] This force is also sometimes written in
terms of the angular velocity ω of the object about the center of the circle:
Centripetal force 78

Sources of centripetal force

For a satellite in orbit around a planet, the centripetal force is supplied by the gravitational attraction between the
satellite and the planet. The gravitational force acts on each object toward the other, which is toward the center of
mass of the two objects; for circular orbits, this center of gravity is the center of the circular orbits. For non-circular
orbits or trajectories, only the component of gravitational force directed orthogonal to the path (toward the center of
the osculating circle) is termed centripetal; the remaining component acts to speed up or slow down the satellite in its
orbit.[6] Alternatively, some sources, including Newton, refer to the entire gravitational force as centripetal, though it
is not strictly centripetally directed when the orbit is not circular;[7] the formulas above will not apply in such cases.
For an object at the end of a rope rotating about a vertical axis, the centripetal force is the horizontal component of
the tension of the rope, which acts toward the axis of rotation. For a spinning object, internal tensile stress provides
the centripetal forces that make the parts of the object move together in circular motions.

Analysis of several cases

Below are three examples of increasing complexity, with derivations of the formulas governing velocity and
acceleration.

Uniform circular motion

Uniform circular motion refers to the case of constant rate of rotation. Here are two approaches to describing this
case.

Geometric derivation

The circle in the left of Figure 2 shows an object moving on a circle at

constant speed at two different times in its orbit. Its position is given
by the vector R and its velocity by the vector v.
The velocity vector is always perpendicular to the position vector
(since the velocity vector is always tangent to the circle of motion).
Since R moves in a circle, so does v. The circular motion of the
velocity is shown in the circle on the right of Figure 2, along with its
acceleration a. Just as velocity is the rate of change of position,
acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Figure 2: Left circle: The particle's orbit –
particle moves in a circle and velocity is tangent
Since the position and velocity vectors move in tandem, they go to orbit; Right circle: a "velocity circle"; velocity
around their circles in the same time T. That time equals the distance vectors are brought together so tails coincide:
because velocity is a constant in uniform motion,
traveled divided by the velocity
the tip of the velocity vector describes a circle,
and acceleration is tangent to the velocity circle.
That means the acceleration is radially inward in
the left-hand circle showing the orbit.

and, by analogy,

Setting these two equations equal and solving for |a|, we get
Centripetal force 79

The angular rate of rotation in radians per second is:

Comparing the two circles in Figure 2 also shows that the acceleration points toward the center of the R circle. For
example, in the left circle in Figure 2, the position vector R pointing at 12 o'clock has a velocity vector v pointing at
9 o'clock, which (switching to the circle on the right) has an acceleration vector a pointing at 6 o'clock. So the
acceleration vector is opposite to R and toward the center of the R circle.

Derivation using vectors

Figure 3 shows the vector relationships for uniform circular motion.

The rotation itself is represented by the vector Ω, which is normal to
the plane of the orbit (using the right-hand rule) and has magnitude
given by:

Figure 3: Vector relationships for uniform

circular motion; vector Ω representing the
rotation is normal to the plane of the orbit with
polarity determined by the right-hand rule and
magnitude dθ /dt.

with θ the angular position at time t. In this subsection, dθ/dt is assumed constant, independent of time. The distance
traveled ℓ of the particle in time dt along the circular path is

which, by properties of the vector cross product, has magnitude rdθ and is in the direction tangent to the circular
path.
Consequently,

In other words,

Differentiating with respect to time,

Lagrange's formula states:

Applying Lagrange's formula with the observation that Ω • r(t) = 0 at all times,

In words, the acceleration is pointing directly opposite to the radial displacement r at all times, and has a magnitude:
Centripetal force 80

where vertical bars |...| denote the vector magnitude, which in the case of r(t) is simply the radius R of the path. This
result agrees with the previous section if the substitution is made for rate of rotation in terms of the period of rotation
T:

When the rate of rotation is made constant in the analysis of nonuniform circular motion, that analysis agrees with
this one.
A merit of the vector approach is that it is manifestly independent of any coordinate system.

Example: The banked turn

Figure 4 shows a ball in circular motion on a banked curve. The curve

is banked at an angle θ from the horizontal, and the surface of the road
is considered to be slippery. The object is to find what angle the bank
must have so the ball does not slide off the road.[8] Intuition tells us
that on a flat curve with no banking at all, the ball will simply slide off
the road; while with a very steep banking, the ball will slide to the Figure 4: Left panel: Ball on a banked circular
center unless it travels the curve rapidly. track moving with constant speed v; Right panel:
Forces on the ball. The resultant or net force on
Apart from any acceleration that might occur in the direction of the the ball found by vector addition of the normal
path, the right side of Figure 4 indicates the forces on the ball. There force exerted by the road and vertical force due to
are two forces; one is the force of gravity vertically downward through gravity must equal the centripetal force dictated
by the need to travel a circular path.
the center of mass of the ball mg where m is the mass of the ball and g
is the gravitational acceleration; the second is the upward normal force
exerted by the road perpendicular to the road surface man. The centripetal force demanded by the curved motion also
is shown in Figure 4. This centripetal force is not a third force applied to the ball, but rather must be provided by the
net force on the ball resulting from vector addition of the normal force and the force of gravity. The curved motion is
maintained so long as this net force provides the centripetal force requisite to the motion.

The horizontal net force on the ball is the horizontal component of the force from the road, which has magnitude |Fh|
= m|an|sinθ. The vertical component of the force from the road must counteract the gravitational force, that is |Fv| =
m|an|cosθ = m|g|. Accordingly one finds the net horizontal force to be:

On the other hand, at velocity |v| on a circular path of radius R, kinematics says that the force needed to turn the ball
continuously into the turn is the radially inward centripetal force Fc of magnitude:

Consequently the ball is in a stable path when the angle of the road is set to satisfy the condition:

or,
Centripetal force 81

As the angle of bank θ approaches 90°, the tangent function approaches infinity, allowing larger values for |v|2/R. In
words, this equation states that for faster speeds (bigger |v|) the road must be banked more steeply (a larger value for
θ), and for sharper turns (smaller R) the road also must be banked more steeply, which accords with intuition. When
the angle θ does not satisfy the above condition, the horizontal component of force exerted by the road does not
provide the correct centripetal force, and an additional frictional force tangential to the road surface is called upon to
provide the difference. If friction cannot do this (that is, the coefficient of friction is exceeded), the ball slides to a
different radius where the balance can be realized.[9] [10]
These ideas apply to air flight as well. See the FAA pilot's manual.[11]

Nonuniform circular motion

As a generalization of the uniform circular motion case, suppose the
angular rate of rotation is not constant. The acceleration now has a
tangential component, as shown in Figure 5. This case is used to
demonstrate a derivation strategy based upon a polar coordinate
system.
Let r(t) be a vector that describes the position of a point mass as a
function of time. Since we are assuming circular motion, let r(t) = R·ur,
where R is a constant (the radius of the circle) and ur is the unit vector Figure 5: Velocity and acceleration for
nonuniform circular motion: the velocity vector is
pointing from the origin to the point mass. The direction of ur is
tangential to the orbit, but the acceleration vector
described by θ, the angle between the x-axis and the unit vector, is not radially inward because of its tangential
measured counterclockwise from the x-axis. The other unit vector for component aθ that increases the rate of rotation:
polar coordinates, uθ is perpendicular to ur and points in the direction dω / dt = | aθ| / R.

of increasing θ. These polar unit vectors can be expressed in terms of

Cartesian unit vectors in the x and y directions, denoted i and j respectively:[12]

ur = cosθ i + sinθ j
and
uθ = -sinθ i + cosθ j.
We differentiate to find velocity:

where ω is the angular velocity dθ/dt.

This result for the velocity matches expectations that the velocity should be directed tangential to the circle, and that
the magnitude of the velocity should be ωR. Differentiating again, and noting that

we find that the acceleration, a is:

Thus, the radial and tangential components of the acceleration are:

Centripetal force 82

   and   

where |v| = Rω is the magnitude of the velocity (the speed).

These equations express mathematically that, in the case of an object that moves along a circular path with a
changing speed, the acceleration of the body may be decomposed into a perpendicular component that changes the
direction of motion (the centripetal acceleration), and a parallel, or tangential component, that changes the speed.

General planar motion

Polar coordinates

The above results can be derived perhaps more simply in polar

coordinates, and at the same time extended to general motion within a
plane, as shown next. Polar coordinates in the plane employ a radial
unit vector uρ and an angular unit vector uθ, as shown in Figure 6.[13]
A particle at position r is described by:

Figure 6: Polar unit vectors at two times t and t +

dt for a particle with trajectory r ( t ); on the left
the unit vectors uρ and uθ at the two times are
moved so their tails all meet, and are shown to
trace an arc of a unit radius circle. Their rotation
in time dt is dθ, just the same angle as the
rotation of the trajectory r ( t ).

where the notation ρ is used to describe the distance of the path from the origin instead of R to emphasize that this
distance is not fixed, but varies with time. The unit vector uρ travels with the particle and always points in the same
direction as r(t). Unit vector uθ also travels with the particle and stays orthogonal to uρ. Thus, uρ and uθ form a local
Cartesian coordinate system attached to the particle, and tied to the path traveled by the particle.[14] By moving the
unit vectors so their tails coincide, as seen in the circle at the left of Figure 6, it is seen that uρ and uθ form a
right-angled pair with tips on the unit circle that trace back and forth on the perimeter of this circle with the same
angle θ(t) as r(t).
When the particle moves, its velocity is

To evaluate the velocity, the derivative of the unit vector uρ is needed. Because uρ is a unit vector, its magnitude is
fixed, and it can change only in direction, that is, its change duρ has a component only perpendicular to uρ. When the
trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, uρ, which points in the same direction as r(t), also rotates by dθ. See Figure 6.
Therefore the change in uρ is

or
Centripetal force 83

In a similar fashion, the rate of change of uθ is found. As with uρ, uθ is a unit vector and can only rotate without
changing size. To remain orthogonal to uρ while the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, uθ, which is orthogonal to
r(t), also rotates by dθ. See Figure 6. Therefore, the change duθ is orthogonal to uθ and proportional to dθ (see
Figure 6):

Figure 6 shows the sign to be negative: to maintain orthogonality, if duρ is positive with dθ, then duθ must decrease.
Substituting the derivative of uρ into the expression for velocity:

To obtain the acceleration, another time differentiation is done:

Substituting the derivatives of uρ and uθ, the acceleration of the particle is:[15]

As a particular example, if the particle moves in a circle of constant radius R, then dρ/dt = 0, v = vθ, and:

These results agree with those above for nonuniform circular motion. See also the article on non-uniform circular
motion. If this acceleration is multiplied by the particle mass, the leading term is the centripetal force and the
negative of the second term related to angular acceleration is sometimes called the Euler force.[16]
For trajectories other than circular motion, for example, the more general trajectory envisioned in Figure 6, the
instantaneous center of rotation and radius of curvature of the trajectory are related only indirectly to the coordinate
system defined by uρ and uθ and to the length |r(t)| = ρ. Consequently, in the general case, it is not straightforward to
disentangle the centripetal and Euler terms from the above general acceleration equation.[17] [18] To deal directly
with this issue, local coordinates are preferable, as discussed next.
Centripetal force 84

Local coordinates

By local coordinates is meant a set of coordinates that travel with the

particle, [19] and have orientation determined by the path of the
particle.[20] Unit vectors are formed as shown in Figure 7, both
tangential and normal to the path. This coordinate system sometimes is
referred to as intrinsic or path coordinates[21] [22] or nt-coordinates, for
normal-tangential, referring to these unit vectors. These coordinates
are a very special example of a more general concept of local
coordinates from the theory of differential forms.[23]
Figure 7: Local coordinate system for planar
Distance along the path of the particle is the arc length s, considered to motion on a curve. Two different positions are
be a known function of time. shown for distances s and s + ds along the curve.
At each position s, unit vector un points along the
outward normal to the curve and unit vector ut is
A center of curvature is defined at each position s located a distance ρ tangential to the path. The radius of curvature of
the path is ρ as found from the rate of rotation of
(the radius of curvature) from the curve on a line along the normal un
the tangent to the curve with respect to arc length,
(s). The required distance ρ(s) at arc length s is defined in terms of the and is the radius of the osculating circle at
rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve, which in turn is determined position s. The unit circle on the left shows the
by the path itself. If the orientation of the tangent relative to some rotation of the unit vectors with s.

starting position is θ(s), then ρ(s) is defined by the derivative dθ/ds:

The radius of curvature usually is taken as positive (that is, as an absolute value), while the curvature κ is a signed
quantity.
A geometric approach to finding the center of curvature and the radius of curvature uses a limiting process leading to
the osculating circle.[24] [25] See Figure 7.
Using these coordinates, the motion along the path is viewed as a succession of circular paths of ever-changing
center, and at each position s constitutes non-uniform circular motion at that position with radius ρ. The local value
of the angular rate of rotation then is given by:

with the local speed v given by:

As for the other examples above, because unit vectors cannot change magnitude, their rate of change is always
perpendicular to their direction (see the left-hand insert in Figure 7):[26]

Consequently, the velocity and acceleration are:[25] [27] [28]

and using the chain-rule of differentiation:

with the tangential acceleration

In this local coordinate system the acceleration resembles the expression for nonuniform circular motion with the
local radius ρ(s), and the centripetal acceleration is identified as the second term.[29]
Centripetal force 85

Extension of this approach to three dimensional space curves leads to the Frenet-Serret formulas.[30] [31]

Alternative approach
Looking at Figure 7, one might wonder whether adequate account has been taken of the difference in curvature
between ρ(s) and ρ(s + ds) in computing the arc length as ds = ρ(s)dθ. Reassurance on this point can be found using
a more formal approach outlined below. This approach also makes connection with the article on curvature.
To introduce the unit vectors of the local coordinate system, one approach is to begin in Cartesian coordinates and
describe the local coordinates in terms of these Cartesian coordinates. In terms of arc length s let the path be
described as:[32]

Then an incremental displacement along the path ds is described by:

where primes are introduced to denote derivatives with respect to s. The magnitude of this displacement is ds,
showing that:[33]

(Eq. 1)
This displacement is necessarily tangent to the curve at s, showing that the unit vector tangent to the curve is:

while the outward unit vector normal to the curve is

Orthogonality can be verified by showing the vector dot product is zero. The unit magnitude of these vectors is a
consequence of Eq. 1. Using the tangent vector, the angle of the tangent to the curve, say θ, is given by:

and

The radius of curvature is introduced completely formally (without need for geometric interpretation) as:

The derivative of θ can be found from that for sinθ:

Now:

in which the denominator is unity. With this formula for the derivative of the sine, the radius of curvature becomes:

where the equivalence of the forms stems from differentiation of Eq. 1:

With these results, the acceleration can be found:

Centripetal force 86

as can be verified by taking the dot product with the unit vectors ut(s) and un(s). This result for acceleration is the
same as that for circular motion based on the radius ρ. Using this coordinate system in the inertial frame, it is easy to
identify the force normal to the trajectory as the centripetal force and that parallel to the trajectory as the tangential
force. From a qualitative standpoint, the path can be approximated by an arc of a circle for a limited time, and for the
limited time a particular radius of curvature applies, the centrifugal and Euler forces can be analyzed on the basis of
circular motion with that radius.
This result for acceleration agrees with that found earlier. However, in this approach the question of the change in
radius of curvature with s is handled completely formally, consistent with a geometric interpretation, but not relying
upon it, thereby avoiding any questions Figure 7 might suggest about neglecting the variation in ρ.

Example: circular motion

To illustrate the above formulas, let x, y be given as:

Then:

which can be recognized as a circular path around the origin with radius α. The position s = 0 corresponds to [α, 0],
or 3 o'clock. To use the above formalism the derivatives are needed:

With these results one can verify that:

The unit vectors also can be found:

which serve to show that s = 0 is located at position [ρ, 0] and s = ρπ/2 at [0, ρ], which agrees with the original
expressions for x and y. In other words, s is measured counterclockwise around the circle from 3 o'clock. Also, the
derivatives of these vectors can be found:

To obtain velocity and acceleration, a time-dependence for s is necessary. For counterclockwise motion at variable
speed v(t):

where v(t) is the speed and t is time, and s(t = 0) = 0. Then:

Centripetal force 87

where it already is established that α = ρ. This acceleration is the standard result for non-uniform circular motion.

See also
• Fictitious force • Example: circular motion • Kinematics
• Centrifugal force • Mechanics of planar particle motion • Applied mechanics
• Circular motion • Frenet-Serret formulas • Analytical mechanics
• Coriolis force • Orthogonal coordinates • Dynamics (physics)
• Reactive centrifugal • Statics • Classical mechanics
force
• Kinetics

Further reading
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
(5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.
• Centripetal force [34] vs. Centrifugal force [35], from an online Regents Exam physics tutorial by the Oswego City
School District

External links
• Notes from University of Winnipeg [36]
• Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University [37]; see also home page [38]
• Notes from Britannica [39]
• Notes from PhysicsNet [40]
• NASA notes by David P. Stern [41]
• Notes from U Texas [42].
• Analysis of smart yo-yo [43]
• The Inuit yo-yo [44]
• Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) [45]
Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an
e-book library [46] of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering.
Centripetal force 88

References
[1] Russelkl C Hibbeler (2009). "Equations of Motion: Normal and tangential coordinates" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=tOFRjXB-XvMC& pg=PA131). Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (12 ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 131. ISBN 0136077919. .
[2] Paul Allen Tipler, Gene Mosca (2003). Physics for scientists and engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2HRFckqcBNoC&
pg=PA129) (5th ed.). Macmillan. p. 129. ISBN 0716783398. .
[3] Felix Klein, Arnold Sommerfeld (2008). The Theory of the Top (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xdxGF918uI8C& pg=PA232) (Reprint
with translators' notes of 1897 ed.). Boston, Mass.: Birkhäuser. p. 232. ISBN 0817647201. .
[4] Chris Carter (2001). Facts and Practice for A-Level: Physics. S.l.: Oxford Univ Press. p. 30. ISBN 9780199147687.
[5] Eugene Lommel and George William Myers (1900). Experimental physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4BMPAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA63& dq=centripetal-force+ osculating-circle& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=gmNASs2tCYXWlQTXieiADw). K. Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co.
p. 63. .
[6] Johnnie T. Dennis (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1hL1EwElX4C& pg=PA91&
dq=centripetal+ component+ gravity& lr=& as_brr=3& ei=VWpASuruKY-gkQTc7bzxDg). Alpha Books. p. 91. ISBN 9781592570812. .
[7] George Bernard Benedek and Felix Villars (2000). Physics, with Illustrative Examples from Medicine and Biology: Mechanics (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=GeALYXiy9sMC& pg=PA52& dq=gravity+ "centripetal+ force"+ intitle:mechanics& lr=& as_brr=3&
ei=W7EtSqu7Bo62zATZnrSOBw). Springer. p. 52. ISBN 9780387987699. .
[8] Lawrence S. Lerner (1997). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kJOnAvimS44C& pg=PA129&
dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=0ueAq7G5l2R3ausiXue0CPW_1dM#PPA128,M1). Boston: Jones & Bartlett
Publishers. p. 128. ISBN 0867204796. .
[9] Arthur Beiser (2004). Schaum's Outline of Applied Physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=soKguvJDgmsC& pg=PA103&
dq=friction+ "banked+ turn"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=hMYfCzJHm6Ni4Noq5v5NRvvPSyQ). New York: McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 103.
ISBN 0071426116. .
[10] Alan Darbyshire (2003). Mechanical Engineering: BTEC National Option Units (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fzfXLGpElZ0C&
pg=PA57& dq=centripetal+ "banked+ curve"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=hbaHu8Xt_uTGvd5b1DG01vCYFF8#PPA56,M1). Oxford: Newnes.
p. 56. ISBN 0750657618. .
[11] Federal Aviation Administration (2007). Pilot's Encyclopedia of Aeronautical Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=m5V04SXE4zQC& pg=PT33& lpg=PT33& dq=+ "angle+ of+ bank"& source=web& ots=iYTi_mZAra&
sig=ytjcmr9RStdIdgZzaiBJJ-wxjts& hl=en#PPT32,M1). Oklahoma City OK: Skyhorse Publishing Inc.. Figure 3-21. ISBN 1602390347. .
[12] Note: unlike the Cartesian unit vectors i and j, which are constant, in polar coordinates the direction of the unit vectors ur and uθ depend on
θ, and so in general have non-zero time derivatives.
[13] Although the polar coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. The description of the particle motion remains a
description from the stationary observer's point of view.
[14] Notice that this local coordinate system is not autonomous; for example, its rotation in time is dictated by the trajectory traced by the
particle. Note also that the radial vector r(t) does not represent the radius of curvature of the path.
[15] John Robert Taylor (2005). Classical Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=P1kCtNr-pJsC& printsec=index&
dq=isbn=189138922X& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_toc_s& cad=1#PPA29,M1). Sausalito CA: University Science Books. p. 28–29. ISBN
189138922X. .
[16] Cornelius Lanczos (1986). The Variational Principles of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZWoYYr8wk2IC& pg=PA103&
dq="Euler+ force"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=UV46Q9NIrYWwn5EmYpPv-LPuZd0#PPA103,M1). New York: Courier Dover Publications.
p. 103. ISBN 0486650677. .
[17] See, for example, Howard D. Curtis (2005). Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=6aO9aGNBAgIC& pg=PA193& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+ system"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=p5hZldx_U1CnV0Ggc29YBLgLj9k#PPA5,M1). Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 5. ISBN 0750661690. .
[18] S. Y. Lee (2004). Accelerator physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VTc8Sdld5S8C& pg=PA37& dq=orbit+ "coordinate+
system"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=h5GU58FVOzEGclxsJkYQuVvtWkU) (2nd ed.). Hackensack NJ: World Scientific. p. 37. ISBN 981256182X.
.
[19] The observer of the motion along the curve is using these local coordinates to describe the motion from the observer's frame of reference,
that is, from a stationary point of view. In other words, although the local coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. A
change in coordinate system used by the observer is only a change in their description of observations, and does not mean that the observer
has changed their state of motion, and vice versa.
[20] Zhilin Li & Kazufumi Ito (2006). The immersed interface method: numerical solutions of PDEs involving interfaces and irregular domains
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=_E084AX-iO8C& pg=PA16& dq="local+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2p_S2c7vRzd1vabU9WhIBJXk8ESw). Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. p. 16. ISBN 0898716098.
.
[21] K L Kumar (2003). Engineering Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QabMJsCf2zgC& pg=PA339& dq="path+
coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U1ZlP_syppme85cv4pimhLxyUOLug). New Delhi: Tata McGraw-Hill. p. 339. ISBN
0070494738. .
Centripetal force 89

[22] Lakshmana C. Rao, J. Lakshminarasimhan, Raju Sethuraman & SM Sivakuma (2004). Engineering Dynamics: Statics and Dynamics (http:/
/ books. google. com/ books?id=F7gaa1ShPKIC& pg=PA134& dq="path+ coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U0PT2mGvAHroVJFVXGB46y6zLWaGA#PPA132,M1). Prentice Hall of India. p. 133. ISBN 8120321898. .
[23] Shigeyuki Morita (2001). Geometry of Differential Forms (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=5N33Of2RzjsC& pg=PA1& dq="local+
coordinates"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U3dnL01bMDu8d0GCmCC9eI717lsPA). American Mathematical Society. p. 1. ISBN
0821810456. .
[24] The osculating circle at a given point P on a curve is the limiting circle of a sequence of circles that pass through P and two other points on
the curve, Q and R, on either side of P, as Q and R approach P. See the online text by Lamb: Horace Lamb (1897). An Elementary Course of
Infinitesimal Calculus (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=eDM6AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA406& dq="osculating+ circle"& lr=& as_brr=0).
University Press. p. 406. ISBN 1108005349. .
[25] Guang Chen & Fook Fah Yap (2003). An Introduction to Planar Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xt09XiZBzPEC&
pg=PA34& dq=motion+ "center+ of+ curvature"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U2lKY09hG88_XSHtU9H_xuaXXdGlA) (3rd ed.). Central
Learning Asia/Thomson Learning Asia. p. 34. ISBN 9812435689. .
[26] R. Douglas Gregory (2006). Classical Mechanics: An Undergraduate Text (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uAfUQmQbzOkC&
pg=RA1-PA18& dq=particle+ curve+ normal+ tangent& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U3_WR6_esuEz-mUMmOXuZabQY6Now#PRA1-PA20,M1). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0521826780. .
[27] Edmund Taylor Whittaker & William McCrea (1988). A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies: with an
introduction to the problem of three bodies (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=epH1hCB7N2MC& pg=PA20& vq=radius+ of+
curvature& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_search_s&
sig=ACfU3U3cKHnTYJNja9o0t_Iw2VeRSGEWCg) (4rth ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 20. ISBN 0521358833. .
[28] Jerry H. Ginsberg (2007). Engineering Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=je0W8N5oXd4C& pg=PA723& dq=osculating+
"planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=ACfU3U0Yuca2DhshUowHlkVtw_bRSR-qww#PPA33,M1). Cambridge University Press. p. 33.
ISBN 0521883032. .
[29] Joseph F. Shelley (1990). 800 solved problems in vector mechanics for engineers: Dynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ByNrVgf041MC& pg=PA46& dq=particle+ movement+ "radius+ of+ curvature"+ acceleration+ -soap& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U3xRX2OpTCS7_OF87Yi07fQmymg7A#PPA47,M1). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 47. ISBN 0070566879. .
[30] Larry C. Andrews & Ronald L. Phillips (2003). Mathematical Techniques for Engineers and Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MwrDfvrQyWYC& pg=PA164& dq=particle+ "planar+ motion"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2LpH6ofhuuC2UiED0pf38wbspY8A#PPA164,M1). SPIE Press. p. 164. ISBN 0819445061. .
[31] Ch V Ramana Murthy & NC Srinivas (2001). Applied Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Q0Pvv4vWOlQC& pg=PA337&
vq=frenet& dq=isbn=8121920825& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U3S5vGMS-NnraAEmpBf6B9bB2wK6A). New Delhi: S. Chand &
Co.. p. 337. ISBN 81-219-2082-5. .
[32] The article on curvature treats a more general case where the curve is parametrized by an arbitrary variable (denoted t), rather than by the arc
length s.
[33] Ahmed A. Shabana, Khaled E. Zaazaa, Hiroyuki Sugiyama (2007). Railroad Vehicle Dynamics: A Computational Approach (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=YgIDSQT0FaUC& pg=RA1-PA207& dq="generalized+ coordinate"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2tosoLUEAUNkGu2x8TTtuxLfeLGQ#PRA1-PA91,M1). CRC Press. p. 91. ISBN 1420045814. .
[34] http:/ / regentsprep. org/ Regents/ physics/ phys06/ bcentrif/ default. htm
[35] http:/ / regentsprep. org/ Regents/ physics/ phys06/ bcentrif/ centrif. htm
[36] http:/ / theory. uwinnipeg. ca/ physics/ circ/ node6. html
[37] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ cf. html#cf
[38] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ HBASE/ hframe. html
[39] http:/ / www. britannica. com/ eb/ topic-102869/ centripetal-acceleration
[40] http:/ / www. ac. wwu. edu/ ~vawter/ PhysicsNet/ Topics/ RotationalKinematics/ CentripetalForce. html
[41] http:/ / www-istp. gsfc. nasa. gov/ stargaze/ Scircul. htm
[42] http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node87. html
[43] http:/ / gicl. cs. drexel. edu/ wiki/ Smart_Yo-yo
[44] http:/ / www. fofweb. com/ onfiles/ SEOF/ Science_Experiments/ 6-17. pdf
[45] http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ index. php
[46] http:/ / kmoddl. library. cornell. edu/ e-books. php
Right-hand rule 90

Right-hand rule
In mathematics and physics, the right-hand rule is a common
mnemonic for understanding notation conventions for vectors in 3
dimensions. It was invented for use in electromagnetism by British
physicist Zachariah William Cole in the late 1800s.[1] [2]
When choosing three vectors that must be at right angles to each other,
there are two distinct solutions, so when expressing this idea in
mathematics, one must remove the ambiguity of which solution is
meant. The left-handed orientation is shown on the left,
and the right-handed on the right.
There are variations on the mnemonic depending on context, but all
variations are related to the one idea of choosing a convention.

Direction associated with an ordered pair of

directions
One form of the right-hand rule is used in situations in which an
ordered operation must be performed on two vectors a and b that has a
result which is a vector c perpendicular to both a and b. The most
common example is the vector cross product. The right-hand rule
imposes the following procedure for choosing one of the two
Use of right hand.
directions.

• With the thumb, index, and middle fingers at right angles to each other (with the index finger pointed straight),
the middle finger points in the direction of c when the thumb represents a and the index finger represents b.
Other (equivalent) finger assignments are possible. For example, the first (index) finger can represent a, the first
vector in the product; the second (middle) finger, b, the second vector; and the thumb, c, the product.[3]

Direction associated with a rotation

A different form of the right-hand rule is used in situations where a
vector must be assigned to the rotation of a body, a magnetic field or a
fluid.[4] Alternatively, when a rotation is specified by a vector, and it is
necessary to understand the way in which the rotation occurs, the
right-hand rule is applicable.
In this form, the fingers of the right hand are curled to match the
curvature and direction of the motion or the magnetic field. The thumb
indicates the direction of the vector.

Vector assigned to a rotation.

Applications
Right-hand rule 91

The first form of the rule is used to determine the direction of the cross product of two vectors. This leads to
widespread use in physics, wherever the cross product occurs. A list of physical quantities whose directions are
related by the right-hand rule is given below. (Some of these are related only indirectly to cross products, and use the
second form.)
• The angular velocity of a rotating object and the rotational velocity of any point on the object
• A torque, the force that causes it, and the position of the point of application of the force
• A magnetic field, the position of the point where it is determined, and the electric current (or change in electric
flux) that causes it
• A magnetic field in a coil of wire and the electric current in the wire
• The force of a magnetic field on a charged particle, the magnetic field itself, and the velocity of the object
• The vorticity at any point in the field of flow of a fluid
• The induced current from motion in a magnetic field (known as Fleming's right hand rule)
Fleming's left hand rule is a rule for finding the direction of the thrust on a conductor carrying a current in a
magnetic field.

Left handedness
In certain situations, it may be useful to use the opposite convention,
where one of the vectors is reversed and so creates a left-handed triad
instead of a right-handed triad.
An example of this situation is for left-handed materials. Normally, for
an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic fields, and the
direction of propagation of the wave obey the right-hand rule.
However, left-handed materials have special properties - the negative
Fleming's left hand rule
refractive index. It makes the direction of propagation point in the
opposite direction.

De Graaf's translation of Fleming's left-hand rule - which uses thrust, field and current - and the right-hand rule, is
the FBI rule. The FBI rule changes Thrust into F (Lorentz force), B (direction of the magnetic field) and I (current).
The FBI rule is easily remembered by US citizens because of the commonly known abbreviation for the Federal
Bureau of Investigation.

Symmetry
Vector Right-Hand Right-Hand Right-Hand Left-Hand Left-Hand Left-Hand

a, x or I Thumb Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb Fingers or Palm First or Index

b, y or B First or Index Thumb Fingers or Palm Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb

c, z or F Fingers or Palm First or Index Thumb First or Index Thumb Fingers or Palm
Right-hand rule 92

See also
• Chirality (mathematics)
• Right hand grip rule
• Curl (mathematics)
• Pseudovector
• Improper rotation
• Reflection (mathematics)
• Fleming's left hand rule
• Vorticity
• ISO 2

External links
• Right and Left Hand Rules - Interactive Java Tutorial [5] National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
• A demonstration of the right-hand rule at physics.syr.edu [6]
• Definition at mathworld.wolfram.com [7]

References
[1] Cole, Zachariah William (1902). Magnets and Electric Currents, 2nd Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ASUYAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA173). London: E.& F. N. Spon. pp. 173–174. .
[2] "Right and left hand rules" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ handrules/ index. html). Tutorials, Magnet Lab U..
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-04-30.
[3] PHYS345 Introduction to the Right Hand Rule (http:/ / www. physics. udel. edu/ ~watson/ phys345/ Fall1998/ class/ 1-right-hand-rule. html),
George Watson, University of Delaware, 1998
[4] Wilson, Adam (2008). "Hand Rules" (http:/ / www. ece. unb. ca/ Courses/ EE2683/ AW/ hand_rules. pdf). Course outline, EE2683 Electric
Circuits and Machines. Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of New Brunswick. . Retrieved 2008-08-11.
[5] http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ handrules/ index. html
[6] http:/ / physics. syr. edu/ courses/ video/ RightHandRule/ index2. html
[7] http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ Right-HandRule. html
Coriolis effect 93

Coriolis effect
In physics, the Coriolis effect is an apparent deflection of moving
objects when they are viewed from a rotating reference frame. For
example, consider two children on opposite sides of a spinning
roundabout (carousel), who are throwing a ball to each other. From the
children's point of view, the ball's path is curved sideways by the
Coriolis effect. From the thrower's perspective, the deflection is to the
right with anticlockwise carousel rotation (viewed from above).
Deflection is to the left with clockwise rotation.

Newton's laws of motion govern the motion of an object in an inertial

frame of reference. When transforming Newton's laws to a rotating
frame of reference, the Coriolis force appears, along with the
centrifugal force. If the rotation speed of the frame is not constant, the
Euler force will also appear. All three forces are proportional to the
mass of the object. The Coriolis force is proportional to the speed of
rotation and the centrifugal force is proportional to its square. The
Coriolis force acts in a direction perpendicular to the rotation axis and
Figure 1: In the inertial frame of reference (upper
to the velocity of the body in the rotating frame and is proportional to part of the picture), the black object moves in a
the object's speed in the rotating frame. The centrifugal force acts straight line, without significant friction with the
outwards in the radial direction and is proportional to the distance of disc. However, the observer (red dot) who is
standing in the rotating (non-inertial) frame of
the body from the axis of the rotating frame.
reference (lower part of the picture) sees the
object as following a curved path.
These three additional forces are termed either inertial forces, fictitious
forces or pseudo forces.[1] These names are used in a technical sense,
to mean simply that these forces vanish in an inertial frame of reference.
The mathematical expression for the Coriolis force appeared in an 1835 paper by a French scientist Gaspard-Gustave
Coriolis in connection with hydrodynamics, and also in the tidal equations of Pierre-Simon Laplace in 1778. Early in
the 20th century, the term Coriolis force began to be used in connection with meteorology.
Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth. Moving objects on the surface of the
Earth experience a Coriolis force, and appear to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the
southern. Exactly on the equator, motion east or west, remains (precariously) along the line of the equator. Initial
motion of a pendulum in any other direction will lead to a motion in a loop. Movements of air in the atmosphere and
water in the ocean are notable examples of this behavior: rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to
low pressure, as they would on a non-rotating planet, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction
north of the equator, and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of
large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).

History
Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis published a paper in 1835 on the energy yield of machines with rotating parts, such as
waterwheels.[2] This paper considered the supplementary forces that are detected in a rotating frame of reference.
Coriolis divided these supplementary forces into two categories. The second category contained a force that arises
from the cross product of the angular velocity of a coordinate system and the projection of a particle's velocity into a
plane perpendicular to the system's axis of rotation. Coriolis referred to this force as the "compound centrifugal
force" due to its analogies with the centrifugal force already considered in category one.[3] [4] By the early 20th
Coriolis effect 94

century the effect was known as the "acceleration of Coriolis".[5] By 1919 it was referred by to as "Coriolis' force"[6]
and by 1920 as "Coriolis force".[7]
In 1856, William Ferrel proposed the existence of a circulation cell in the mid-latitudes with air being deflected by
the Coriolis force to create the prevailing westerly winds.[8]
Understanding the kinematics of how exactly the rotation of the Earth affects airflow was partial at first.[9] Late in
the 19th century, the full extent of the large scale interaction of pressure gradient force and deflecting force that in
the end causes air masses to move along isobars was understood.

Formula
In non-vector terms: at a given rate of rotation of the observer, the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration of the
object is proportional to the velocity of the object and also to the sine of the angle between the direction of
movement of the object and the axis of rotation.
The vector formula for the magnitude and direction of the Coriolis acceleration is

where (here and below) v is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system, and Ω is the angular velocity vector
which has magnitude equal to the rotation rate ω and is directed along the axis of rotation of the rotating reference
frame, and the × symbol represents the cross product operator.
The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the relevant object to produce the Coriolis force:
.
See fictitious force for a derivation.
The Coriolis effect is the behavior added by the Coriolis acceleration. The formula implies that the Coriolis
acceleration is perpendicular both to the direction of the velocity of the moving mass and to the frame's rotation axis.
So in particular:
• if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is zero.
• if the velocity is straight inward to the axis, the acceleration is in the direction of local rotation.
• if the velocity is straight outward from the axis, the acceleration is against the direction of local rotation.
• if the velocity is in the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is outward from the axis.
• if the velocity is against the direction of local rotation, the acceleration is inward to the axis.
The vector cross product can be evaluated as the determinant of a matrix:

where the vectors i, j, k are unit vectors in the x, y and z directions.

Causes
The Coriolis effect exists only when using a rotating reference frame. In the rotating frame it behaves exactly like a
real force (that is to say, it causes acceleration and has real effects). However, Coriolis force is a consequence of
inertia, and is not attributable to an identifiable originating body, as is the case for electromagnetic or nuclear forces,
for example. From an analytical viewpoint, to use Newton's second law in a rotating system, Coriolis force is
mathematically necessary, but it disappears in a non-accelerating, inertial frame of reference. For a mathematical
formulation see Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces.
A denizen of a rotating frame, such as an astronaut in a rotating space station, very probably will find the
interpretation of everyday life in terms of the Coriolis force accords more simply with intuition and experience than
Coriolis effect 95

a cerebral reinterpretation of events from an inertial standpoint. For example, nausea due to an experienced push may
be more instinctively explained by Coriolis force than by the law of inertia.[10] [11] See also Coriolis effect
(perception). In meteorology, a rotating frame (the Earth) with its Coriolis force proves a more natural framework for
explanation of air movements than a hypothetical, non-rotating, inertial frame without Coriolis forces.[12] [13] In
long-range gunnery, sight corrections for the Earth's rotation are based upon Coriolis force.[14] These examples are
described in more detail below.
The acceleration entering the Coriolis force arises from two sources of change in velocity that result from rotation:
the first is the change of the velocity of an object in time. The same velocity (in an inertial frame of reference where
the normal laws of physics apply) will be seen as different velocities at different times in a rotating frame of
reference. The apparent acceleration is proportional to the angular velocity of the reference frame (the rate at which
the coordinate axes change direction), and to the component of velocity of the object in a plane perpendicular to the
axis of rotation. This gives a term . The minus sign arises from the traditional definition of the cross
product (right hand rule), and from the sign convention for angular velocity vectors.
The second is the change of velocity in space. Different positions in a rotating frame of reference have different
velocities (as seen from an inertial frame of reference). In order for an object to move in a straight line it must
therefore be accelerated so that its velocity changes from point to point by the same amount as the velocities of the
frame of reference. The effect is proportional to the angular velocity (which determines the relative speed of two
different points in the rotating frame of reference), and to the component of the velocity of the object in a plane
perpendicular to the axis of rotation (which determines how quickly it moves between those points). This also gives
a term .

Length scales and the Rossby number

The time, space and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis effect. Whether
rotation is important in a system can be determined by its Rossby number, which is the ratio of the velocity, , of a
system to the product of the Coriolis parameter, , and the length scale, , of the motion:

The Rossby number is the ratio of inertial to Coriolis forces. A small Rossby number signifies a system which is
strongly affected by Coriolis forces, and a large Rossby number signifies a system in which inertial forces dominate.
For example, in tornadoes, the Rossby number is large, in low-pressure systems it is low and in oceanic systems it is
of the order of unity. As a result, in tornadoes the Coriolis force is negligible, and balance is between pressure and
centrifugal forces. In low-pressure systems, centrifugal force is negligible and balance is between Coriolis and
pressure forces. In the oceans all three forces are comparable.[15]
An atmospheric system moving at U = 10 m/s occupying a spatial distance of L = 1000 km, has a Rossby number of
approximately 0.1. A man playing catch may throw the ball at U = 30 m/s in a garden of length L = 50 m. The
Rossby number in this case would be about = 6000. Needless to say, one does not worry about which hemisphere
one is in when playing catch in the garden. However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a
baseball, but may travel far enough and be in the air long enough to notice the effect of Coriolis. Long-range shells
in the Northern Hemisphere landed close to, but to the right of, where they were aimed until this was noted. (Those
fired in the southern hemisphere landed to the left.) In fact, it was this effect that first got the attention of Coriolis
himself.[16] [17] [18]
Coriolis effect 96

Applied to Earth

Rotating sphere
Consider a location with latitude on a sphere that is
rotating around the north-south axis.[19] A local
coordinate system is set up with the axis
horizontally due east, the axis horizontally due north
and the axis vertically upwards.The rotation vector,
velocity of movement and Coriolis acceleration
expressed in this local coordinate system (listing
components in the order East (e), North (n) and
Upward (u)) are:

Figure 2: Coordinate system at latitude φ with x-axis east, y-axis

north and z-axis upward (that is, radially outward from center of
sphere).

  

When considering atmospheric or oceanic dynamics, the vertical velocity is small and the vertical component of the
Coriolis acceleration is small compared to gravity. For such cases, only the horizontal (East and North) components
matter. The restriction of the above to the horizontal plane is (setting vu=0):

  

where is called the Coriolis parameter.

By setting vn = 0, it can be seen immediately that (for positive and ) a movement due east results in an
acceleration due south. Similarly, setting ve = 0, it is seen that a movement due north results in an acceleration due
east. In general, observed horizontally, looking along the direction of the movement causing the acceleration, the
acceleration always is turned 90° to the right and of the same size regardless of the horizontal orientation. That is:[20]
[21]

On a merry-go-round in the night

Coriolis was shaken with fright
Despite how he walked
'Twas like he was stalked
By some fiend always pushing him right
– David Morin, Eric Zaslow, E'beth Haley, John Golden, and Nathan Salwen
Coriolis effect 97

As a different case, consider equatorial motion setting φ = 0°. In this case, Ω is parallel to the North or n-axis, and:

     

Accordingly, an eastward motion (that is, in the same direction as the rotation of the sphere) provides an upward
acceleration known as the Eötvös effect, and an upward motion produces an acceleration due west.

The Sun and distant stars

The motion of the Sun as seen from Earth is dominated by the Coriolis and centrifugal forces. For ease of
explanation consider the situation of a distant star (with mass m) located over the equator, at position ,
perpendicular to the rotation vector so . It is observed to rotate in the opposite direction as the
Earth's rotation once a day, making its velocity . The fictitious force consisting of Coriolis and
centrifugal forces is:

This can be recognised as the centripetal force that will keep the star in a circular movement around the observer.
The general situation for a star, not above the equator is more complicated. Just as for air flows on Earth's surface, on
the northern hemisphere a star's trajectory will be deflected to the right. After rising at a certain angle, it will bend to
the right, culminate and start setting.

Meteorology
Perhaps the most important instance of the Coriolis effect is in
the large-scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere. In
meteorology and ocean science, it is convenient to use a
rotating frame of reference where the Earth is stationary. The
fictitious centrifugal and Coriolis forces must then be
introduced. Their relative importance is determined by the
Rossby number. Tornadoes have a high Rossby number, so
Coriolis forces are unimportant, and are not discussed here.[22]
As discussed next, low-pressure areas are phenomena where
Coriolis forces are significant.

Flow around a low-pressure area

Figure 12: This low pressure system over Iceland spins
If a low-pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air will tend to counter-clockwise due to balance between the Coriolis force
flow in towards it, but will be deflected perpendicular to its and the pressure gradient force.
velocity by the Coriolis acceleration. A system of equilibrium
can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow. Because the Rossby number is low, the force
balance is largely between the pressure gradient force acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis force
acting away from the center of the low pressure.
Coriolis effect 98

Instead of flowing down the gradient, large scale motions in

the atmosphere and ocean tend to occur perpendicular to the
pressure gradient. This is known as geostrophic flow.[23] On a
non-rotating planet fluid would flow along the straightest
possible line, quickly eliminating pressure gradients. Note that
the geostrophic balance is thus very different from the case of
"inertial motions" (see below) which explains why
mid-latitude cyclones are larger by an order of magnitude than
inertial circle flow would be.

This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is

called Buys-Ballot's law. In the atmosphere, the pattern of
flow is called a cyclone. In the Northern Hemisphere the
direction of movement around a low-pressure area is
Figure 13: Schematic representation of flow around a
counterclockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction
low-pressure area in the Northern hemisphere. The Rossby
of movement is clockwise because the rotational dynamics is number is low, so the centrifugal force is negligible. The
a mirror image there. At high altitudes, outward-spreading air pressure-gradient force is represented by blue arrows, the
rotates in the opposite direction.[24] Cyclones rarely form Coriolis acceleration (always perpendicular to the velocity)
by red arrows
along the equator due to the weak Coriolis effect present in
this region.

Inertial circles

An air or water mass moving with speed subject only to the

Coriolis force travels in a circular trajectory called an 'inertial
circle'. Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion
of the particle, it will move with a constant speed, and
perform a complete circle with frequency . The magnitude
of the Coriolis force also determines the radius of this circle:
.
On the Earth, a typical mid-latitude value for is 10−4 s−1;
hence for a typical atmospheric speed of 10 m/s the radius is
100 km, with a period of about 14 hours. In the ocean, where
a typical speed is closer to 10 cm/s, the radius of an inertial
Figure 14: Schematic representation of inertial circles of air
circle is 1 km. These inertial circles are clockwise in the
masses in the absence of other forces, calculated for a wind
northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) speed of approximately 50 to 70 m/s. Note that the rotation
and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. is exactly opposite of that normally experienced with air
masses in weather systems around depressions.
If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then is
constant and the trajectories are exact circles. On a rotating
planet, varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact circles. Since the parameter varies as
the sine of the latitude, the radius of the oscillations associated with a given speed are smallest at the poles (latitude =
±90°), and increase toward the equator.[25]
Coriolis effect 99

Other terrestrial effects

The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale oceanic and atmospheric circulation, leading to the formation of
robust features like jet streams and western boundary currents. Such features are in geostrophic balance, meaning
that the Coriolis and pressure gradient forces balance each other. Coriolis acceleration is also responsible for the
propagation of many types of waves in the ocean and atmosphere, including Rossby waves and Kelvin waves. It is
also instrumental in the so-called Ekman dynamics in the ocean, and in the establishment of the large-scale ocean
flow pattern called the Sverdrup balance.

Eötvös effect
The practical impact of the Coriolis effect is mostly caused by the horizontal acceleration component produced by
horizontal motion.
There are other components of the Coriolis effect. Eastward-traveling objects will be deflected upwards (feel
lighter), while westward-traveling objects will be deflected downwards (feel heavier). This is known as the Eötvös
effect. This aspect of the Coriolis effect is greatest near the equator. The force produced by this effect is similar to
the horizontal component, but the much larger vertical forces due to gravity and pressure mean that it is generally
unimportant dynamically.
In addition, objects traveling upwards or downwards will be deflected to the west or east respectively. This effect is
also the greatest near the equator. Since vertical movement is usually of limited extent and duration, the size of the
effect is smaller and requires precise instruments to detect.

Draining in bathtubs and toilets

Coriolis rotation can conceivably play a role on scales as small as a bathtub. It is a commonly held myth that the
every-day rotation of a bathtub or toilet vortex is due to whether one is in the northern or southern hemisphere. An
article in Nature, by Ascher Shapiro, describes an experiment in which all other forces to the system are removed by
filling a 6 ft. tank with water and allowing it to settle for 24 hrs (to remove any internal velocity), in a room where
the temperature has stabilized (temperature differences in the room can introduce forces inside the fluid). The drain
plug is then very slowly removed, and tiny pieces of floating wood are used to observe rotation. During the first 12
to 15 mins, no rotation is observed. Then, a vortex appears and consistently begins to rotate in a counter-clockwise
direction (the experiment was performed in the Northern hemisphere, in Boston, MA). This is repeated and the
results averaged to make sure the effect is real. The Coriolis effect does indeed play a role in vortex rotation for
draining liquids that have come to rest for a long time. ["Bath-Tub Vortex", Nature. Dec 15th, 1962. Vol 195, No.
4859, p. 1080-1081] [26]
In reality, this experiment shows that the Coriolis effect is a few orders of magnitude smaller than various random
influences on drain direction, such as the geometry of the container and the direction in which water was initially
added to it. In the above experiment, if the water settles for 2 hrs or less (instead of 24), then the vortex can be seen
to rotate in either direction. Most toilets flush in only one direction, because the toilet water flows into the bowl at an
angle.[27] If water shot into the basin from the opposite direction, the water would spin in the opposite direction.[28]
The idea that toilets and bathtubs drain differently in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres has been popularized
by several television programs, including The Simpsons episode "Bart vs. Australia" and the The X-Files episode
"Die Hand Die Verletzt".[29] Several science broadcasts and publications, including at least one college-level physics
textbook, have also stated this.[30] Some sources that incorrectly attribute draining direction to the Coriolis force also
get the direction wrong, claiming that water would turn clockwise into drains in the Northern Hemisphere.[30]
The Rossby number can also tell us about the bathtub. If the length scale of the tub is about L = 1 m, and the water
moves towards the drain at about U = 60 cm/s, then the Rossby number is about 6 000. Thus, the bathtub is, in terms
of scales, much like a game of catch, and rotation is unlikely to be important. The dominant physical process that
creates the rapid vortex close to the plug hole is the conservation of angular momentum. The radius of rotation
Coriolis effect 100

decreases as water approaches the plug hole so the rate of rotation increases, equivalent to bringing your arms and
legs in while spinning on a chair.

Ballistic missiles and satellites

Ballistic missiles and satellites appear to follow curved paths when plotted on common world maps mainly because
the earth is spherical and the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface (called a great circle) is
usually not a straight line on those maps. Every two-dimensional (flat) map necessarily distorts the Earth's curved
(three-dimensional) surface in some way. Typically (as in the commonly used Mercator projection, for example),
this distortion increases with proximity to the poles. In the northern hemisphere for example, a ballistic missile fired
toward a distant target using the shortest possible route (a great circle) will appear on such maps to follow a path
north of the straight line from target to destination, and then curve back toward the equator. This occurs because the
latitudes, which are projected as straight horizontal lines on most world maps, are in fact circles on the surface of a
sphere, which get smaller as they get closer to the pole. Being simply a consequence of the sphericity of the Earth,
this would be true even if the Earth didn't rotate. The Coriolis effect is of course also present, but its effect on the
plotted path is much smaller.
The Coriolis effects became important in external ballistics for calculating the trajectories of very long-range
artillery shells. The most famous historical example was the Paris gun, used by the Germans during World War I to
bombard Paris from a range of about 120 km (75 mi).

Special cases

Cannon on turntable
Figure 1 is an animation of the classic
illustration of Coriolis force. Another
visualization of the Coriolis and centrifugal
forces is this animation clip [31]. Figure 3 is
a graphical version.
Here is a question: given the radius of the
turntable R, the rate of angular rotation ω,
and the speed of the cannonball (assumed
constant) v, what is the correct angle θ to
aim so as to hit the target at the edge of the Figure 3: Cannon at the center of a rotating turntable. To hit the target located at
turntable? position 1 on the perimeter at time t = 0s, the cannon must be aimed ahead of the
target at angle θ. That way, by the time the cannonball reaches position 3 on the
The inertial frame of reference provides one periphery, the target also will be at that position. In an inertial frame of reference,
way to handle the question: calculate the the cannonball travels a straight radial path to the target (curve yA). However, in
the frame of the turntable, the path is arched (curve yB), as also shown in the figure.
time to interception, which is tf = R / v .
Then, the turntable revolves an angle ω tf in
this time. If the cannon is pointed an angle θ = ω tf = ω R / v, then the cannonball arrives at the periphery at position
number 3 at the same time as the target.

No discussion of Coriolis force can arrive at this solution as simply, so the reason to treat this problem is to
demonstrate Coriolis formalism in an easily visualized situation.
Coriolis effect 101

The trajectory in the inertial frame (denoted

A) is a straight line radial path at angle θ.
The position of the cannonball in ( x, y )
coordinates at time t is:

Figure 4: Successful trajectory of cannonball as seen from the turntable for three
angles of launch θ. Plotted points are for the same equally spaced times steps on
each curve. Cannonball speed v is held constant and angular rate of rotation ω is
varied to achieve a successful "hit" for selected θ. For example, for a radius of 1 m
and a cannonball speed of 1 m/s, the time of flight tf = 1 s, and ωtf = θ → ω and θ
have the same numerical value if θ is expressed in radians. The wider spacing of
the plotted points as the target is approached show the speed of the cannonball is
accelerating as seen on the turntable, due to fictitious Coriolis and centrifugal
forces.

Figure 5: Acceleration components at an earlier time (top) and at arrival time at the
target (bottom)
Coriolis effect 102

Figure 6: Coriolis acceleration, centrifugal acceleration and net acceleration

vectors at three selected points on the trajectory as seen on the turntable.

In the turntable frame (denoted B), the x- y axes rotate at angular rate ω, so the trajectory becomes:

and three examples of this result are plotted in Figure 4.

To determine the components of acceleration, a general expression is used from the article fictitious force:

in which the term in Ω × vB is the Coriolis acceleration and the term in Ω × ( Ω × rB) is the centrifugal acceleration.
The results are (let α = θ − ωt):

producing a centrifugal acceleration:

Also:

producing a Coriolis acceleration:

Figure 5 and Figure 6 show these accelerations for a particular example.

Coriolis effect 103

It is seen that the Coriolis acceleration not only cancels the centrifugal acceleration, but together they provide a net
"centripetal", radially inward component of acceleration (that is, directed toward the center of rotation):[32]

and an additional component of acceleration perpendicular to rB (t):

The "centripetal" component of acceleration resembles that for circular motion at radius rB, while the perpendicular
component is velocity dependent, increasing with the radial velocity v and directed to the right of the velocity. The
situation could be described as a circular motion combined with an "apparent Coriolis acceleration" of 2ωv.
However, this is a rough labeling: a careful designation of the true centripetal force refers to a local reference frame
that employs the directions normal and tangential to the path, not coordinates referred to the axis of rotation.
These results also can be obtained directly by two time differentiations of rB (t). Agreement of the two approaches
demonstrates that one could start from the general expression for fictitious acceleration above and derive the
trajectories of Figure 4. However, working from the acceleration to the trajectory is more complicated than the
reverse procedure used here, which, of course, is made possible in this example by knowing the answer in advance.
As a result of this analysis an important point appears: all the fictitious accelerations must be included to obtain the
correct trajectory. In particular, besides the Coriolis acceleration, the centrifugal force plays an essential role. It is
easy to get the impression from verbal discussions of the cannonball problem, which are focussed on displaying the
Coriolis effect particularly, that the Coriolis force is the only factor that must be considered;[33] emphatically, that is
not so.[34] A turntable for which the Coriolis force is the only factor is the parabolic turntable. A somewhat more
complex situation is the idealized example of flight routes over long distances, where the centrifugal force of the
path and aeronautical lift are countered by gravitational attraction.[35] [36]

Tossed ball on a rotating carousel

Figure 7 illustrates a ball tossed from 12:00
o'clock toward the center of a
counterclockwise rotating carousel. On the
left, the ball is seen by a stationary observer
above the carousel, and the ball travels in a
straight line to the center, while the
ball-thrower rotates counterclockwise with
the carousel. On the right the ball is seen by
an observer rotating with the carousel, so the
ball-thrower appears to stay at 12:00
o'clock. The figure shows how the trajectory
Figure 7: A carousel is rotating counterclockwise. Left panel: a ball is tossed by a
of the ball as seen by the rotating observer
thrower at 12:00 o'clock and travels in a straight line to the center of the carousel.
can be constructed. While it travels, the thrower circles in a counterclockwise direction. Right panel:
On the left, two arrows locate the ball The ball's motion as seen by the thrower, who now remains at 12:00 o'clock,
because there is no rotation from their viewpoint.
relative to the ball-thrower. One of these
arrows is from the thrower to the center of
the carousel (providing the ball-thrower's line of sight), and the other points from the center of the carousel to the
ball.(This arrow gets shorter as the ball approaches the center.) A shifted version of the two arrows is shown dotted.
On the right is shown this same dotted pair of arrows, but now the pair are rigidly rotated so the arrow corresponding
to the line of sight of the ball-thrower toward the center of the carousel is aligned with 12:00 o'clock. The other
arrow of the pair locates the ball relative to the center of the carousel, providing the position of the ball as seen by
the rotating observer. By following this procedure for several positions, the trajectory in the rotating frame of
Coriolis effect 104

reference is established as shown by the curved path in the right-hand panel.

The ball travels in the air, and there is no net force upon it. To the stationary observer the ball follows a straight-line
path, so there is no problem squaring this trajectory with zero net force. However, the rotating observer sees a curved
path. Kinematics insists that a force (pushing to the right of the instantaneous direction of travel for a
counterclockwise rotation) must be present to cause this curvature, so the rotating observer is forced to invoke a
combination of centrifugal and Coriolis forces to provide the net force required to cause the curved trajectory.

Bounced ball
Figure 8 describes a more complex situation
where the tossed ball on a turntable bounces
off the edge of the carousel and then returns
to the tosser, who catches the ball. The
effect of Coriolis force on its trajectory is
shown again as seen by two observers: an
observer (referred to as the "camera") that
rotates with the carousel, and an inertial
observer. Figure 8 shows a bird's-eye view
based upon the same ball speed on forward
and return paths. Within each circle, plotted
dots show the same time points. In the left Figure 8: Bird's-eye view of carousel. The carousel rotates clockwise. Two
viewpoints are illustrated: that of the camera at the center of rotation rotating with
panel, from the camera's viewpoint at the
the carousel (left panel) and that of the inertial (stationary) observer (right panel).
center of rotation, the tosser (smiley face) Both observers agree at any given time just how far the ball is from the center of
and the rail both are at fixed locations, and the carousel, but not on its orientation. Time intervals are 1/10 of time from launch
the ball makes a very considerable arc on its to bounce.

travel toward the rail, and takes a more

direct route on the way back. From the ball tosser's viewpoint, the ball seems to return more quickly than it went
(because the tosser is rotating toward the ball on the return flight).
On the carousel, instead of tossing the ball straight at a rail to bounce back, the tosser must throw the ball toward the
right of the target and the ball then seems to the camera to bear continuously to the left of its direction of travel to hit
the rail (left because the carousel is turning clockwise). The ball appears to bear to the left from direction of travel on
both inward and return trajectories. The curved path demands this observer to recognize a leftward net force on the
ball. (This force is "fictitious" because it disappears for a stationary observer, as is discussed shortly.) For some
angles of launch, a path has portions where the trajectory is approximately radial, and Coriolis force is primarily
responsible for the apparent deflection of the ball (centrifugal force is radial from the center of rotation, and causes
little deflection on these segments). When a path curves away from radial, however, centrifugal force contributes
significantly to deflection.

The ball's path through the air is straight when viewed by observers standing on the ground (right panel). In the right
panel (stationary observer), the ball tosser (smiley face) is at 12 o'clock and the rail the ball bounces from is at
position one (1). From the inertial viewer's standpoint, positions one (1), two (2), three (3) are occupied in sequence.
At position 2 the ball strikes the rail, and at position 3 the ball returns to the tosser. Straight-line paths are followed
because the ball is in free flight, so this observer requires that no net force is applied.
A video clip of the tossed ball and other experiments are found at youtube: coriolis effect (2-11) [37], University of
Illinois WW2010 Project [38] (some clips repeat only a fraction of a full rotation), and youtube [39].
Coriolis effect 105

Visualization of the Coriolis effect

To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic turntable can be used.
On a flat turntable, the inertia of a co-rotating object would force it off
the edge. But if the surface of the turntable has the correct parabolic
bowl shape (see Figure 9) and is rotated at the correct rate, the force
components shown in Figure 10 are arranged so the component of
gravity tangential to the bowl surface will exactly equal the centripetal
force necessary to keep the object rotating at its velocity and radius of
curvature (assuming no friction). (See banked turn.) This carefully
contoured surface allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in Figure 9: A fluid assuming a parabolic shape as it
isolation.[40] [41] is rotating

Discs cut from cylinders of dry ice can be used as pucks, moving
around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable,
allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show
themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from the reference
frame rotating with the turntable, a video camera is attached to the
turntable so as to co-rotate with the turntable, with results as shown in
Figure 11. In the left panel of Figure 11, which is the viewpoint of a
stationary observer, the gravitational force in the inertial frame pulling
the object toward the center (bottom ) of the dish is proportional to the
distance of the object from the center. A centripetal force of this form
Figure 10: The forces at play in the case of a
causes the elliptical motion. In the right panel, which shows the curved surface.
viewpoint of the rotating frame, the inward gravitational force in the Red: gravity
rotating frame (the same force as in the inertial frame) is balanced by Green : the normal force

the outward centrifugal force (present only in the rotating frame). With Blue : the resultant centripetal force.

these two forces balanced, in the rotating frame the only unbalanced
force is Coriolis (also present only in the rotating frame), and the motion is an inertial circle. Analysis and
observation of circular motion in the rotating frame is a simplification compared to analysis or observation of
elliptical motion in the inertial frame.

Because this reference frame rotates several times a minute, rather than only once a day like the Earth, the Coriolis
acceleration produced is many times larger, and so easier to observe on small time and spatial scales, than is the
Coriolis acceleration caused by the rotation of the Earth.
In a manner of speaking, the Earth is analogous to such a turntable.[42] The rotation has caused the planet to settle on
a spheroid shape, such that the normal force, the gravitational force and the centrifugal force exactly balance each
other on a "horizontal" surface. (See equatorial bulge.)
The Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth can be seen indirectly through the motion of a Foucault
pendulum.
Coriolis effect 106

Coriolis effects in other areas

Coriolis flow meter

A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the mass flow meter, an
instrument that measures the mass flow rate and density of a fluid
flowing through a tube. The operating principle involves inducing a
vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes. The vibration,
though it is not completely circular, provides the rotating reference
frame which gives rise to the Coriolis effect. While specific methods
vary according to the design of the flow meter, sensors monitor and Figure 11: Object moving frictionlessly over the
analyze changes in frequency, phase shift, and amplitude of the surface of a very shallow parabolic dish. The
object has been released in such a way that it
vibrating flow tubes. The changes observed represent the mass flow
follows an ellipse-shaped trajectory.
rate and density of the fluid. Left: The inertial point of view.
Right: The co-rotating point of view.
Molecular physics
In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal vibration of
atoms about their equilibrium position. As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms are in motion relative to
the rotating coordinate system of the molecule. Coriolis effects will therefore be present and will cause the atoms to
move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations. This leads to a mixing in molecular spectra between the
rotational and vibrational levels.

Insect flight
Flies (Diptera) and moths (Lepidoptera) utilize the Coriolis effect when flying: their halteres, or antennae in the case
of moths, oscillate rapidly and are used as vibrational gyroscopes.[43] See Coriolis effect in insect stability.[44] In this
context, the Coriolis effect has nothing to do with the rotation of the Earth.

See also
• Analytical mechanics • Gyroscope
• Applied mechanics • Kinetics (physics)
• Centrifugal force • Mass flow meter
• Centrifugal force (rotating reference frame) • Mechanics of planar particle motion
• Centripetal force • Reactive centrifugal force
• Classical mechanics • Secondary flow
• Dynamics (physics) • Statics
• Earth's rotation • Uniform circular motion
• Equatorial Rossby wave
• Frenet-Serret formulas
• Geostrophic wind
Coriolis effect 107

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[19] William Menke & Dallas Abbott (1990). Geophysical Theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=XP3R_pVnOoEC& pg=PA120&
dq=spheres+ rotating+ + Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=LGf9nJ0SKd47ey-CAYPZBo0xCY0#PPA125,M1). Columbia University Press.
p. 124–126. ISBN 0231067925. .
[20] David Morin, Eric Zaslow, Elizabeth Haley, John Goldne, and Natan Salwen (2 December, 2005). "Limerick – May the Force Be With
You" (http:/ / www. phys. canterbury. ac. nz/ newsletter/ 2005/ nl20051202. pdf). Weekly Newsletter Volume 22, No 47. Department of
Physics and Astronomy, University of Canterbury. . Retrieved 2009-01-01.
[21] David Morin (2008). Introduction to classical mechanics: with problems and solutions (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Ni6CD7K2X4MC& pg=PA466& dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=jha8GCqJh5TwRPPbtFfajFrzcKY#PPA466,M1).
Cambridge University Press. p. 466. ISBN 0521876222. .
[22] James R. Holton (2004). p. 64 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fhW5oDv3EPsC& pg=PA64& dq=tornado+ rossby& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U3_xIjuaBO-7JXZguecMx9a58Xd3A) (An Introduction to Dynamic Meteorology ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.
ISBN 0123540151. .
Coriolis effect 108

[23] Roger Graham Barry & Richard J. Chorley (2003). Atmosphere, Weather and Climate (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=MUQOAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA115& dq=Coriolis+ + "low+ pressure"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U2KRehZqWtLiiGi6hvfN3iVBEDxqw#PPA115,M1). Routledge. p. 115. ISBN 0415271711. .
[24] Cloud Spirals and Outflow in Tropical Storm Katrina (http:/ / earthobservatory. nasa. gov/ Newsroom/ NewImages/ images.
php3?img_id=17026) from Earth Observatory (NASA)
[25] John Marshall & R. Alan Plumb (2007). p. 98 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=aTGYbmVaA_gC& pg=PA98& vq=inertial+ circle&
dq=Coriolis+ "parabolic+ turntable"& lr=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_search_s& sig=ACfU3U2t-wW4ciZh-91PmB428QrXfQT-Jg).
Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 0125586914. .
[26] (Vorticity, Part 1) (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ fluids/ www/ Shapiro/ ncfmf. html)
[27] "Who Knew? The No-Spin Zone" (http:/ / sciencereview. berkeley. edu/ articles/ issue9/ who-knew. pdf)from Berkeley Science Review
(PDF)
[28] "Flush Bosh" (http:/ / www. snopes. com/ science/ coriolis. asp)fromsnopes.com
[29] "X-Files coriolis error leaves viewers wondering" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. com/ doc/ 1G1-16836639. html) from Skeptical Inquirer
[30] "Bad Coriolis" (http:/ / www. ems. psu. edu/ ~fraser/ Bad/ BadCoriolis. html) from Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences
[31] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=49JwbrXcPjc
[32] Here the description "radially inward" means "toward the axis of rotation". That direction is not toward the center of curvature of the path,
however, which is the direction of the true centripetal force. Hence, the quotation marks on "centripetal".
[33] George E. Owen (2003). Fundamentals of Scientific Mathematics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9dRxGCktg7QC& pg=PA22&
dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=a2n5yMAC_3u7QCrcldHIrb2R_1U#PPA23,M1) (original edition published by Harper & Row,
New York, 1964 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p. 23. ISBN 0486428087. .
[34] Morton Tavel (2002). Contemporary Physics and the Limits of Knowledge (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SELS0HbIhjYC&
pg=PA88& dq=Coriolis+ carousel& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=jqFpIAojj3cz_fHcrBMnDNz38dU). Rutgers University Press. p. 88. ISBN
0813530776. .
[35] James R Ogden & M Fogiel (1995). High School Earth Science Tutor (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=fFmqhNXixLUC&
pg=PA167& dq=airplane+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0& sig=oHkHJGwukRlnBHS0PMEDaDz8LaM#PPA167,M1). Research & Education
Assoc.. p. 167. ISBN 0878919759. .
[36] James Greig McCully (2006). Beyond the moon: A Conversational, Common Sense Guide to Understanding the Tides (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=RijQELAGnEIC& pg=PA76& dq=airplane+ Coriolis& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=zew-P2KGA8-NMxFn0Sn23zI_x2Y#PPA75,M1). World Scientific. p. 74–76. ISBN 9812566430. .
[37] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU
[38] http:/ / ww2010. atmos. uiuc. edu/ (Gh)/ guides/ mtr/ fw/ crls. rxml
[39] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=LAX3ALdienQ& feature=related
[40] When a container of fluid is rotating on a turntable, the surface of the fluid naturally assumes the correct parabolic shape. This fact may be
exploited to make a parabolic turntable by using a fluid that sets after several hours, such as a synthetic resin. For a video of the Coriolis effect
on such a parabolic surface, see Geophysical fluid dynamics lab demonstration (http:/ / www-paoc. mit. edu/ labweb/ lab5/ gfd_v. htm) John
Marshall, Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
[41] For a java applet of the Coriolis effect on such a parabolic surface, see Brian Fiedler (http:/ / mensch. org/ physlets/ inosc. html) School of
Meteorology at the University of Oklahoma.
[42] John Marshall & R. Alan Plumb (2007). Atmosphere, Ocean, and Climate Dynamics: An Introductory Text (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=aTGYbmVaA_gC& pg=PA101& dq=Coriolis+ "parabolic+ turntable"& lr=& as_brr=0&
sig=ACfU3U36psyPl8H5G3iCFMbay9XDg6rUiA#PPA101,M1). Academic Press. p. 101. ISBN 0125586914. .
[43] "Antennae as Gyroscopes", Science, Vol. 315, 9 Feb 2007, p. 771
[44] Halteres for the micromechanical flying insect (Wu, W.C.; Wood, R.J.; Fearing, R.S.) Dept. of Electr. Eng. & Comput. Sci., California
Univ., Berkeley, CA; This paper appears in: Robotics and Automation, 2002. Proceedings. ICRA '02. IEEE International Conference on
Publication Date: 2002 Volume: 1, On page(s): 60- 65 vol.1 ISBN 0-7803-7272-7 Date Published in Issue: 2002-08-07 00:46:34.0 (http:/ /
ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=1013339)

Further reading: physics and meteorology

Coriolis effect 109

• Coriolis, G.G., 1832: Mémoire sur le principe des forces vives dans les • Durran, D. R., and S. K. Domonkos, 1996: An apparatus
mouvements relatifs des machines. Journal de l'école Polytechnique, Vol 13, for demonstrating the inertial oscillation (http:/ / www.
268–302. atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ pdfs/ inertial_osc. pdf),
( Original article (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77,
history/ Coriolis-1831. pdf) [in French], PDF-file, 1.6 MB, scanned images of 557–559.
complete pages.)
• Marion, Jerry B. 1970, Classical Dynamics of Particles
• Coriolis, G.G., 1835: Mémoire sur les équations du mouvement relatif des
and Systems, Academic Press.
systèmes de corps. Journal de l'école Polytechnique, Vol 15, 142–154
( Original article (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/ WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/
history/ Coriolis-1835. pdf) [in French] PDF-file, 400 KB, scanned images of
complete pages.)
• Gill, AE Atmosphere-Ocean dynamics, Academic Press, 1982. • Persson, A., 1998 (http:/ / www. aos. princeton. edu/
WWWPUBLIC/ gkv/ history/ Persson98. pdf) How do we
Understand the Coriolis Force? Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society 79, 1373–1385.
• Symon, Keith. 1971, Mechanics, Addison-Wesley
• Robert Ehrlich (1990). Turning the World Inside Out and 174 Other Simple
Physics Demonstrations (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=ehSTsNS9qB4C& pg=PA80& dq=centrifugal+ turntable& lr=&
as_brr=0#PPA80,M1). Princeton University Press. p. Rolling a ball on a
rotating turntable; p. 80 ff. ISBN 0691023956.

• Durran, D. R. (http:/ / www. atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ ), 1993: Is the
Coriolis force really responsible for the inertial oscillation? (http:/ / www.
atmos. washington. edu/ ~durrand/ pdfs/ Coriolis_BAMS. pdf), Bull. Amer.
Meteor. Soc., 74, 2179–2184; Corrigenda. Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society, 75, 261
• Phillips, Norman A. (http:/ / www. fi. edu/ tfi/ exhibits/
bower/ 03/ earth. html), 2000 An Explication of the
Coriolis Effect (http:/ / www. met. utah. edu/ reichler/
6010/ Coriolis/ Phillips. pdf), Bulletin of the American
Meteorological Society: Vol. 81, No. 2, pp. 299–303.

• Akira Kageyama & Mamoru Hyodo: Eulerian derivation

of the Coriolis force (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/
0509004v2)

• James F. Price: A Coriolis tutorial (http:/ / www. whoi.

edu/ science/ PO/ people/ jprice/ class/ aCt. pdf) Woods
Hole Oceanographic Institute (2003)

• MIT essays (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ ans7870/ resources/

price/ index. htm) by James F. Price, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution (2006)

Further reading: historical

• Grattan-Guinness, I., Ed., 1994: Companion Encyclopedia of
the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences.
Vols. I and II. Routledge, 1840 pp.
1997: The Fontana History of the Mathematical Sciences.
Fontana, 817 pp. 710 pp.
• Khrgian, A., 1970: Meteorology — A Historical Survey. Vol.
1. Keter Press, 387 pp.
• Kuhn, T. S., 1977: Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous
discovery. The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition
and Change, University of Chicago Press, 66–104.
• Kutzbach, G., 1979: The Thermal Theory of Cyclones. A History of
Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century. Amer. Meteor. Soc.,
254 pp.
Coriolis effect 110

External links
• The definition of the Coriolis effect from the Glossary of Meteorology (http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/
glossary/search?id=coriolis-force1)
• The Coriolis Effect (http://met.no/english/topics/nomek_2005/coriolis.pdf) PDF-file. 17 pages. A general
discussion by Anders Persson of various aspects of the coriolis effect, including Foucault's Pendulum and Taylor
columns.
• Anders Persson The Coriolis Effect: Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A
history to 1885 (http://www.meteohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf) History of
Meteorology 2 (2005)
• 10 Coriolis Effect Videos and Games (http://weather.about.com/od/weathertutorials/tp/coriolisvideos.htm)-
from the About.com Weather Page
• Coriolis Force (http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/CoriolisForce.html) - from ScienceWorld
• Coriolis Effect and Drains (http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy00/phy00733.htm) An article from
the NEWTON web site hosted by the Argonne National Laboratory.
• Catalog of Coriolis videos (http://www.imaginascience.com/articles/sciencesphysiques/mecanique/coriolis/
coriolis4.php)
• Do bathtubs drain counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere? (http://www.straightdope.com/classics/
a1_161.html) by Cecil Adams.
• Bad Coriolis. (http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadCoriolis.html) An article uncovering
misinformation about the Coriolis effect. By Alistair B. Fraser, Emeritus Professor of Meteorology at
Pennsylvania State University
• The Coriolis Effect: A (Fairly) Simple Explanation (http://stratus.ssec.wisc.edu/courses/gg101/coriolis/
coriolis.html), an explanation for the layperson
• Coriolis Effect: A graphical animation (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mcPs_OdQOYU), an visual earth
animation with precise explanation
• Observe an animation of the Coriolis effect over Earth's surface (http://www.classzone.com/books/
earth_science/terc/content/visualizations/es1904/es1904page01.cfm?chapter_no=visualization)
• Animation clip (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49JwbrXcPjc) showing scenes as viewed from both an
inertial frame and a rotating frame of reference, visualizing the Coriolis and centrifugal forces.
• Vincent Mallette The Coriolis Force @ INWIT (http://www.inwit.com/inwit/writings/coriolisforce.html)
• NASA notes (http://pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Srotfram.htm)
Angular momentum 111

Angular momentum
In physics, angular momentum is a conserved vector quantity
that is useful in describing the overall rotational state of a physical
system. The angular momentum L of a particle with respect to
some point of origin is

This gyroscope remains upright while spinning due to

its angular momentum.

where r is the particle's position from the origin, p = mv is its linear momentum, and × denotes the cross product.
The angular momentum of a system of particles (e.g. a rigid body) is the sum of angular momenta of the individual
particles. For a rigid body rotating around an axis of symmetry (e.g. the fins of a ceiling fan), the angular momentum
can be expressed as the product of the body's moment of inertia I (a measure of an object's resistance to changes in
its rotation rate) and its angular velocity ω:

In this way, angular momentum is sometimes described as the rotational analog of linear momentum.
Angular momentum is conserved in a system where there is no net external torque, and its conservation helps explain
many diverse phenomena. For example, the increase in rotational speed of a spinning figure skater as the skater's
arms are contracted is a consequence of conservation of angular momentum. The very high rotational rates of
neutron stars can also be explained in terms of angular momentum conservation. Moreover, angular momentum
conservation has numerous applications in physics and engineering (e.g. the gyrocompass).
Angular momentum 112

Angular momentum in classical mechanics

Definition
The angular momentum L of a particle about a given origin is defined
as:

Relationship between force (F), torque (τ), and

momentum vectors (p and L) in a rotating system

where r is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, p is the linear momentum of the particle, and ×
denotes the cross product.
As seen from the definition, the derived SI units of angular momentum are newton metre seconds (N·m·s or
kg·m2s-1) or joule seconds. Because of the cross product, L is a pseudovector perpendicular to both the radial vector
r and the momentum vector p and it is assigned a sign by the right-hand rule.
For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as
the product of the moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:

where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity), and ω is the angular velocity.
Angular momentum is also known as moment of momentum.

Angular momentum of a collection of particles

If a system consists of several particles, the total angular momentum about an origin can be obtained by adding (or
integrating) all the angular momenta of the constituent particles. Angular momentum can also be calculated by
multiplying the square of the displacement r, the mass of the particle and the angular velocity.

Angular momentum simplified using the centre of mass

It is very often convenient to consider the angular momentum of a collection of particles about their centre of mass,
since this simplifies the mathematics considerably. The angular momentum of a collection of particles is the sum of
the angular momentum of each particle:

where is the distance of particle i from the reference point, is its mass, and is its velocity. The center of
mass is defined by:

where the total mass of all particles is given by

It follows that the velocity of the centre of mass is

Angular momentum 113

If we define as the displacement of particle i from the centre of mass, and as the velocity of particle i with
respect to the centre of mass, then we have
   and   
and also

   and   

so that the total angular momentum with respect to the center is

The first term is just the angular momentum of the centre of mass. It is the same angular momentum one would
obtain if there were just one particle of mass M moving at velocity V located at the centre of mass. The second term
is the angular momentum that is the result of the particles moving relative to their center of mass. This second term
can be even further simplified if the particles form a rigid body, in which case it is the product of moment of inertia
and angular velocity of the spinning motion (as above). The same result is true if the discrete point charges discussed
above are replaced by a continuous distribution of matter.

Fixed axis of rotation

For many applications where one is only concerned about rotation around one axis, it is sufficient to discard the
pseudovector nature of angular momentum, and treat it like a scalar where it is positive when it corresponds to a
counter-clockwise rotation, and negative clockwise. To do this, just take the definition of the cross product and
discard the unit vector, so that angular momentum becomes:

where θr,p is the angle between r and p measured from r to p; an important distinction because without it, the sign of
the cross product would be meaningless. From the above, it is possible to reformulate the definition to either of the
following:

where is called the lever arm distance to p.

The easiest way to conceptualize this is to consider the lever arm distance to be the distance from the origin to the
line that p travels along. With this definition, it is necessary to consider the direction of p (pointed clockwise or
counter-clockwise) to figure out the sign of L. Equivalently:

where is the component of p that is perpendicular to r. As above, the sign is decided based on the sense of
rotation.
For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis, the angular momentum is expressed as
the product of the moment of inertia of the object and its angular velocity vector:

where I is the moment of inertia of the object (in general, a tensor quantity) and ω is the angular velocity.
As the kinetic energy K of a massive rotating body is given by

it is proportional to the square of the angular velocity.

Angular momentum 114

Conservation of angular momentum

In a closed system angular momentum is constant. This
conservation law mathematically follows from
continuous directional symmetry of space (no direction
in space is any different from any other direction). See
Noether's theorem.[1]
The time derivative of angular momentum is called
torque:

The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a
change in the angular momentum L in the direction of that torque
(since torque is the time derivative of angular momentum). This
causes the top to precess.

(The cross-product of velocity and momentum is zero, because these vectors are parallel.) So requiring the system to
be "closed" here is mathematically equivalent to zero external torque acting on the system:

where is any torque applied to the system of particles. It is assumed that internal interaction forces obey
Newton's third law of motion in its strong form, that is, that the forces between particles are equal and opposite and
act along the line between the particles.
In orbits, the angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet itself and the angular momentum of its
orbit:
;
If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a
satellite, because the total angular momentum is shared between the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved.
The conservation of angular momentum is used extensively in analyzing what is called central force motion. If the
net force on some body is directed always toward some fixed point, the center, then there is no torque on the body
with respect to the center, and so the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. Constant angular
momentum is extremely useful when dealing with the orbits of planets and satellites, and also when analyzing the
Bohr model of the atom.
The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as she brings her arms and
legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of mass of her body closer to the axis she decreases her
body's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is constant in the absence of external torques, the angular
velocity (rotational speed) of the skater has to increase.
Angular momentum 115

The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black
holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars (indeed, decreasing the size of object 104
times results in increase of its angular velocity by the factor 108).
The conservation of angular momentum in Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from
Earth to Moon (due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth). This in turn results in the slowing down of the
rotation rate of Earth (at about 42 nsec/day), and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit (at ~4.5 cm/year
rate).

Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics

In modern (late 20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum is described using a different formalism. Under
this formalism, angular momentum is the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance (As a result,
angular momentum is not conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically
rotationally invariant). For a system of point particles without any intrinsic angular momentum, it turns out to be

(Here, the wedge product is used.).

Angular momentum in quantum mechanics

In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum
leaps" between certain allowed values. The orbital angular momentum of a subatomic particle, that is due to its
motion through space, is always a whole-number multiple of ("h-bar," known as the reduced Planck's constant),
defined as Planck's constant divided by 2π. Furthermore, experiments show that most subatomic particles have a
permanent, built-in angular momentum, which is not due to their motion through space. This spin angular
momentum comes in units of . For example, an electron standing at rest has an angular momentum of .

Basic definition
The classical definition of angular momentum as depends on six numbers: , , , , ,
and . Translating this into quantum-mechanical terms, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not
possible for all six of these numbers to be measured simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are
limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can
do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis.
Mathematically, angular momentum in quantum mechanics is defined like momentum - not as a quantity but as an
operator on the wave function:

where r and p are the position and momentum operators respectively. In particular, for a single particle with no
electric charge and no spin, the angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as

where is the vector differential operator "Del" (also called "Nabla"). This orbital angular momentum operator is
the most commonly encountered form of the angular momentum operator, though not the only one. It satisfies the
following canonical commutation relations:
,
where εlmn is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita symbol. From this follows
Angular momentum 116

Since,

it follows, for example,

Addition of quantized angular momenta

Given a quantized total angular momentum which is the sum of two individual quantized angular momenta
and ,

the quantum number associated with its magnitude can range from to in integer steps where
and are quantum numbers corresponding to the magnitudes of the individual angular momenta.

Angular momentum as a generator of rotations

If is the angle around a specific axis, for example the azimuthal angle around the z axis, then the angular
momentum along this axis is the generator of rotations around this axis:

The eigenfunctions of Lz are therefore , and since has a period of , ml must be an integer.
For a particle with a spin S, this takes into account only the angular dependence of the location of the particle, for
example its orbit in an atom. It is therefore known as orbital angular momentum. However, when one rotates the
system, one also changes the spin. Therefore the total angular momentum, which is the full generator of rotations, is
Being an angular momentum, J satisfies the same commutation relations as L, as will be explained
below. namely

from which follows

Acting with J on the wavefunction of a particle generates a rotation: is the wavefunction rotated
around the z axis by an angle . For an infinitesmal rotation by an angle , the rotated wavefunction is
. This is similarly true for rotations around any axis.
In a charged particle the momentum gets a contribution from the electromagnetic field, and the angular momenta L
and J change accordingly.
If the Hamiltonian is invariant under rotations, as in spherically symmetric problems, then according to Noether's
theorem, it commutes with the total angular momentum. So the total angular momentum is a conserved quantity
Angular momentum 117

Since angular momentum is the generator of rotations, its commutation relations follow the commutation relations of
the generators of the three-dimensional rotation group SO(3). This is why J always satisfies these commutation
relations. In d dimensions, the angular momentum will satisfy the same commutation relations as the generators of
the d-dimensional rotation group SO(d).
SO(3) has the same Lie algebra (i.e. the same commutation relations) as SU(2). Generators of SU(2) can have
half-integer eigenvalues, and so can m . Indeed for fermions the spin S and total angular momentum J are
half-integer. In fact this is the most general case: j and m are either integers or half-integers.
Technically, this is because the universal cover of SO(3) is isomorphic to SU(2), and the representations of the latter
are fully known. Ji span the Lie algebra and J2 is the Casimir invariant, and it can be shown that if the eigenvalues of
Jz and J2 are mj and j(j+1) then mj and j are both integer multiples of one-half. j is non-negative and mj takes values
between -j and j.

Relation to spherical harmonics

Angular momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with spherical symmetry in spherical
coordinates. Then, the angular momentum in space representation is:

When solving to find eigenstates of this operator, we obtain the following

where

are the spherical harmonics.

Angular momentum in electrodynamics

When describing the motion of a charged particle in the presence of an electromagnetic field, the "kinetic
momentum" p is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum is not gauge
invariant either. Instead, the momentum that is physical, the so-called canonical momentum, is

where is the electric charge, c the speed of light and A the vector potential. Thus, for example, the Hamiltonian of
a charged particle of mass m in an electromagnetic field is then

where is the scalar potential. This is the Hamiltonian that gives the Lorentz force law. The gauge-invariant
angular momentum, or "kinetic angular momentum" is given by

The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations.
Angular momentum 118

See also
• Angular momentum coupling
• Areal velocity
• Balancing machine
• Control moment gyroscope
• Falling cat problem
• Moment of inertia
• Noether's theorem
• Precession
• Relative angular momentum
• Rigid rotor
• Rotational energy
• Spatial quantization
• Specific relative angular momentum
• Yrast

References
• Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude; Diu, Bernard; Laloë, Franck (1977) Quantum Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons.
• E. U. Condon and G. H. Shortley (1935) The Theory of Atomic Spectra. Cambridge University Press, ISBN
0-521-09209-4. Esp. chpt. 3.
• Edmonds, A.R. (1957) Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics. Princeton University Press, ISBN
0-691-07912-9.
• Jackson, John David (1998) Classical Electrodynamics, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons.
• Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th ed.. Brooks/Cole. ISBN
0-534-40842-7.
• Thompson, William J. (1994) Angular Momentum: An Illustrated Guide to Rotational Symmetries for Physical
Systems. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-55264.
• Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics,
5th ed.. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-0809-4.

External links
• Conservation of Angular Momentum [14] - a chapter from an online textbook
• Angular Momentum in a Collision Process [2] - derivation of the three dimensional case

References
[1] "The classical theory of fields", L.D. Landau and E.M. Lifshitz( Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995) ISBN 0750627689
[2] http:/ / www. hakenberg. de/ diffgeo/ collision_resolution. htm
Rotation 119

Rotation
A rotation is a movement of an object in a circular motion. A two-dimensional object
rotates around a center (or point) of rotation. A three-dimensional object rotates around
a line called an axis. If the axis of rotation is within the body, the body is said to rotate
upon itself, or spin—which implies relative speed and perhaps free-movement with
angular momentum. A circular motion about an external point, e.g. the Earth about the
Sun, is called an [orbit] or more properly an orbital revolution.

A polyhedron resembling a
sphere rotating around an
axis.

Mathematics
Mathematically, a rotation is a rigid body movement which, unlike a
translation, keeps a point fixed. This definition applies to rotations
within both two and three dimensions (in a plane and in space,
respectively.) A rotation in three-dimensional space keeps an entire
line fixed, i.e. a rotation in three-dimensional space is a rotation around
an axis. This follows from Euler's rotation theorem.

All rigid body movements are rotations, translations, or combinations

of the two.

Rotation of a planar figure around a point

A Rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common

point. That common point lies within the axis of that motion. The axis
is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the
rotation lay external of the body in question then the body is said to
Orbit. There is no fundamental difference between a “rotation” and a
“orbit” and or "spin". The key distinction is simply where the axis of
the rotation lay, either within or without a body in question. This
distinction is and can be demonstrated in and for both “ridged” and
“non ridged” bodies.
Rotational Orbit v Spin
If a rotation around a point or axis is followed by a second rotation
around the same point/axis, a third rotation results. The reverse (inverse) of a rotation is also a rotation. Thus, the
rotations around a point/axis form a group. However, a rotation around a point or axis and a rotation around a
different point/axis may result in something other than a rotation, e.g. a translation.
Rotation 120

Rotations around the x, y and z axes are called principal rotations.

Rotation around any axis can be performed by taking a rotation around
the x axis, followed by a rotation around the y axis, and followed by a
rotation around the z axis. That is to say, any spatial rotation can be
decomposed into a combination of principal rotations.
In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as yaw, pitch, and
roll (known as Tait-Bryan angles). This terminology is also used in
computer graphics.
The principal axes of rotation in space

Astronomy
In astronomy, rotation is a commonly observed phenomenon. Stars,
planets and similar bodies all spin around on their axes. The rotation
rate of planets in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual
features. Stellar rotation is measured through Doppler shift or by
tracking active surface features.
This rotation induces a centrifugal acceleration in the reference frame
of the Earth which slightly counteracts the effect of gravity the closer
one is to the equator. One effect is that an object weighs slightly less at
the equator. Another is that the Earth is slightly deformed into an
Relations between rotation axis, plane of orbit
oblate spheroid.
and axial tilt (for Earth).
Another consequence of the rotation of a planet is the phenomenon of
precession. Like a gyroscope, the overall effect is a slight "wobble" in the movement of the axis of a planet.
Currently the tilt of the Earth's axis to its orbital plane (obliquity of the ecliptic) is 23.45 degrees, but this angle
changes slowly (over thousands of years). (See also Precession of the equinoxes and Pole star.)

Rotation and revolution

While revolution is often used as a synonym for rotation, in many fields, particularly astronomy and related fields,
revolution, often referred to as orbital revolution for clarity, is used when one body moves around another while
rotation is used to mean the movement around an axis. Moons revolve around their planet, planets revolve about
their star (such as the Earth around the Sun); and stars slowly revolve about their galaxial center. The motion of the
components of galaxies is complex, but it usually includes a rotation component.
A Rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common point. That common point lay within the axis of
that motion. The axis is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the rotation lay external of
the body in question then the body is said to Orbit. There is no fundamental difference between a “rotation” and a
“orbit”. The key distinction is simply where the axis of the rotation lay, either within or without a body in question.
This distinction is and can be demonstrated in and for both “ridged” and “non ridged” bodies.
Rotation 121

Retrograde rotation
Most planets in our solar system, including Earth, spin in the same direction as they orbit the Sun. The exceptions are
Venus and Uranus. Uranus rotates nearly on its side relative to its orbit. Current speculation is that Uranus started off
with a typical prograde orientation and was knocked on its side by a large impact early in its history. Venus may be
thought of as rotating slowly backwards (or being "upside down"). The dwarf planet Pluto (formerly considered a
planet) is anomalous in this and other ways.

Physics
The speed of rotation is given by the angular frequency (rad/s) or frequency (turns/s, turns/min), or period (seconds,
days, etc.). The time-rate of change of angular frequency is angular acceleration (rad/s²), This change is caused by
torque. The ratio of the two (how heavy is it to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of
inertia.
The angular velocity vector also describes the direction of the axis of rotation. Similarly the torque is a vector.
According to the right-hand rule, the direction away from the observer is associated with clockwise rotation and the
direction towards the observer with counterclockwise rotation, like a screw.
A Rotation is simply a progressive radial orientation to a common
point. That common point lay within the axis of that motion. The axis
is 90 degrees perpendicular to the plane of the motion. If the axis of the
rotation lay external of the body in question then the body is said to
Orbit. There is no fundamental difference between a “rotation” and an
“orbit” and/or "spin". The key distinction is simply where the axis of
the rotation lay, either within or without a body in question. This
distinction is and can be demonstrated in and for both “ridged” and
“non ridged” bodies.
Rotational Orbit v Spin

Aviation
In flight dynamics, the principal rotations are known as pitch, roll and yaw. The term rotation is also used in aviation
to refer to the upward pitch (nose moves up) of an aircraft, particularly when starting the climb after takeoff.

Amusement rides
Many amusement rides provide rotation. A Ferris wheel has a horizontal central axis, and parallel axes for each
gondola, where the rotation is opposite, by gravity or mechanically. As a result at any time the orientation of the
gondola is upright (not rotated), just translated. The tip of the translation vector describes a circle. A carousel
provides rotation about a vertical axis. Many rides provide a combination of rotations about several axes. In
Chair-O-Planes the rotation about the vertical axis is provided mechanically, while the rotation about the horizontal
axis is due to the centripetal force. In roller coaster inversions the rotation about the horizontal axis is one or more
full cycles, where inertia keeps people in their seats.
Rotation 122

Sports
Rotation, usually called spin, plays a role in many sports. Topspin and backspin in tennis. English, follow and draw
in billiards and pool. Curve balls in baseball and spin bowling in cricket. Table tennis paddles are specialized to
allow players to spin the ball as they hit it.

See also
• Absolute rotation
• Balancing machine
• Mach's principle
• Rotation representation (mathematics)
• Rotation in living systems

External links
• Product of Rotations [1] at cut-the-knot
• When a Triangle is Equilateral [2] at cut-the-knot
• Rotate Points Using Polar Coordinates [3]
• Rotation in Two Dimensions [4] by Sergio Hannibal Mejia after work by Roger Germundsson and Understanding
3D Rotation [5] by Roger Germundsson, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.

References
[1] http:/ / www. cut-the-knot. org/ Curriculum/ Geometry/ RotationTransform. shtml
[2] http:/ / www. cut-the-knot. org/ Curriculum/ Geometry/ Connes. shtml
[3] http:/ / howtoproperly. com/ rotate-points-using-polar-coordinates
[4] http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ RotationInTwoDimensions/
[5] http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ Understanding3DRotation/
Rigid body 123

Rigid body
In physics, a rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size
in which deformation is neglected. In other words, the distance
between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time
regardless of external forces exerted on it. Even though such an object
cannot physically exist due to relativity, objects can normally be
assumed to be perfectly rigid if they are not moving near the speed of
light.

In classical mechanics a rigid body is usually considered as a

continuous mass distribution, while in quantum mechanics a rigid body The position of a rigid body is determined by the
is usually thought of as a collection of point masses. For instance, in position of its center of mass and by its attitude
[1]
quantum mechanics molecules (consisting of the point masses: (at least six parameters in total).

electrons and nuclei) are often seen as rigid bodies (see classification
of molecules as rigid rotors).

Kinematics

Linear and angular position

The position of a rigid body is the position of all the particles of which it is composed. To simplify the description of
this position, we exploit the property that the body is rigid, namely that all its particles maintain the same distance
relative to each other. If the body is rigid, it is sufficient to describe the position of at least three non-collinear
particles. This makes it possible to reconstruct the position of all the other particles, provided that their
time-invariant position relative to the three selected particles is known. However, typically a different and
mathematically more convenient approach is used. The position of the whole body is represented by:
1. the linear position or position of the body, namely the position of one of the particles of the body, specifically
chosen as a reference point (for instance its center of mass or its centroid, or the origin of a coordinate system
fixed to the body), together with
2. the angular position (or orientation) of the body.
Thus, the position of a rigid body has two components: linear and angular, respectively.[2] The same is true for
other kinematic and kinetic quantities describing the motion of a rigid body, such as velocity, acceleration,
momentum, impulse, and kinetic energy.[3]
The linear position can be represented by a vector with its tail at an arbitrary reference point in space (often the
origin of a chosen coordinate system) and its tip at a point of interest on the rigid body (often its center of mass or
centroid).
There are several ways to numerically describe the orientation of a rigid body, including a set of three Euler angles, a
quaternion, or a direction cosine matrix (also referred to as a rotation matrix).
In general, when a rigid body moves, both its position and orientation vary with time. In the kinematic sense, these
changes are referred to as translation and rotation, respectively. Indeed, the position of a rigid body can be viewed
as a hypothetic translation and rotation (roto-translation) of the body starting from a hypothetic reference position
(not necessarily coinciding with a position actually taken by the body during its motion).
Rigid body 124

Linear and angular velocity

Velocity (also called linear velocity) and angular velocity are measured with respect to a frame of reference.
The linear velocity of a rigid body is a vector quantity, equal to the time rate of change of its linear position. Thus, it
is the velocity of a reference point fixed to the body. During purely translational motion (motion with no rotation),
all points on a rigid body move with the same velocity. However, when motion involves rotation, the instantaneous
velocity of any two points on the body will generally not be the same. Two points of a rotating body will have the
same instantaneous velocity only if they happen to lay on an axis parallel to the instantaneous axis of rotation.
Angular velocity is a vector quantity that describes the angular speed at which the orientation of the rigid body is
changing and the instantaneous axis about which it is rotating. All points on a rigid body experience the same
angular velocity at all times. During purely rotational motion, all points on the body change position except for those
lying on the instantaneous axis of rotation. The relationship between orientation and angular velocity is not directly
analogous to the relationship between position and velocity. Angular velocity is not the time rate of change of
orientation, because there is no such concept as an orientation vector that can be differentiated to obtain the angular
velocity.

Kinematical equations

Addition theorem for angular velocity

The angular velocity of a rigid body B in a reference frame N is equal to the sum of the angular velocity of a rigid
body D in N and the angular velocity of B with respect D[4] :
.
In this case, rigid bodies and reference frames are indistinguishable and completely interchangeable.

Addition theorem for position

For any set of three points P, Q, and R, the position vector from P to R is the sum of the position vector from P to Q
and the position vector from Q to R:
.

Mathematical definition of velocity

The velocity of point P in reference frame N is defined using the time derivative in N of the position vector from O
to P[5] :

where O is any arbitrary point fixed in reference frame N, and the N to the left of the d/dt operator indicates that the
derivative is taken in reference frame N. The result is independent of the selection of O so long as O is fixed in N.
Rigid body 125

Mathematical definition of acceleration

The acceleration of point P in reference frame N is defined using the time derivative in N of its velocity[5] :

Velocity of two points fixed on a rigid body

For two points P and Q that are fixed on a rigid body B, where B has an angular velocity in the reference frame
N, the velocity of Q in N can be expressed as a function of the velocity of P in N[6] :
.

Acceleration of two points fixed on a rigid body

By differentiating the equation for the Velocity of two points fixed on a rigid body in N with respect to time, the
acceleration in reference frame N of a point Q fixed on a rigid body B can be expressed as

where is the angular acceleration of B in the reference frame N[6] .

Velocity of one point moving on a rigid body

If the point R is moving in rigid body B while B moves in reference frame N, then the velocity of R in N is
.
where Q is the point fixed in B that is instantaneously coincident with R at the instant of interest[7] . This relation is
often combined with the relation for the Velocity of two points fixed on a rigid body.

Acceleration of one point moving on a rigid body

The acceleration in reference frame N of the point R moving in body B while B is moving in frame N is given by

where Q is the point fixed in B that instantaneously coincident with R at the instant of interest[7] . This equation is
often combined with Acceleration of two points fixed on a rigid body.

Other quantities
If C is the origin of a local coordinate system L, attached to the body,
• the spatial or twist acceleration of a rigid body is defined as the spatial acceleration of C (as opposed to material
acceleration above);

where
• represents the position of the point/particle with respect to the reference point of the body in terms of the local
coordinate system L (the rigidity of the body means that this does not depend on time)
• is the orientation matrix, an orthogonal matrix with determinant 1, representing the orientation (angular
position) of the local coordinate system L, with respect to the arbitrary reference orientation of another coordinate
system G. Think of this matrix as three orthogonal unit vectors, one in each column, which define the orientation
of the axes of L with respect to G.
• represents the angular velocity of the rigid body
• represents the total velocity of the point/particle
• represents the total acceleration of the point/particle
Rigid body 126

• represents the angular acceleration of the rigid body

• represents the spatial acceleration of the point/particle
• represents the spatial acceleration of the rigid body (i.e. the spatial acceleration of the origin of L)
In 2D the angular velocity is a scalar, and matrix A(t) simply represents a rotation in the xy-plane by an angle which
is the integral of the angular velocity over time.
Vehicles, walking people, etc. usually rotate according to changes in the direction of the velocity: they move forward
with respect to their own orientation. Then, if the body follows a closed orbit in a plane, the angular velocity
integrated over a time interval in which the orbit is completed once, is an integer times 360°. This integer is the
winding number with respect to the origin of the velocity. Compare the amount of rotation associated with the
vertices of a polygon.

Kinetics
Any point that is rigidly connected to the body can be used as reference point (origin of coordinate system L) to
describe the linear motion of the body (the linear position, velocity and acceleration vectors depend on the choice).
However, depending on the application, a convenient choice may be:
• the center of mass of the whole system, which generally has the simplest motion for a body moving freely in
space;
• a point such that the translational motion is zero or simplified, e.g. on an axle or hinge, at the center of a ball and
socket joint, etc.
When the center of mass is used as reference point:
• The (linear) momentum is independent of the rotational motion. At any time it is equal to the total mass of the
rigid body times the translational velocity.
• The angular momentum with respect to the center of mass is the same as without translation: at any time it is
equal to the inertia tensor times the angular velocity. When the angular velocity is expressed with respect to a
coordinate system coinciding with the principal axes of the body, each component of the angular momentum is a
product of a moment of inertia (a principal value of the inertia tensor) times the corresponding component of the
angular velocity; the torque is the inertia tensor times the angular acceleration.
• Possible motions in the absence of external forces are translation with constant velocity, steady rotation about a
fixed principal axis, and also torque-free precession.
• The net external force on the rigid body is always equal to the total mass times the translational acceleration (i.e.,
Newton's second law holds for the translational motion, even when the net external torque is nonzero, and/or the
body rotates).
• The total kinetic energy is simply the sum of translational and rotational energy.

Geometry
Two rigid bodies are said to be different (not copies) if there is no proper rotation from one to the other. A rigid body
is called chiral if its mirror image is different in that sense, i.e., if it has either no symmetry or its symmetry group
contains only proper rotations. In the opposite case an object is called achiral: the mirror image is a copy, not a
different object. Such an object may have a symmetry plane, but not necessarily: there may also be a plane of
reflection with respect to which the image of the object is a rotated version. The latter applies for S2n, of which the
case n = 1 is inversion symmetry.
For a (rigid) rectangular transparent sheet, inversion symmetry corresponds to having on one side an image without
rotational symmetry and on the other side an image such that what shines through is the image at the top side, upside
down. We can distinguish two cases:
Rigid body 127

• the sheet surface with the image is not symmetric - in this case the two sides are different, but the mirror image of
the object is the same, after a rotation by 180° about the axis perpendicular to the mirror plane.
• the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - in this case the two sides are the same, and the mirror
image of the object is also the same, again after a rotation by 180° about the axis perpendicular to the mirror
plane.
A sheet with a through and through image is achiral. We can distinguish again two cases:
• the sheet surface with the image has no symmetry axis - the two sides are different
• the sheet surface with the image has a symmetry axis - the two sides are the same

Configuration space
The configuration space of a rigid body with one point fixed (i.e., a body with zero translational motion) is given by
the underlying manifold of the rotation group SO(3). The configuration space of a nonfixed (with non-zero
translational motion) rigid body is E+(3), the subgroup of direct isometries of the Euclidean group in three
dimensions (combinations of translations and rotations).

See also
• angular velocity
• Rigid body dynamics
• infinitesimal rotations
• Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics)
• Euler's laws
• Born rigidity
• Rigid rotor

References
• Roy Featherstone (1987). Robot Dynamics Algorithms. Springer. ISBN 0898382300. This reference effectively
combines screw theory with rigid body dynamics for robotic applications. The author also chooses to use spatial
accelerations extensively in place of material accelerations as they simplify the equations and allow for compact
notation.
• JPL DARTS page has a section on spatial operator algebra (link: [8]) as well as an extensive list of references
(link: [9]).

References
[1] Lorenzo Sciavicco, Bruno Siciliano (2000). "§2.4.2 Roll-pitch-yaw angles" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v9PLbcYd9aUC&
pg=PA32). Modelling and control of robot manipulators (2nd ed.). Springer. p. 32. ISBN 1852332212. .
[2] In general, the position of a point or particle is also known, in physics, as linear position, as opposed to the angular position or orientation
of a point, particle, axis or body.
[3] In kinematics, linear means "along a straight or curved line" (the path of the particle in space). In mathematics, however, linear has a different
meaning. In both contexts, the word "linear" is related to the word "line". In mathematics, a line is often defined as a straight curve. For those
who adopt this definition, a curve can be straight, and curved lines are not supposed to exist. In kinematics, the term line is used as a synonym
of the term trajectory, or path (namely, it has the same non-restricted meaning as that given, in mathematics, to the word curve). In short, both
straight and curved lines are supposed to exist. In kinematics and dynamics, the following words refer to the same non-restricted meaning of
the term "line":
• "linear" (= along a straight or curved line),
• "rectilinear" (= along a straight line, from Latin rectus = straight, and linere = spread),
• "curvilinear" (=along a curved line, from Latin curvus = curved, and linere = spread).
In topology and metereology, the term "line" has the same meaning; namely, a contour line is a curve.
Rigid body 128

[4] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-4 Auxiliary Reference Frames". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics,
Inc..
[5] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-6 Velocity and Acceleration". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine Dynamics, Inc..
[6] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-7 Two Points Fixed on a Rigid Body". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine
Dynamics, Inc..
[7] Kane, Thomas; Levinson, David (1996). "2-8 One Point Moving on a Rigid Body". Dynamics Online. Sunnyvale, California: OnLine
Dynamics, Inc..
[8] http:/ / dshell. jpl. nasa. gov/ SOA/ index. php
[9] http:/ / dshell. jpl. nasa. gov/ References/ index. php

Moment of inertia
This article is about the moment of inertia of a rotating object. For the moment of inertia dealing with bending
of a plane, see second moment of area.
Moment of inertia, also called mass moment of inertia, rotational inertia, or the angular mass, (SI units kg·m2)
is a measure of an object's resistance to changes in its rotation rate. It is the rotational analog of mass, the inertia of a
rigid rotating body with respect to its rotation. The moment of inertia plays much the same role in rotational
dynamics as mass does in linear dynamics, determining the relationship between angular momentum and angular
velocity, torque and angular acceleration, and several other quantities. The symbol I and sometimes J are usually
used to refer to the moment of inertia.
While a simple scalar treatment of the moment of inertia suffices for many situations, a more advanced tensor
treatment allows the analysis of such complicated systems as spinning tops and gyroscopic motion.
The concept was introduced by Euler in his book a Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum in 1730.[1] In
this book, he discussed the moment of inertia and many related concepts, such as the principal axis of inertia.

Overview
The moment of inertia of an object about a given axis describes how difficult it is to change its angular motion about
that axis. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much mass the object has overall, but how far each bit of mass is
from the axis. The farther out the object's mass is, the more rotational inertia the object has, and the more force is
required to change its rotation rate. For example, consider two hoops, A and B, made of the same material and of
equal mass. Hoop A is larger in diameter but thinner than B. It requires more effort to accelerate hoop A (change its
angular velocity) because its mass is distributed farther from its axis of rotation: mass that is farther out from that
axis must, for a given angular velocity, move more quickly than mass closer in. So in this case, hoop A has a larger
moment of inertia than hoop B.
The moment of inertia of an object can change if its shape changes. A
figure skater who begins a spin with arms outstretched provides a
striking example. By pulling in her arms, she reduces her moment of
inertia, causing her to spin faster (by the conservation of angular
momentum).
The moment of inertia has two forms, a scalar form (used when the
axis of rotation is known) and a more general tensor form that does not
require knowing the axis of rotation. The scalar moment of inertia
(often called simply the "moment of inertia") allows a succinct analysis Divers minimizing their moments of inertia to
of many simple problems in rotational dynamics, such as objects increase their rates of rotation
Moment of inertia 129

rolling down inclines and the behavior of pulleys. For instance, while a block of any shape will slide down a
frictionless decline at the same rate, rolling objects may descend at different rates, depending on their moments of
inertia. A hoop will descend more slowly than a solid disk of equal mass and radius because more of its mass is
located far from the axis of rotation, and thus needs to move faster if the hoop rolls at the same angular velocity.
However, for (more complicated) problems in which the axis of rotation can change, the scalar treatment is
inadequate, and the tensor treatment must be used (although shortcuts are possible in special situations). Examples
requiring such a treatment include gyroscopes, tops, and even satellites, all objects whose alignment can change.
The moment of inertia ( ) is also called the mass moment of inertia (especially by mechanical engineers) to
avoid confusion with the second moment of area, which is sometimes called the moment of inertia (especially by
structural engineers). The easiest way to differentiate these quantities is through their units ( vs ). In
addition, moment of inertia should not be confused with polar moment of inertia, which is a measure of an object's
ability to resist torsion (twisting) only.

Scalar moment of inertia

Definition
A simple definition of the moment of inertia (with respect to a given axis of rotation) of any object, be it a point
mass or a 3D-structure, is given by:

where m is mass and r is the perpendicular distance to the axis of rotation.

Detailed analysis
The (scalar) moment of inertia of a point mass rotating about a known axis is defined by

The moment of inertia is additive. Thus, for a rigid body consisting of N point masses mi with distances ri to the
rotation axis, the total moment of inertia equals the sum of the point-mass moments of inertia:

The mass distribution along the axis of rotation has no effect on the moment of inertia.
For a solid body described by a mass density function, ρ(r), the moment of inertia about a known axis can be
calculated by integrating the square of the distance (weighted by the mass density) from a point in the body to the
rotation axis:

where
V is the volume occupied by the object.
ρ is the spatial density function of the object, and
r = (r,θ,φ), (x,y,z), or (r,θ,z) is the vector (orthogonal to the axis of rotation) between the axis of rotation and
the point in the body.
Moment of inertia 130

Based on dimensional analysis alone, the moment of inertia of a

non-point object must take the form:

Diagram for the calculation of a disk's moment of

inertia. Here c is 1/2 and is the radius used in
determining the moment.

where
M is the mass
L is a length dimension taken from the centre of mass (in some cases, the length of the object is used instead.)
c is a dimensionless constant called the inertial constant that varies with the object in consideration.
Inertial constants are used to account for the differences in the placement of the mass from the center of rotation.
Examples include:
• c = 1, thin ring or thin-walled cylinder around its center,
• c = 2/5, solid sphere around its center
• c = 1/2, solid cylinder or disk around its center.
When c is 1, the length (L) is called the radius of gyration.
For more examples, see the List of moments of inertia.

Parallel axis theorem

Once the moment of inertia has been calculated for rotations about the center of mass of a rigid body, one can
conveniently recalculate the moment of inertia for all parallel rotation axes as well, without having to resort to the
formal definition. If the axis of rotation is displaced by a distance from the center of mass axis of rotation (e.g.,
spinning a disc about a point on its periphery, rather than through its center,) the displaced and center-moment of
inertia are related as follows:

This theorem is also known as the parallel axes rule and is a special case of Steiner's parallel-axis theorem.

Composite bodies
If a body can be decomposed (either physically or conceptually) into several constituent parts, then the moment of
inertia of the body about a given axis is obtained by summing the moments of inertia of each constituent part around
the same given axis.[2]

Equations involving the moment of inertia

The rotational kinetic energy of a rigid body can be expressed in terms of its moment of inertia. For a system with
point masses moving with speeds , the rotational kinetic energy equals
Moment of inertia 131

where is the common angular velocity (in radians per second). The final expression I ω2 / 2 also holds for a mass
density function with a generalization of the above derivation from a discrete summation to an integration.
In the special case where the angular momentum vector is parallel to the angular velocity vector, one can relate them
by the equation

where L is the angular momentum and is the angular velocity. However, this equation does not hold in many
cases of interest, such as the torque-free precession of a rotating object, although its more general tensor form is
always correct.
When the moment of inertia is constant, one can also relate the torque on an object and its angular acceleration in a
similar equation:

where is the torque and is the angular acceleration.

Moment of inertia tensor

For the same object, different axes of rotation will have different moments of inertia about those axes. In general, the
moments of inertia are not equal unless the object is symmetric about all axes. The moment of inertia tensor is a
convenient way to summarize all moments of inertia of an object with one quantity. It may be calculated with respect
to any point in space, although for practical purposes the center of mass is most commonly used.

Definition
For a rigid object of point masses , the moment of inertia tensor is given by

where

and , , and . (Thus is a symmetric tensor.)

The diagonal elements of are called the principal moments of inertia; the scalars with are called the
products of inertia.
Moment of inertia 132

Here denotes the moment of inertia around the -axis when the objects are rotated around the x-axis,
denotes the moment of inertia around the -axis when the objects are rotated around the -axis, and so on.
These quantities can be generalized to an object with distributed mass, described by a mass density function, in a
similar fashion to the scalar moment of inertia. One then has

where is their outer product, E3 is the 3 × 3 identity matrix, and V is a region of space completely containing
the object.

Derivation of the tensor components

The distance of a particle at from the axis of rotation passing through the origin in the direction is
. By using the formula (and some simple vector algebra) it can be seen that the
moment of inertia of this particle (about the axis of rotation passing through the origin in the direction) is
This is a quadratic form in and, after a bit more algebra, this leads to a
tensor formula for the moment of inertia

This is exactly the formula given below for the moment of inertia in the case of a single particle. For multiple
particles we need only recall that the moment of inertia is additive in order to see that this formula is correct.

Reduction to scalar
For any axis , represented as a column vector with elements ni, the scalar form I can be calculated from the tensor
form I as

The range of both summations correspond to the three Cartesian coordinates.

The following equivalent expression avoids the use of transposed vectors which are not supported in maths libraries
because internally vectors and their transpose are stored as the same linear array,

However it should be noted that although this equation is mathematically equivalent to the equation above for any
matrix, inertia tensors are symmetrical. This means that it can be further simplified to:

Principal moments of inertia

By the spectral theorem, since the moment of inertia tensor is real and symmetric, it is possible to find a Cartesian
coordinate system in which it is diagonal, having the form

where the coordinate axes are called the principal axes and the constants , and are called the principal
moments of inertia. The unit vectors along the principal axes are usually denoted as (e1, e2, e3). This result was first
shown by J. J. Sylvester (1852), and is a form of Sylvester's law of inertia.
Moment of inertia 133

When all principal moments of inertia are distinct, the principal axes are uniquely specified. If two principal
moments are the same, the rigid body is called a symmetrical top and there is no unique choice for the two
corresponding principal axes. If all three principal moments are the same, the rigid body is called a spherical top
(although it need not be spherical) and any axis can be considered a principal axis, meaning that the moment of
inertia is the same about any axis.
The principal axes are often aligned with the object's symmetry axes. If a rigid body has an axis of symmetry of
order , i.e., is symmetrical under rotations of 360°/m about a given axis, the symmetry axis is a principal axis.
When , the rigid body is a symmetrical top. If a rigid body has at least two symmetry axes that are not
parallel or perpendicular to each other, it is a spherical top, e.g., a cube or any other Platonic solid. A practical
example of this mathematical phenomenon is the routine automotive task of balancing a tire, which basically means
adjusting the distribution of mass of a car wheel such that its principal axis of inertia is aligned with the axle so the
wheel does not wobble.

Parallel axis theorem

Once the moment of inertia tensor has been calculated for rotations about the center of mass of the rigid body, there
is a useful labor-saving method to compute the tensor for rotations offset from the center of mass.
If the axis of rotation is displaced by a vector R from the center of mass, the new moment of inertia tensor equals

where m is the total mass of the rigid body, E3 is the 3 × 3 identity matrix, and is the outer product.

Rotational symmetry
Using the above equation to express all moments of inertia in terms of integrals of variables either along or
perpendicular to the axis of symmetry usually simplifies the calculation of these moments considerably.

Comparison with covariance matrix

The moment of inertia tensor about the center of mass of a 3 dimensional rigid body is related to the covariance
matrix of a trivariate random vector whose probability density function is proportional to the pointwise density of the
rigid body by:

where n is the number of points.

The structure of the moment-of-inertia tensor comes from the fact that it is to be used as a bilinear form on rotation
vectors in the form

Each element of mass has a kinetic energy of

The velocity of each element of mass is where r is a vector from the center of rotation to that element of
mass. The cross product can be converted to matrix multiplication so that

and similarly

Thus
Moment of inertia 134

plugging in the definition of the term leads directly to the structure of the moment tensor.

See also
• List of moments of inertia
• List of moment of inertia tensors
• Rotational energy
• Parallel axis theorem
• Perpendicular axis theorem
• Stretch rule
• Tire balance
• Poinsot's ellipsoid

References
• Goldstein, H. (1980), Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-02918-9.
• Landau, LD; Lifshitz (1976), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Pergamon Press, ISBN 0-08-021022-8 (hardcover); ISBN
0-08-029141-4 (softcover).
• Marion, JB; Thornton, ST. (1995), Classical Dynamics of Systems and Particles (4th ed.), Thomson, ISBN
0-03-097302-3.
• Sylvester, J J (1852), "A demonstration of the theorem that every homogeneous quadratic polynomial is reducible
by real orthogonal substitutions to the form of a sum of positive and negative squares" [3], Philosophical
Magazine IV: 138–142, retrieved 2008-06-27
• Symon, KR (1971), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-07392-7.
• Tenenbaum, RA (2004), Fundamentals of Applied Dynamics, Springer, ISBN 0-387-00887-X.

External links
• Angular momentum and rigid-body rotation in two and three dimensions [4]
• Lecture notes on rigid-body rotation and moments of inertia [5]
• The moment of inertia tensor [6]
• An introductory lesson on moment of inertia: keeping a vertical pole not falling down (Java simulation) [7]
• Tutorial on finding moments of inertia, with problems and solutions on various basic shapes [8]
• Measuring moment of inertia [9]

References
[1] Euler, Leonhard (1765-01-01) (in Latin). Theoria motus corporum solidorum seu rigidorum: ex primis nostrae cognitionis principiis stabilita
et ad omnes motus, qui in huiusmodi corpora cadere possunt, accommodata. Auctore Leonh. Eulero. Cornell University Library. ISBN
978-1429742818.
[2] "Mass moment of inertia" by Mehrdad Negahban, University of Nebraska (http:/ / em-ntserver. unl. edu/ NEGAHBAN/ EM223/ note18/
note18. htm)
[3] http:/ / www. maths. ed. ac. uk/ ~aar/ sylv/ inertia. pdf
[4] http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 0sn/ ch04/ ch04. html
[5] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ mi. html
[6] http:/ / kwon3d. com/ theory/ moi/ iten. html
[7] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Balance. htm
[8] http:/ / hypertextbook. com/ physics/ mechanics/ rotational-inertia/
[9] http:/ / www. space-electronics. com/ Products/ moment_of_inertia_instruments. php
Radius of gyration 135

Radius of gyration
Radius of gyration is the name of several related measures of the size of an object, a surface, or an ensemble of
points. It is calculated as the root mean square distance of the objects' parts from either its center of gravity or an
axis.

Applications in structural engineering

In structural engineering, the two-dimensional radius of gyration is used to describe the distribution of cross
sectional area in a beam around its centroidal axis. The radius of gyration is given by the following formula

or

where I is the second moment of area and A is the total cross-sectional area. The gyration radius is useful in
estimating the stiffness of a beam. However, if the principal moments of the two-dimensional gyration tensor are not
equal, the beam will tend to buckle around the axis with the smaller principal moment. For example, a beam with an
elliptical cross-section will tend to buckle about the smaller semiaxis.
It also can be referred to as the radial distance from a given axis at which the mass of a body could be concentrated
without altering the rotational inertia of the body about that axis.
In engineering, where people deal with continuous bodies of matter, the radius of gyration is more usually calculated
as an integral.

Applications in mechanics
The radius of gyration (r) about a given axis can be computed in terms of the moment of inertia I around that axis,
and the total mass m;

or

It should be noted that I is a scalar, and is not the moment of inertia tensor. [1]

Molecular applications
In polymer physics, the radius of gyration is used to describe the dimensions of a polymer chain. The radius of
gyration of a particular molecule at a given time is defined as:

where is the mean position of the monomers. As detailed below, the radius of gyration is also proportional to
the root mean square distance between the monomers:
Radius of gyration 136

As a third method, the radius of gyration can also be computed by summing the principal moments of the gyration
tensor.
Since the chain conformations of a polymer sample are quasi infinite in number and constantly change over time, the
"radius of gyration" discussed in polymer physics must usually be understood as a mean over all polymer molecules
of the sample and over time. That is, the radius of gyration which is measured is an average over time or ensemble:

where the angular brackets denote the ensemble average.

An entropically governed polymer chain (i.e. in so called theta conditions) follows a random walk in three
dimensions. The radius of gyration for this case is given by

Note that, although represents the contour length of the polymer, a is strongly dependent of polymer stiffness,
and can vary over orders of magnitude. N is reduced accordingly.
One reason that the radius of gyration is an interesting property is that it can be determined experimentally with
static light scattering as well as with small angle neutron- and x-ray scattering. This allows theoretical polymer
physicists to check their models against reality. The hydrodynamic radius is numerically similar, and can be
measured with Size exclusion chromatography.

Derivation of identity
To show that the two definitions of are identical, we first multiply out the summand in the first definition:

Carrying out the summation over the last two terms and using the definition of gives the formula

References
• Grosberg AY and Khokhlov AR. (1994) Statistical Physics of Macromolecules (translated by Atanov YA), AIP
Press. ISBN 1563960710
• Flory PJ. (1953) Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornell University, pp. 428-429 (Appendix C o Chapter X).

References
[1] See for example Goldstein, Herbert (1950), Classical Mechanics (1st ed.), Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company
equation 5-30
Rotational energy 137

Rotational energy
The rotational energy or angular kinetic energy is the kinetic energy due to the rotation of an object and is part of
its total kinetic energy. Looking at rotational energy separately in an object's centre of mass frame, one gets the
following dependence on the object's moment of inertia:

where
is the angular speed
is the moment of inertia.
is the kinetic energy.
The mechanical work required for / applied during rotation is the torque times the rotation angle. The instantaneous
power of an angularly accelerating body is the torque times the angular frequency.
Note the close relationship between the results for linear (or translational) and rotational motion; the formula for the

In the rotating system, the moment of inertia, I, takes the role of the mass, m, and the angular velocity, , takes the
role of the linear velocity, v. The rotational energy of a rolling cylinder varies from one half of the translational
energy (if it is massive) to the same as the translational energy (if it is hollow).
As an example, let us calculate the rotational kinetic energy of the Earth. As the Earth has a period of about 23.93
hours, it has an angular velocity of 7.29×10−5 rad·s−1. The Earth has a moment of inertia, I = 8.04×1037 kg·m2[1].
Therefore, it has a rotational kinetic energy of 2.14×1029 J.
Part of it can be tapped using tidal power. This creates additional friction of the two global tidal waves,
infinitesimally slowing down Earth's angular velocity ω. Due to conservation of angular momentum this process
transfers angular momentum to the Moon's orbital motion, increasing its distance from Earth and its orbital period
(see tidal locking for a more detailed explanation of this process).

See also
• Flywheel
• Rigid rotor
• Rotational spectroscopy

References
[1] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ MomentofInertiaEarth. html
Rotation around a fixed axis 138

Rotation around a fixed axis

Rotation around a fixed axis is a special case of rotational motion. It does not involve rotation around more than
one axis, and cannot describe such phenomena as wobbling or precession. The kinematics and dynamics of rotation
around a fixed axis of a rigid object are mathematically much simpler than those for rotation of a rigid body; they are
entirely analogous to those of linear motion along a single fixed direction, which is not true for rotation of a rigid
body. The expressions for the kinetic energy of the object, and for the forces on the parts of the object, are also
simpler for rotation around a fixed axis, than for general rotational motion. For these reasons, rotation around a fixed
axis is typically taught in introductory physics courses after students have mastered linear motion; the full generality
of rotational motion is not usually taught in introductory physics classes.
In the beginning study of linear motion, objects are treated as point particles without structure; for such objects it
does not matter where a force is applied, only that it is applied. However, for extended objects, the point of
application of force does matter. In tennis, for example, if a tennis ball is struck with a strong horizontal force acting
through its center of mass, it may travel a long distance before hitting the ground, far out of bounds. Instead, the
same force applied in an upward, glancing stroke will yield topspin to the ball, which can cause it to land in the
opponent’s court.
The concepts of rotational equilibrium and rotational dynamics are also important in other disciplines. For example,
students of architecture benefit from understanding the forces that act on buildings and biology students should
understand the forces at work in muscles, bones, and joints. These forces create torques, which tell us how the forces
affect an object's equilibrium and rate of rotation. [1]
An object remains in a state of uniform rotational motion unless acted on by a net torque. This principle is analogous
to Newton’s first law of motion. Further, the angular acceleration of an object is proportional to the net torque acting
on it, which is the analog of Newton’s Second Law of motion. A net torque acting on an object causes a change in its
rotational energy.
Finally, torques applied to an object through a given time interval can change the object's angular momentum. If
there are no external torques, angular momentum is conserved, a property that explains some of the mysterious and
formidable properties of pulsars—remnants of supernova explosions that rotate at equatorial speeds approaching that
of light.

Translation and rotation

A rigid body is an object of finite extent in which all the distances between the component particles are constant. No
truly rigid body exists; external forces can deform any solid. For our purposes, then, a rigid body is a solid which
requires large forces to deform it appreciably.
A change in the position of a particle in three-dimensional space can be completely specified by three coordinates. A
change in the position of a rigid body is more complicated to describe. It can be regarded as a combination of two
distinct types of motion: translational motion and rotational motion.
Purely translational motion occurs when every particle of the body has the same instantaneous velocity as every
other particle; then the path traced out by any particle is exactly parallel to the path traced out by every other particle
in the body. Under translational motion, the change in the position of a rigid body is specified completely by three
coordinates such as x, y, and z giving the displacement of any point, such as the center of mass, fixed to the rigid
body.
Purely rotational motion occurs if every particle in the body moves in a circle about a single line. This line is called
the axis of rotation. Then the radius vectors from the axis to all particles undergo the same angular displacement in
the same time. The axis of rotation need not go through the body. In general, any rotation can be specified
completely by the three angular displacements with respect to the rectangular-coordinate axes x, y, and z. Any
Rotation around a fixed axis 139

change in the position of the rigid body is thus completely described by three translational and three rotational
coordinates.
Any displacement of a rigid body may be arrived at by first subjecting the body to a displacement followed by a
rotation, or conversely, to a rotation followed by a displacement. We already know that for any collection of
particles—whether at rest with respect to one another, as in a rigid body, or in relative motion, like the exploding
fragments of a shell, the acceleration of the center of mass is given by

where M is the total mass of the system and acm is the acceleration of the center of mass. There remains the matter of
describing the rotation of the body about the center of mass and relating it to the external forces acting on the body.
The kinematics and dynamics of rotational motion around a single axis resemble the kinematics and dynamics of
translational motion; rotational motion around a single axis even has a work-energy theorem analogous to that of
particle dynamics.

Kinematics

Angular position
The figure shows a reference line, fixed in the body,
perpendicular to the rotation axis and rotating with the
body. The angular position of this line is the angle of
the line relative to a fixed direction, which we take as
the zero angular position. From geometry, we know
that θ is given by

Top view of a rotating system

Here s is the length of a circular arc that extends from the x-axis (the zero angular position) to the reference line, and
r is the radius of the circle.
An angle defined in this way is measured in radians (rad) rather than in revolutions (rev) or degrees. The radian,
being the ratio of two lengths has no dimensions. Because the circumference of a circle of radius r is 2πr, there are
2π radians in a complete circle:

Thus
Rotation around a fixed axis 140

We do not reset θ to zero with each complete rotation of the reference line about the rotation axis. If the reference
line completes two revolutions from the zero angular position, then the angular position θ of the line is
. [1]

Angular displacement
If the object in the figure rotates about the rotation axis as shown in
the figure, changing the angular position of the reference line from
θ1 to θ2, the body undergoes an angular displacement Δθ given by

Diagram of angular displacement.

This definition of angular displacement holds not only for the rigid body as a whole, but also for every particle
within that body, because the particles are all locked together.
If a body is in translational motion along the x-axis, its displacement Δx is either positive or negative, depending on
whether the body is moving in the positive or negative direction of the axis. Similarly, the angular displacement Δθ
of a rotating body is either positive or negative, according to the following convention: an angular displacement in
the counterclockwise direction is positive, and one in the clockwise direction is negative.[1]

Angular speed and angular velocity

The average angular speed is defined as the ratio of angular displacement to the time in which it occurs:

The sign of indicates the direction of rotation.

With differential calculus the instantaneous angular velocity ω(t) can be defined:

Angular velocity is the first derivative of angular position, just as velocity is the first derivative of position.
The angular velocity of a particle can be related to its translational velocity v, which depends on the distance from
the centre of rotation. Since θ = s/r and r is constant,

Thus v = rω.
Rotation around a fixed axis 141

The angular velocity is sometimes called the angular frequency. It can be deduced from the frequency, the number of
rotations in a given time.

Angular acceleration
A changing angular velocity indicates the presence of an angular acceleration, measured in rad s−2. The average
angular acceleration over a time interval Δt is given by

The instantaneous acceleration α(t) is given by

Thus, the angular acceleration is the first derivative of the angular velocity, just as acceleration is the first derivative
of velocity.
The translational acceleration of a point on the object rotating is given by

where r is the radius or distance from the centre of rotation. This is also the tangential component of acceleration: it
is tangential to the direction of motion of the point. If this component is 0, the motion is uniform circular motion, and
the velocity changes in direction only.
The radial acceleration (perpendicular to direction of motion) is given by

and is directed towards the center of the rotational motion.

Equations of kinematics
The five quantities angular displacement, initial angular velocity, final angular velocity, angular acceleration, and
time can be related by four equations of kinematics:

The angular acceleration is caused by the torque, which can have a positive or negative value in accordance with the
convention of positive and negative angular frequency. The ratio of torque and angular acceleration (how difficult it
is to start, stop, or otherwise change rotation) is given by the moment of inertia.

Moment of Inertia
Increasing the mass increases the moment of inertia, symbolized by , which is sometimes called the rotational
inertia of an object. But the distribution of the mass is more important, i.e. distributing the mass further from the
centre of rotation increases the moment of inertia by a greater degree. The moment of inertia is measured in kilogram
metre² (kg m²)
The energy required or released during rotation is the torque times the rotation angle; the energy stored in a rotating
object is one half of the moment of inertia times the square of the angular velocity. The power required for angular
acceleration is the torque times the angular velocity.
Rotation around a fixed axis 142

Dynamics

Torque
Torque τ is the twisting effect of a force F applied to a rotating object which is at position r from its axis of rotation.
Mathematically,

where × denotes the cross product. A net torque acting upon an object will produce an angular acceleration of the
object according to

just as F = ma in linear dynamics.

Angular Momentum
The angular momentum L is a measure of the difficulty of bringing a rotating object to rest. It is given by

Angular momentum is related to angular velocity by

just as p = mv in linear dynamics.

Torque and angular momentum are related according to

just as F = dp/dt in linear dynamics. In the absence of an external torque, the angular momentum of a body remains
constant. The conservation of angular momentum is notably demonstrated in figure skating: when pulling the arms
closer to the body during a spin, the moment of inertia is decreased, and so the angular velocity is increased.

Kinetic energy
The kinetic energy Krot due to the rotation of the body is given by

just as Ktrans = 1⁄2mv2 in linear dynamics.

Vector expression
The development above is a special case of general rotational motion. In the general case, angular displacement,
angular velocity, angular acceleration and torque are considered to be vectors.
An angular displacement is considered to be a vector pointing along the axis, of magnitude equal to that of .A
right-hand rule is used to find which way it points along the axis; if the fingers of the right hand are curled to point in
the way that the object rotated, then the thumb of the right hand can be pointed in the direction of the vector.
The angular velocity vector also points along the axis of rotation in the same way as the angular displacements it
causes. If a disk spins counterclockwise as seen from above, its angular velocity vector points upwards. Similarly,
the angular acceleration points along the axis of rotation in the same direction that the angular velocity would point if
the angular acceleration were maintained for a long time.
The torque vector points along the axis around which the torque tends to cause rotation. To maintain rotation around
a fixed axis, the total torque vector has to be along the axis, so that it only changes the magnitude and not the
direction of the angular velocity vector. In the case of a hinge, only the component of the torque vector along the axis
has effect on the rotation, other forces and torques are compensated by the structure.
Rotation around a fixed axis 143

Examples and applications

Constant angular speed

The simplest case of rotation around a fixed axis is that of constant angular speed. Then the total torque is zero. For
the example of the Earth rotating around its axis, there is very little friction. For a fan, the motor applies a torque to
compensate for friction. The angle of rotation is a linear function of time, which modulo 360° is a periodic function.
An example of this is the two-body problem with circular orbits.

Centripetal force
Internal tensile stress provides the centripetal force that keeps a spinning object together. A rigid body model
neglects the accompanying strain. If the body is not rigid this strain will cause it to change shape. This is expressed
as the object changing shape due to the "centrifugal force".
Celestial bodies rotating about each other often have elliptic orbits. The special case of a circular orbits is an
example of a rotation around a fixed axis: this axis is the line through the center of mass perpendicular to the plane
of motion. The centripetal force is provided by gravity, see also two-body problem. This usually also applies for a
spinning celestial body, so it need not be solid to keep together, unless the angular speed is too high in relation to its
density. (It will, however, tend to become oblate.) For example, a spinning celestial body of water must take at least
3 hours and 18 minutes to rotate, regardless of size, or the water will separate. If the density of the fluid is higher the
time can be less. See orbital period.

See also
• Fictitious force
• Centrifugal force
• Centripetal force
• artificial gravity by rotation
• axle
• carousel, Ferris wheel
• centrifuge
• circular motion
• Coriolis effect
• flywheel
• gyration
• revolutions per minute
• revolving door
• rigid body angular momentum
• rotational speed
• rotational symmetry
• spin
Rotation around a fixed axis 144

Further reading
Concepts of Physics Volume 1, 1st edition Seventh reprint by Harish Chandra Verma ISBN 81-7709-187-5

References
[1] Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl. Fundamentals of Physics Extended (7th ed.). ISBN 0471232319.

Parallel axis theorem

In physics, the parallel axis theorem or Huygens-Steiner theorem can be used to determine the moment of inertia
of a rigid body about any axis, given the moment of inertia of the object about the parallel axis through the object's
center of mass and the perpendicular distance between the axes.
The moment of inertia about the new axis z is given by:

where:
is the moment of inertia of the object about an axis passing through its centre of mass;
is the object's mass;
is the perpendicular distance between the two axes.
This rule can be applied with the stretch rule and perpendicular axis theorem to find moments of inertia for a variety
of shapes.
The parallel axes rule also applies to the second
moment of area (area moment of inertia) for a plane
region D:

Parallel axes rule for area moment of inertia.

where:
is the area moment of inertia of D relative to the parallel axis;
is the area moment of inertia of D relative to its centroid;
is the area of the plane region D;
is the distance from the new axis z to the centroid of the plane region D.
Note: The centroid of D coincides with the center of gravity (CG) of a physical plate with the same shape that has
constant density.
Parallel axis theorem 145

In classical mechanics
In classical mechanics, the Parallel axis theorem (also known as Huygens-Steiner theorem) can be generalized to
calculate a new inertia tensor Jij from an inertia tensor about a center of mass Iij when the pivot point is a
displacement a from the center of mass:

where

is the displacement vector from the center of mass to the new axis, and

is the Kronecker delta.

We can see that, for diagonal elements (when i = j), displacements perpendicular to the axis of rotation results in the
above simplified version of the parallel axis theorem.

See also
• Perpendicular axis theorem
• Stretch rule
• Jakob Steiner

References
• Parallel axis theorem [1]

References
[1] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ ParallelAxisTheorem. html
Perpendicular axis theorem 146

Perpendicular axis theorem

In physics, the perpendicular axis theorem (or plane figure theorem) can be used to determine the moment of
inertia of a rigid object that lies entirely within a plane, about an axis at right angles to the plane, given the moments
of inertia of the object about two perpendicular axes lying within the plane. The axes must all pass through a single
point in the plane.
Define perpendicular axes X, Y, and Z (which meet at origin O) so that the body lies in the XY plane, and the Z axis is
perpendicular to the plane of the body. Let
• IX be the moment of inertia of the body about the X axis;
• IY be the moment of inertia of the body about the Y axis; and
• IZ be the moment of inertia of the body about the Z axis.
The perpendicular axis theorem states that[1]

This rule can be applied with the parallel axis theorem and the stretch rule to find moments of inertia for a variety of
shapes.

Proof
Let p be a plane thin uniform lamina. Let be a mass element with perpendicular distance from an axis OZ
perpendicular to the plane and passing through O in the plane.
Let OX and OY be two perpendicular axes lying in the plane. Let be the perpendicular distance of from OX
and be the perpendicular distance of from OY, both in the plane. Let

be the moment of inertia of p about OX and

be the moment of inertia of p about OY. The moment of inertia of p about OZ is given by

See also
• Parallel axis theorem
• Stretch rule

References
[1] Paul A. Tipler (1976). "Ch. 12: Rotation of a Rigid Body about a Fixed Axis". Physics. Worth Publishers Inc.. ISBN 0-87901-041-X.
List of moment of inertia tensors 147

List of moment of inertia tensors

List of 3D inertia tensors
This list of moment of inertia tensors is given for principal axes of each object.

Description Figure Moment of inertia tensor

Solid sphere of radius

r and mass m

Hollow sphere of
radius r and mass m

Right circular cone

with radius r, height
h and mass m, about
the apex

Solid cuboid of width

w, height h, depth d,
and mass m

slender rod of length

l and mass m about
end

Slender rod of length

l and mass m about
center

Solid cylinder of
radius r, height h and
mass m
List of moment of inertia tensors 148

Thick-walled
cylindrical tube with
open ends, of inner
radius r1, outer radius
r2, length h and mass
m

See also
• Moment of inertia
• List of area moments of inertia
• The inertia tensor of a triangle in three-dimensional space
• The inertia tensor of a tetrahedron [1]

References
[1] http:/ / number-none. com/ blow/ inertia/ bb_inertia. doc

List of moments of inertia

The following is a list of moments of inertia. Mass moments of inertia have units of dimension mass × length2. It is
the rotational analogue to mass. It should not be confused with the second moment of area (area moment of inertia),
which is used in bending calculations. The following moments of inertia assume constant density throughout the
object.
NOTE: The axis of rotation is taken to be through the center of mass, unless otherwise specified.

Description Figure Moment(s) of inertia Comment

Thin cylindrical shell with open ends, This expression assumes

of radius r and mass m the shell thickness is
negligible. It is a special
case of the next object for
r1=r2. Also, a point mass
(m) at the end of a rod of
length r has this same
moment of inertia and the
value r is called the radius
of gyration.

Thick-walled cylindrical tube with With a density of ρ and the

[1]
open ends, of inner radius r1, outer same geometry
radius r2, length h and mass m

or when defining the normalized thickness tn = t/r and

letting r = r2,
then

Solid cylinder of radius r, height h This is a special case of the

and mass m previous object for r1=0.
List of moments of inertia 149

Thin, solid disk of radius r and mass This is a special case of the
m previous object for h=0.

Thin circular hoop of radius r and This is a special case of a

mass m torus for b=0. (See below.),
as well as of a thick-walled
cylindrical tube with open
ends, with r1=r2 and h=0.

Ball (solid) of radius r and mass m A sphere can be taken to

be made up of a stack of
infinitesimal thin, solid
discs, where the radius
differs from 0 to r.

Sphere (hollow) of radius r and mass Similar to the solid sphere,

m only this time considering
a stack of infinitesimal
thin, circular hoops.

Ellipsoid of semiaxes a, b, and c with —

axis of rotation a and mass m

Right circular cone with radius r, —

height h and mass m

Solid cuboid of height h, width w, For a similarly oriented

and depth d, and mass m cube with sides of length
, .

Thin rectangular plate of height h and —

of width w and mass m

Thin rectangular plate of height h and —

of width w and mass m
(Axis of rotation at the end of the
plate)

Rod of length L and mass m This expression assumes

that the rod is an infinitely
thin (but rigid) wire. This
is a special case of the
previous object for w = L
and h = 0.
List of moments of inertia 150

Rod of length L and mass m This expression assumes

(Axis of rotation at the end of the that the rod is an infinitely
rod) thin (but rigid) wire. This
is also a special case of the
thin rectangular plate with
axis of rotation at the end
of the plate: h = L and w =
0.

Torus of tube radius a, —

About a diameter:
cross-sectional radius b and mass m.
About the vertical axis:

Plane polygon with vertices , —

, , ..., and mass
uniformly distributed on its interior,
rotating about an axis perpendicular
to the plane and passing through the
origin.
Infinite disk with mass normally
distributed on two axes around the
axis of rotation (i.e.

Where : is the mass-density

as a function of x and y.)

See also
• Parallel axis theorem
• Perpendicular axis theorem
• List of area moments of inertia
• List of moment of inertia tensors

References
[1] Classical Mechanics - Moment of inertia of a uniform hollow cylinder (http:/ / www. livephysics. com/ problems-and-answers/
classical-mechanics/ find-moment-of-inertia-of-a-uniform-hollow-cylinder. html). LivePhysics.com. Retrieved on 2008-01-31.
Simple harmonic motion 151

Simple harmonic motion

In physics, simple harmonic motion (SHM) is the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator, a periodic motion that is
neither driven nor damped. A body in simple harmonic motion experiences a single force which is given by Hooke's
law; that is, the force is directly proportional to the displacement x and points in the opposite direction.
The motion is periodic: the body oscillates about an equilibrium position in a sinusoidal pattern. Each oscillation is
identical, and thus the period, frequency, and amplitude of the motion are constant. If the equilibrium position is
taken to be zero, the displacement x of the body at any time t is given by

where A is the amplitude, f is the frequency, and φ is the phase.

The frequency of the motion is determined by the intrinsic properties of the system (often the mass of the body and a
force constant), while the amplitude and phase are determined by the initial conditions (displacement and velocity)
of the system. The kinetic and potential energies of the system are also determined by these properties and
conditions.
Simple harmonic motion can serve as a mathematical model of a
variety of motions, such as the oscillation of a spring. Other
phenomena can be approximated by simple harmonic motion,
including the motion of a pendulum and molecular vibration.
Simple harmonic motion provides the basis of the characterization of
more complicated motions through the techniques of Fourier analysis.
Simple harmonic motion. In this moving graph,
the vertical axis represents the coordinate of the
particle (x in the equation), and the horizontal
axis represents time (t).

Introduction
A typical example of a system that
undergoes simple harmonic motion is an
idealized spring–mass system, which is a
mass attached to a spring. If the spring is
unstretched, there is no net force on the
mass (that is, the system is in mechanical
equilibrium). However, if the mass is
displaced from equilibrium, the spring will
exert a restoring force, which is a force that
tends to restore the mass to the equilibrium
position. In the case of the spring–mass
system, this force is the elastic force, which
is given by Hooke's Law,

Simple harmonic motion shown both in real space and phase space. The orbit is
where F is the restoring force, x is the
periodic. (Here the velocity and position axes have been reversed from the standard
displacement, and k is the spring constant. convention in order to align the two diagrams)
Simple harmonic motion 152

Any system that undergoes simple harmonic motion exhibits two key features.
1. When the system is displaced from equilibrium there must exist a restoring force that tends to restore it to
equilibrium.
2. The restoring force must be proportional to the displacement, or approximately so.
The spring-mass system satisfies both.
Once the mass is displaced it experiences a restoring force, accelerating it, causing it to start going back to the
equilibrium position. As it gets closer to equilibrium the restoring force decreases; at the equilibrium position the
restoring force is 0. However, at x = 0, the mass has some momentum due to the impulse of the force that has acted
on it; this causes the mass to shoot past the equilibrium position, in this case, compressing the spring. The restoring
force then tends to slow it down, until the velocity reaches 0, whereby it will attempt to reach equilibrium position
again.
As long as the system does not lose energy, the mass will continue to oscillate like so; thus, the motion is termed
periodic motion. Further analysis will show that in the case of the spring-mass system the motion is simple
harmonic.

Dynamics of simple harmonic motion

For oscillation in a single dimension, combining Newton's second law (F = m d2x/dt2) and Hooke's law (F = −kx, as
above) gives the second-order linear differential equation

where m is the mass of the body, x is its displacement from the mean position, and k is a constant.
The solutions to this differential equation are sinusoidal; one solution is

where A, ω, and φ are constants, and the equilibrium position is chosen to be the origin.[1] Each of these constants
represents an important physical property of the motion: A is the amplitude, ω = 2πf is the angular frequency, and φ
is the phase.[2]
Using the techniques of differential calculus,
the velocity and acceleration as a function of
time can be found:

Position, velocity and acceleration of a harmonic oscillator

Acceleration can also be expressed as a function of displacement:

Now since ma = −mω2x = −kx,

Then since ω = 2πf,

Simple harmonic motion 153

and since T = 1/f where T is the time period,

These equations demonstrate that period and frequency are independent of the amplitude and the initial phase of the
motion.

Energy of simple harmonic motion

The kinetic energy K of the system at time t is

and the potential energy is

The total mechanical energy of the system therefore has the constant value
Simple harmonic motion 154

Examples
Simple harmonic motion is exhibited in a variety of simple physical systems and
below are some examples.

Mass on a spring
A mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k exhibits simple harmonic motion
in space. The equation

An undamped spring-mass
system undergoes simple
harmonic motion.

shows that the period of oscillation is independent of both the amplitude and gravitational acceleration.
Simple harmonic motion 155

Uniform circular motion

Simple harmonic motion can in some cases be considered to be the one-dimensional projection of uniform circular
motion. If an object moves with angular velocity ω around a circle of radius r centered at the origin of the x-y plane,
then its motion along each coordinate is simple harmonic motion with amplitude r and angular frequency ω.

Mass on a simple pendulum

In the small-angle approximation, the motion of a simple pendulum is approximated
by simple harmonic motion. The period of a mass attached to a string of length ℓ
with gravitational acceleration g is given by

The motion of an undamped

Pendulum approximates to
simple harmonic motion if the
amplitude is very small.

This shows that the period of oscillation is independent of the amplitude and mass of the pendulum but not the
acceleration due to gravity (g), therefore a pendulum of the same length on the Moon would swing more slowly due
to the Moon's lower gravitational acceleration.
This approximation is accurate only in small angles because of the expression for angular acceleration being
proportional to the sine of position:

where I is the moment of inertia; in this case I = mℓ2. When θ is small, sin θ ≈ θ and therefore the expression
becomes

which makes angular acceleration directly proportional to θ, satisfying the definition of simple harmonic motion.
Simple harmonic motion 156

For a solution not relying on a small-angle approximation, see pendulum (mathematics).

See also
• Isochronous
• Uniform circular motion
• Complex harmonic motion
• Damping
• Harmonic oscillator

External links
• Simple Harmonic Motion [3] from HyperPhysics
• Java simulation of spring-mass oscillator [4]

References
[1] The choice of using a cosine in this equation is arbitrary in that

is also a valid solution, since in general cos(θ) = sin(θ − π/2). By using a trigonometric identity,

and so

is also a valid solution for appropriately chosen constants a and b.

[2] The maximum displacement (that is, the amplitude), xmax, occurs when cos(ωt + φ) = 1, and thus when xmax = A. So A is the amplitude.
Since

2π/ω is the period T. Then since T = 1/f, ω = 2πf is the angular velocity.
[3] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ shm. html
[4] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ SpringSHM. htm
Pendulum 157

Pendulum

"Simple gravity pendulum" assumes no air resistance and

no friction.

An animation of a pendulum showing the

velocity and acceleration vectors (v and A).

Ornamented
pendulum in
a French
Comtoise
clock

A pendulum is a weight suspended from a pivot so it can swing freely.[1]

When a pendulum is displaced from its resting equilibrium position, it is subject to a restoring force due to gravity
that will accelerate it back toward the equilibrium position. When released, the restoring force combined with the
pendulum's mass causes it to oscillate about the equilibrium position, swinging back and forth. The time for one
complete cycle, a left swing and a right swing, is called the period. From its discovery around 1602 by Galileo
Galilei the regular motion of pendulums was used for timekeeping, and was the world's most accurate timekeeping
technology until the 1930s.[2] Pendulums are used to regulate pendulum clocks, and are used in scientific instruments
such as accelerometers and seismometers. Historically they were used as gravimeters to measure the acceleration of
gravity in geophysical surveys, and even as a standard of length. The word 'pendulum' is new Latin, from the Latin
Pendulum 158

pendulus, meaning 'hanging'.[3]

The simple gravity pendulum[4] is an idealized mathematical model of a pendulum.[5] [6] [7] This is a weight (or
bob) on the end of a massless cord suspended from a pivot, without friction. When given an initial push, it will swing
back and forth at a constant amplitude. Real pendulums are subject to friction and air drag, so the amplitude of their
swings declines.

Period of oscillation
The period of swing of a simple gravity pendulum depends on its length, the acceleration of gravity, and to a small
extent on the maximum angle that the pendulum swings away from vertical, θ0, called the amplitude.[8] It is
independent of the mass of the bob. If the amplitude is limited to small swings, the period T of a simple pendulum,
the time taken for a complete cycle, is:[9]

where L is the length of the pendulum and g is the local acceleration of gravity.
For small swings, the period of swing is approximately the same for different size swings: that is, the period is
independent of amplitude. This property, called isochronism, is the reason pendulums are so useful for
timekeeping.[10] Successive swings of the pendulum, even if changing in amplitude, take the same amount of time.
This formula is strictly accurate only for tiny infinitesimal swings. For larger amplitudes, the period increases
gradually with amplitude so it is longer than given by equation (1). For example, at an amplitude of θ0 = 23° it is 1%
larger than given by (1). The true period cannot be represented by a closed formula but is given by an infinite
series:[11] [12]

The difference between this true period and the period for small swings (1) above is called the circular error.
Mathematically, for small swings the pendulum approximates a harmonic oscillator, and its motion approximates to
simple harmonic motion:[5]

Compound pendulum
The length L of the ideal simple pendulum above, used for calculating the period, is the distance from the pivot point
to the center of mass of the bob. For a real pendulum consisting of a swinging rigid body, called a compound
pendulum, the length is more difficult to define. A real pendulum swings with the same period as a simple
pendulum with a length equal to the distance from the pivot point to a point in the pendulum called the center of
oscillation.[13] This is located under the center of mass, at a distance called the radius of gyration, that depends on
the mass distribution along the pendulum. However, for the usual sort of pendulum in which most of the mass is
concentrated in the bob, the center of oscillation is close to the center of mass.[14]
Christiaan Huygens proved in 1673 that the pivot point and the center of oscillation are interchangeable.[15] This
means if any pendulum is turned upside down and swung from a pivot at the center of oscillation, it will have the
same period as before, and the new center of oscillation will be the old pivot point.
Pendulum 159

History
One of the earliest known uses of a pendulum was in the first century seismometer device of Han Dynasty China
scientist Zhang Heng.[16] Its function was to sway and activate one of a series of levers after being disturbed by the
tremor of an earthquake far away.[17] Released by the lever, a small ball would fall out of the urn-shaped device into
one of eight metal toad's mouths below, at the eight points of the compass, signifying the direction the earthquake
was located.[17]
Many sources claim that tenth century Egyptian astronomer Ibn Yunis used a pendulum for time measurement[18]
[19] [20] [21] [22]
, but other sources claim this was a myth started in 1684 by British historian Edward Bernard.[23] [24]
During the Renaissance, large pendulums were used as sources of power for manual reciprocating machines such as
saws, bellows, and pumps.[25] Leonardo da Vinci made many drawings of the motion of pendulums, though without
realizing its value for timekeeping.
Italian scientist Galileo Galilei was the first to study the properties of pendulums, beginning around 1602.[26] His
biographer and student, Vincenzo Viviani, claimed his interest had been sparked around 1582 by the swinging
motion of a chandelier in the Pisa cathedral.[27] Galileo discovered the crucial property that makes pendulums useful
as timekeepers, called isochronism; the period of the pendulum is approximately independent of the amplitude or
width of the swing.[28] He also found that the period is independent of the mass of the bob, and proportional to the
square root of the length of the pendulum. He first employed freeswinging pendulums in simple timing applications,
such as a metronome for musicians. A physician friend used it as a timer to take patients' pulse, the pulsilogium[26] .
In 1641 Galileo also conceived a design for a pendulum clock.[28] [29] The pendulum was the first harmonic
oscillator used by man.[28]
In 1656 the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens built the first pendulum clock.[30] This was a great improvement over
existing mechanical clocks; their best accuracy was increased from around 15 minutes a day to around 15 seconds a
day.[31] Pendulums spread over Europe as existing clocks were retrofitted with them.[32]
The English scientist Robert Hooke studied the conical pendulum around 1666, consisting of a pendulum that is free
to swing in two dimensions, with the bob rotating in a circle or ellipse.[33] He used the motions of this device as a
model to analyze the orbital motions of the planets.[34] Hooke suggested to Isaac Newton in 1679 that the
components of orbital motion consisted of inertial motion along a tangent direction plus an attractive motion in the
radial direction. This played a part in Newton's formulation of the law of universal gravitation.[35] [36] Robert Hooke
was also responsible for suggesting as early as 1666 that the pendulum could be used to measure the force of
gravity.[33]
During his expedition to Cayenne, French Guiana in 1671, Jean Richer found that a pendulum clock was 21⁄2
minutes per day slower at Cayenne than at Paris. From this he deduced that the force of gravity was lower at
Cayenne.[37] [38] In 1687, Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed that this was because the Earth was not a
true sphere but slightly oblate (flattened at the poles) from the effect of centrifugal force due to its rotation, causing
gravity to increase with latitude.[39] Portable pendulums began to be taken on voyages to distant lands, as precision
gravimeters to measure the acceleration of gravity g at different points on Earth, eventually resulting in accurate
models of the shape of the Earth.[40]
In 1673, Christiaan Huygens published his theory of the pendulum, Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu
pendulorum.[41] [42] He demonstrated that for an object to descend down a curve under gravity in the same time
interval, regardless of the starting point, it must follow a cycloid curve rather than the circular arc of a pendulum.[43]
This confirmed the earlier observation by Marin Mersenne that the period of a pendulum does vary with its
amplitude, and that Galileo's observation of isochronism was accurate only for small swings.[44] Huygens also solved
the issue of how to calculate the period of an arbitrarily shaped pendulum (called a compound pendulum),
discovering the center of oscillation, and its interchangeability with the pivot point.[45]
Pendulum 160

The existing clock movement, the verge escapement, made pendulums swing in very wide arcs of about 100°.[46]
Huygens showed this was a source of inaccuracy, causing the period to vary with amplitude changes caused by small
unavoidable variations in the clock's drive force.[47] To make its period isochronous, Huygens mounted
cycloidal-shaped metal 'cheeks' next to the pivot in his 1673 clock, that constrained the suspension cord and forced
the pendulum to follow a cycloid arc.[48] This solution didn't prove as practical as simply limiting the pendulum's
swing to small angles of a few degrees. The realization that only small swings were isochronous motivated the
development of the anchor escapement around 1670, which reduced the pendulum swing in clocks to 4°–6°.[46] [49]
During the 18th and 19th century, the pendulum clock's role as the most accurate timekeeper motivated much
practical research into improving pendulums. It was found that a major source of error was that the pendulum rod
expanded and contracted with changes in ambient temperature, changing the period of swing.[8] [50] This was solved
with the invention of temperature compensated pendulums, the mercury pendulum in 1721[51] and the gridiron
pendulum in 1726, reducing errors in precision pendulum clocks to a few seconds per week.[48]
The accuracy of gravity measurements made with pendulums was limited by the difficulty of finding the location of
their center of oscillation. Huygens had discovered in 1673 that a pendulum has the same period when hung from its
center of oscillation as when hung from its pivot,[15] and the distance between the two points was equal to the length
of a simple gravity pendulum of the same period.[13] In 1818 British Captain Henry Kater invented the reversible
Kater's pendulum[52] which used this principle, making possible very accurate measurements of gravity. For the next
century the reversible pendulum was the standard method of measuring absolute gravitational acceleration.
In 1851, Jean Bernard Léon Foucault showed that the plane of oscillation of a pendulum, like a gyroscope, tends to
stay constant regardless of the motion of the pivot, and that this could be used to demonstrate the rotation of the
Earth. He suspended a pendulum free to swing in two dimensions (later named the Foucault pendulum) from the
dome of the Panthéon in Paris. The length of the cord was 67 m. Once the pendulum was set in motion, the plane of
swing was observed to precess or rotate 360° clockwise in about 32 hours.[53] This was the first demonstration of the
Earth's rotation that didn't depend on astronomical observations,[54] and a 'pendulum mania' broke out, as Foucault
pendulums were displayed in many cities and attracted large crowds.[55] [56]
Around 1900 low thermal expansion materials began to be used for pendulum rods in the highest precision clocks
and other instruments, first invar, a nickel steel alloy, and later fused quartz, which made temperature compensation
trivial.[57] Precision pendulums were housed in low pressure tanks, which kept the air pressure constant to prevent
changes in the period due to changes in buoyancy of the pendulum due to changing atmospheric pressure.[57] The
accuracy of the best pendulum clocks topped out at around a second per year.[58] [59]
The timekeeping accuracy of the pendulum was exceeded by the quartz crystal oscillator, invented in 1921, and
quartz clocks, invented in 1927, replaced pendulum clocks as the world's best timekeepers,[2] although the French
Time Service continued using pendulum clocks in their official time standard ensemble until 1954.[60] Pendulum
gravimeters were superseded by "free fall" gravimeters in the 1950s,[61] but pendulum instruments continued to be
used into the 1970s.
Pendulum 161

Grandfather Mercury Gridiron Ellicott pendulum, Invar pendulum in low

clock pendulum pendulum pendulum another pressure tank in Riefler
temperature regulator clock, used as the
compensated type US time standard from
1909 to 1929

Use for time measurement

For 300 years, from its discovery around 1602 until development of the quartz clock in the 1930s, the pendulum was
the world's standard for accurate timekeeping.[2] [62] In addition to clock pendulums, freeswinging seconds
pendulums were widely used as precision timers in scientific experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. Pendulums
require great mechanical stability: a length change of only 0.02%, 0.2 millimeters in a grandfather clock pendulum,
will cause an error of a minute per week.[63]
Pendulum 162

Clock pendulums
Pendulums in clocks (see example at right) are usually made of a weight or bob
(b) suspended by a rod of wood or metal (a).[8] [64] To reduce air resistance
(which accounts for most of the energy loss in clocks)[65] the bob is traditionally
a smooth disk with a lens-shaped cross section, although in antique clocks it
often had carvings or decorations specific to the type of clock. In quality clocks
the bob is made as heavy as the suspension can support and the movement can
drive, since this improves the regulation of the clock (see Accuracy below). A
common weight for seconds pendulum bobs is 15 lbs. (6.8 kg). Instead of
hanging from a pivot, clock pendulums are usually supported by a short straight
spring (d) of flexible metal ribbon. This avoids the friction and 'play' caused by a
pivot, and the slight bending force of the spring merely adds to the pendulum's
restoring force. A few precision clocks have pivots of 'knife' blades resting on
agate plates. The impulses to keep the pendulum swinging are provided by an
arm hanging in back of the pendulum called the crutch, (e), which ends in a fork,
(f) whose prongs embrace the pendulum rod. The crutch is pushed back and forth
by the clock's escapement, (g,h).

Each time the pendulum swings through its center position, it releases one tooth
of the escape wheel (g). The wheel turns, and the tooth presses against one of the
pallets (h), giving the pendulum a short push. The clock's wheels, geared to the
escape wheel, move forward a fixed amount with each pendulum swing,
advancing the clock's hands.
The pendulum always has a means of adjusting the period, usually by an
Pendulum and anchor escapement
adjustment nut (c) under the bob which moves it up or down on the rod.[8] [66] from a grandfather clock
Moving the bob up decreases the pendulum's length, causing the pendulum to
swing faster and the clock to gain time. Some precision clocks have a small auxiliary adjustment weight on a
threaded shaft on the bob, to allow finer adjustment. Some precision and tower clocks use a tray attached to the
pendulum rod, to which small weights can be added or removed, to allow the rate to be adjusted without stopping the
clock.[67] [68]

The pendulum must be suspended from a rigid support.[8] [69] During operation, any elasticity in the support will
allow tiny imperceptible swaying motions of the support, which disturbs the clock's period, resulting in error.
Pendulum clocks should be attached firmly to a sturdy wall.
The most common pendulum length in quality clocks, which is always used in grandfather clocks, is the seconds
pendulum, about 1 meter (39 inches) long. In mantel clocks, half-second pendulums, 25 cm (10 in) long, or shorter,
are used. Only a few large tower clocks use longer pendulums, the 1.5 second pendulum, 2.25 m (7 ft) long, or
occasionally the two-second pendulum, 4 m (13 ft).[8] [70]

Temperature compensation
The largest source of error in early pendulums was slight changes in length due to thermal expansion and contraction
of the pendulum rod with changes in ambient temperature.[71] This was discovered when people noticed that
pendulum clocks ran slower in summer, by as much as a minute per week[50] [72] (one of the first was Godefroy
Wendelin, as reported by Huygens in 1658)[73] and was first studied by Jean Picard in 1669.[74] A pendulum with a
steel rod will expand by about 11.3 parts per million with each degree Celsius increase (6.3 µin/(in·°F)), causing it to
lose about 0.27 seconds per day, or 16 seconds per day for a 60 °F (33 °C) change. Wood rods expand less, losing
only about 6 seconds per day for a 60 °F change, which is why quality clocks often had wooden pendulum rods.
Pendulum 163

Mercury pendulum

The first device to compensate for this error was the mercury pendulum, invented
by George Graham[51] in 1721.[8] [72] The liquid metal mercury expands in
volume with temperature. In a mercury pendulum, the pendulum's weight (bob) is
made of a container of mercury. With a temperature rise, the pendulum rod gets
longer, but the mercury also expands and its surface level rises slightly in the
container, moving its center of mass closer to the pendulum pivot. By using the
correct height of mercury in the container these two effects will cancel, leaving
the pendulum's center of mass, and its period, unchanged with temperature. Its
main disadvantage was that when the temperature changed, the rod would come to
the new temperature quickly but the mass of mercury might take a day or two to
reach the new temperature, causing the rate to deviate during that time.[75] To
improve thermal accommodation several thin containers were often used, made of
metal. Mercury pendulums were the standard used in precision clocks into the
1900s.[76]

Gridiron pendulum

The most widely used compensated pendulum was the gridiron pendulum,
invented in 1726 by John Harrison.[8] [72] [75] This consists of alternating rods of
two different metals, one with lower thermal expansion (CTE), steel, and one with
higher thermal expansion, zinc or brass. The rods are connected by a frame as Mercury pendulum in Howard
astronomical regulator clock, 1887
shown, so that an increase in length of the zinc rods pushes the bob up, shortening
the pendulum. With a temperature increase, the low expansion steel rods make the
pendulum longer, while the high expansion zinc rods make it shorter. By making the rods of the correct lengths, the
greater expansion of the zinc cancels out the expansion of the steel rods which have a greater combined length, and
the pendulum stays the same length with temperature.

Zinc-steel gridiron pendulums are made with 5 rods, but the thermal expansion of brass is closer to steel, so
brass-steel gridirons usually require 9 rods. Gridiron pendulums adjust to temperature changes faster than mercury
pendulums, but scientists found that friction of the rods sliding in their holes in the frame caused gridiron pendulums
to adjust in a series of tiny jumps.[75] In high precision clocks this caused the clock's rate to change suddenly with
each jump. Later it was found that zinc is subject to creep. For these reasons mercury pendulums were used in the
highest precision clocks, but gridirons were used in quality regulator clocks. They became so associated with quality
that, to this day, many ordinary clock pendulums have decorative 'fake' gridirons that don't actually have any
temperature compensation function.

Invar and fused quartz

Around 1900 low thermal expansion materials were developed which, when used as pendulum rods, made elaborate
temperature compensation unnecessary.[8] [72] These were only used in a few of the highest precision clocks before
the pendulum became obsolete as a time standard. In 1896 Charles Edouard Guillaume invented the nickel-steel
alloy Invar. This has a CTE of around 0.5 µin/(in·°F), resulting in pendulum temperature errors over 71 °F of only
1.3 seconds per day, and this residual error could be compensated to zero with a few centimeters of aluminum under
the pendulum bob[2] [75] (this can be seen in the Riefler clock image above). Invar pendulums were first used in 1898
in the Riefler regulator clock[77] which achieved accuracy of 15 milliseconds per day. Suspension springs of Elinvar
were used to eliminate temperature variation of the spring's restoring force on the pendulum. Later fused quartz was
used which had even lower CTE. These materials are the choice for modern high accuracy pendulums.[78]
Pendulum 164

Atmospheric pressure
The presence of air around the pendulum has three effects on the period:[57] [79]
• By Archimedes principle the effective weight of the bob is reduced by the buoyancy of the air it displaces, while
the mass (inertia) remains the same, reducing the pendulum's acceleration during its swing and increasing the
period. This depends on the density but not the shape of the pendulum.
• The pendulum carries an amount of air with it as it swings, and the mass of this air increases the inertia of the
pendulum, again reducing the acceleration and increasing the period.
• Viscous air resistance slows the pendulum's velocity. This has a negligible effect on the period, but dissipates
energy, reducing the amplitude. This reduces the pendulum's Q factor, requiring a stronger drive force from the
clock's mechanism to keep it moving, which causes increased disturbance to the period.
So increases in barometric pressure slow the pendulum slightly due to the first two effects, by about 0.11 seconds per
day per kilopascal (0.37 seconds per day per inch of mercury or 0.015 seconds per day per torr).[57] Researchers
using pendulums to measure the acceleration of gravity had to correct the period for the air pressure at the altitude of
measurement, computing the equivalent period of a pendulum swinging in vacuum. A pendulum clock was first
operated in a constant-pressure tank by Friedrich Tiede in 1865 at the Berlin Observatory,[80] [81] and by 1900 the
highest precision clocks were mounted in tanks that were kept at a constant pressure to eliminate changes in
atmospheric pressure. Alternately, in some a small aneroid barometer mechanism attached to the pendulum
compensated for this effect.

Gravity
Pendulums are affected by changes in gravitational acceleration, which varies by as much as 0.5% at different
locations on Earth, so pendulum clocks have to be recalibrated after a move. Even moving a pendulum clock to the
top of a tall building can cause it to lose measurable time from the reduction in gravity.

Accuracy of pendulums as timekeepers

The timekeeping elements in all clocks, which include pendulums, balance wheels, the quartz crystals used in quartz
watches, and even the vibrating atoms in atomic clocks, are in physics called harmonic oscillators. The reason
harmonic oscillators are used in clocks is that they vibrate or oscillate at a specific resonant frequency or period and
resist oscillating at other rates. However the resonant frequency is not infinitely 'sharp'. Around the resonant
frequency there is a narrow natural band of frequencies (or periods), called the resonance width or bandwidth, where
the harmonic oscillator will oscillate.[82] [83] In a clock, the actual frequency of the pendulum may vary randomly
within this bandwidth in response to disturbances, but at frequencies outside this band, the clock will not function at
all.
Pendulum 165

Q factor
The measure of a harmonic oscillator's resistance to
disturbances to its oscillation period is a dimensionless
parameter called the Q factor equal to the resonant
frequency divided by the bandwidth.[83] [84] The higher
the Q, the smaller the bandwidth, and the more constant
the frequency or period of the oscillator for a given
disturbance.[85] The reciprocal of the Q is roughly
proportional to the limiting accuracy achievable by a
harmonic oscillator as a time standard.[86]

The Q is related to how long it takes for the oscillations

of an oscillator to die out. The Q of a pendulum can be
measured by counting the number of oscillations it
takes for the amplitude of the pendulum's swing to
decay to 1/e = 36.8% of its initial swing, and
multiplying by 2π.

In a clock, the pendulum must receive pushes from the

clock's movement to keep it swinging, to replace the
energy the pendulum loses to friction. These pushes,
applied by a mechanism called the escapement, are the
A Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, the most accurate
main source of disturbance to the pendulum's motion.
pendulum clock ever made, at the NIST museum, Gaithersburg, MD,
The Q is equal to 2π times the energy stored in the USA. It kept time with two synchronized pendulums. The master
pendulum, divided by the energy lost to friction during pendulum in the vacuum tank (left) swung free of virtually any
each oscillation period, which is the same as the energy disturbance, and controlled the slave pendulum in the clock case
(right) which performed the impulsing and timekeeping tasks. Its
added by the escapement each period. It can be seen
accuracy was about a second per year.
that the smaller the fraction of the pendulum's energy
that is lost to friction, the less energy needs to be
added, the less the disturbance from the escapement, the more 'independent' the pendulum is of the clock's
mechanism, and the more constant its period is. The '\Q of a pendulum is given by:

where M is the mass of the bob, ω = 2π/T is the pendulum's radian frequency of oscillation, and Γ is the frictional
damping force on the pendulum per unit velocity.
ω is fixed by the pendulum's period, and M is limited by the load capacity and rigidity of the suspension. So the Q of
clock pendulums is increased by minimizing frictional losses (Γ). Precision pendulums are suspended on low friction
pivots consisting of triangular shaped 'knife' edges resting on agate plates. Around 99% of the energy loss in a
freeswinging pendulum is due to air friction, so mounting a pendulum in a vacuum tank can increase the Q, and thus
the accuracy, by a factor of 100.[87]
The Q of pendulums ranges from several thousand in an ordinary clock to several hundred thousand for precision
regulator pendulums swinging in vacuum.[88] A quality home pendulum clock might have a Q of 10,000 and an
accuracy of 10 seconds per month. The most accurate commercially produced pendulum clock was the
Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock, invented in 1921.[2] [58] [89] [90] [91] Its Invar master pendulum swinging
in a vacuum tank had a Q of 110,000[88] and an error rate of around a second per year.[58]
This explains why pendulums are more accurate timekeepers than balance wheels, with Q around 100-300, but less
accurate than quartz crystals with Q of 105–106.[2] [88]
Pendulum 166

Escapement
Pendulums (unlike, for example, quartz crystals) have a low enough Q that the disturbance caused by the impulses to
keep them moving is generally the limiting factor on their timekeeping accuracy. Therefore the design of the
escapement has a large effect on the accuracy of a clock pendulum. If the impulses given to the pendulum by the
escapement each swing could be exactly identical, the response of the pendulum would be identical, and its period
would be constant. This is not achievable; unavoidable random fluctuations in the force due to friction of the clock's
pallets, lubrication variations, and changes in the torque provided by the clock's power source as it runs down, mean
that the force of the impulse applied by the escapement varies.
If these variations in the escapement's force cause changes in the pendulum's width of swing (amplitude), this will
cause corresponding slight changes in the period, since (as discussed at top) a pendulum with a finite swing is not
quite isochronous. Therefore, the goal of traditional escapement design is to apply the force with the proper profile,
and at the correct point in the pendulum's cycle, so force variations have no effect on the pendulum's amplitude. This
is called an isochronous escapement.

The Airy condition

In 1826 British astronomer George Airy proved what clockmakers had known for centuries; that the disturbing effect
of a drive force on the period of a pendulum is smallest if given as a short impulse as the pendulum passes through
its bottom equilibrium position.[2] Specifically, he proved that if a pendulum is driven by an impulse that is
symmetrical about its bottom equilibrium position, the pendulum's amplitude will be unaffected by changes in the
drive force; that is it will be isochronous.[92] The most accurate escapements, such as the deadbeat, approximately
satisfy this condition.[93]

Gravity measurement
The presence of the acceleration of gravity g in the periodicity equation (1) for a pendulum means that the local
gravitational acceleration of the Earth can be calculated from the period of a pendulum. A pendulum can therefore be
used as a gravimeter to measure the local gravity, which varies by about 0.5% at different points on the surface of the
Earth. The pendulum in a clock is disturbed by the pushes it receives from the clock movement, so freeswinging
pendulums were used, and were the standard instruments of gravimetry up to the 1930s.
The difference between clock pendulums and gravimeter pendulums is that to measure gravity, the pendulum's
length as well as its period has to be measured. The period of freeswinging pendulums could be found to great
precision by comparing their swing with a precision clock that had been adjusted to keep correct time by the passage
of stars overhead. In the early measurements, a weight on a cord was suspended in front of the clock pendulum, and
its length adjusted until the two pendulums swung in exact synchronism. Then the length of the cord was measured.
From the length and the period, g could be calculated from (1).

The seconds pendulum

The seconds pendulum, a pendulum with a period of two seconds so each swing takes one second, was widely used
to measure gravity, because most precision clocks had seconds pendulums. By the late 1600s, the length of the
seconds pendulum became the standard measure of the strength of gravitational acceleration at a location. By 1700
its length had been measured with submillimeter accuracy at several cities in Europe. For a seconds pendulum, g is
proportional to its length:
.
Pendulum 167

Early observations
• 1620: British scientist Francis Bacon was one of the first to propose using a pendulum to measure gravity,
suggesting taking one up a mountain to see if gravity varies with altitude.[94]
• 1644: Even before the pendulum clock, French priest Marin Mersenne first determined the length of the seconds
pendulum was 39.1 inches (993 mm), by comparing the swing of a pendulum to the time it took a weight to fall a
measured distance.
• 1669: Jean Picard determined the length of the seconds pendulum at Paris, using a 1-inch (25 mm) copper ball
suspended by an aloe fiber, obtaining 39.09 inches (993 mm).[95]
• 1672: The first observation that gravity varied at different points on Earth was made in 1672 by Jean Richer, who
took a pendulum clock to Cayenne, French Guiana and found that it lost 21⁄2 minutes per day; its seconds
pendulum had to be shortened by 11⁄4 lignes (2.6 mm) shorter than at Paris, to keep correct time.[96] [97] In 1687
Isaac Newton in Principia Mathematica showed this was because the Earth had a slightly oblate shape (flattened
at the poles) caused by the centrifugal force of its rotation, so gravity increased with latitude.[97] From this time
on, pendulums began to be taken to distant lands to measure gravity, and tables were compiled of the length of the
seconds pendulum at different locations on Earth. In 1743 Alexis Claude Clairaut created the first hydrostatic
model of the Earth, Clairaut's formula,[95] which allowed the ellipticity of the Earth to be calculated from gravity
measurements. Progressively more accurate models of the shape of the Earth followed.
• 1687: Newton experimented with pendulums (described in Principia) and found that equal length pendulums with
bobs made of different materials had the same period, proving that the gravitational force on different substances
was exactly proportional to their mass (inertia).
• 1737: French mathematician Pierre Bouguer made a sophisticated
series of pendulum observations in the Andes mountains, Peru.[98]
He used a copper pendulum bob in the shape of a double pointed
cone suspended by a thread; the bob could be reversed to
eliminate the effects of nonuniform density. He calculated the
length to the center of oscillation of thread and bob combined,
instead of using the center of the bob. He corrected for thermal
expansion of the measuring rod and barometric pressure, giving
his results for a pendulum swinging in vacuum. Bouguer swung
the same pendulum at three different elevations, from sea level to
the top of the high Peruvian altiplano. Gravity should fall with the
inverse square of the distance from the center of the Earth.
Bouguer found that it fell off slower, and correctly attributed the
'extra' gravity to the gravitational field of the huge Peruvian
plateau. From the density of rock samples he calculated an
estimate of the effect of the altiplano on the pendulum, and
comparing this with the gravity of the Earth was able to make the
first rough estimate of the density of the Earth. Borda & Cassini's 1792 measurement of the length
of the seconds pendulum
• 1747: Daniel Bernoulli showed how to correct for the lengthening
of the period due to a finite angle of swing θ0 by using the first
order correction θ02/16, giving the period of a pendulum with an infinitesimal swing.[98]
• 1792: To define a pendulum standard of length for use with the new metric system, in 1792 Jean-Charles de
Borda and Jean-Dominique Cassini made a precise measurement of the seconds pendulum at Paris. They used a
11⁄2-inch (14 mm) platinum ball suspended by a 12-foot (3.7 m) iron wire. Their main innovation was a technique
called the "method of coincidences" which allowed the period of pendulums to be compared with great precision.
(Bouguer had also used this method). The time interval ΔT between the recurring instants when the two
Pendulum 168

pendulums swung in synchronism was timed. From this the difference between the periods of the pendulums, T1
and T2, could be calculated:

• 1821: Francesco Carlini made pendulum observations on top of Mount Cenis, Italy, from which, using methods
similar to Bouguer's, he calculated the density of the Earth.[99] He compared his measurements to an estimate of
the gravity at his location assuming the mountain wasn't there, calculated from previous nearby pendulum
measurements at sea level. His measurements showed 'excess' gravity, which he allocated to the effect of the
mountain. Modeling the mountain as a segment of a sphere 11 miles (18 km) in diameter and 1 mile (1.6 km)
high, from rock samples he calculated its gravitational field, and estimated the density of the Earth at 4.39 times
that of water. Later recalculations by others gave values of 4.77 and 4.95, illustrating the uncertainties in these
geographical methods

Kater's pendulum

A Kater's Measuring gravity with Kater's reversible

pendulum pendulum, from Kater's 1818 paper

The precision of the early gravity measurements above was limited by the difficulty of measuring the length of the
pendulum, L . L was the length of an idealized simple gravity pendulum (described at top), which has all its mass
concentrated in a point at the end of the cord. In 1673 Huygens had shown that the period of a real pendulum (called
a compound pendulum) was equal to the period of a simple pendulum with a length equal to the distance between the
pivot point and a point called the center of oscillation, located under the center of gravity, that depends on the mass
distribution along the pendulum. But there was no accurate way of determining the center of oscillation in a real
pendulum.
To get around this problem, the early researchers above approximated an ideal simple pendulum as closely as
possible by using a metal sphere suspended by a light wire or cord. If the wire was light enough, the center of
oscillation was close to the center of gravity of the ball, at its geometric center. This "ball and wire" type of
pendulum wasn't very accurate, because it didn't swing as a rigid body, and the elasticity of the wire caused its length
to change slightly as the pendulum swung.
However Huygens had also proved that in any pendulum, the pivot point and the center of oscillation were
interchangeable.[15] That is, if a pendulum were turned upside down and hung from its center of oscillation, it would
have the same period as it did in the previous position, and the old pivot point would be the new center of oscillation.
Pendulum 169

British physicist and army captain Henry Kater in 1817 realized that Huygens' principle could be used to find the
length of a simple pendulum with the same period as a real pendulum.[52] If a pendulum was built with a second
adjustable pivot point near the bottom so it could be hung upside down, and the second pivot was adjusted until the
periods when hung from both pivots were the same, the second pivot would be at the center of oscillation, and the
distance between the two pivots would be the length of a simple pendulum with the same period.
Kater built a reversible pendulum (shown at right) consisting of a brass bar with two opposing pivots made of short
triangular "knife" blades (a) near either end. It could be swung from either pivot, with the knife blades supported on
agate plates. Rather than make one pivot adjustable, he attached the pivots a meter apart and instead adjusted the
periods with a moveable weight on the pendulum rod (b,c). In operation, the pendulum is hung in front of a precision
clock, and the period timed, then turned upside down and the period timed again. The weight is adjusted with the
adjustment screw until the periods are equal. Then putting this period and the distance between the pivots into
equation (1) gives the gravitational acceleration g very accurately.
Kater timed the swing of his pendulum using the "method of coincidences" and measured the distance between the
two pivots with a microscope. After applying corrections for the finite amplitude of swing, the buoyancy of the bob,
the barometric pressure and altitude, and temperature, he obtained a value of 39.13929 inches for the seconds
pendulum at London, in vacuum, at sea level, at 62 °F. The largest variation from the mean of his 12 observations
was 0.00028 in.[100] representing a precision of gravity measurement of 7×10−6 (7 mGal or 70 µm/s2). Kater's
measurement was used as Britain's official standard of length (see below) from 1824 to 1855.
Reversible pendulums (known technically as "convertible" pendulums) employing Kater's principle were used for
absolute gravity measurements into the 1930s.

Later pendulum gravimeters

The increased accuracy made possible by Kater's pendulum helped make gravimetry a standard part of geodesy.
Since the exact location (latitude and longitude) of the 'station' where the gravity measurement was made was
necessary, gravity measurements became part of surveying, and pendulums were taken on the great geodetic surveys
of the 18th century, particularly the Great Trigonometric Survey of India.
• Invariable pendulums: Kater introduced the idea
of relative gravity measurements, to supplement the
absolute measurements made by a Kater's
pendulum.[101] Comparing the gravity at two
different points was an easier process than
measuring it absolutely by the Kater method. All
that was necessary was to time the period of an
ordinary (single pivot) pendulum at the first point,
then transport the pendulum to the other point and
time its period there. Since the pendulum's length
was constant, from (1) the ratio of the gravitational
accelerations was equal to the square root of the Measuring gravity with an invariable pendulum, Madras, India, 1821
ratio of the periods, and no precision length
measurements were necessary. So once the gravity had been measured absolutely at some central station, by the
Kater or other accurate method, the gravity at other points could be found by swinging pendulums at the central
station and then taking them to the nearby point. Kater made up a set of "invariable" pendulums, with only one
knife edge pivot, which were taken to many countries after first being swung at a central station at Kew
Observatory, UK.

• Airy's coal pit experiments: Starting in 1826, using methods similar to Bouguer, British astronomer George Airy
attempted to determine the density of the Earth by pendulum gravity measurements at the top and bottom of a
Pendulum 170

coal mine.[102] [103] The gravitational force below the surface of the Earth decreases rather than increasing with
depth, because by Gauss's law the mass of the spherical shell of crust above the subsurface point does not
contribute to the gravity. The 1826 experiment was aborted by the flooding of the mine, but in 1854 he conducted
an improved experiment at the Harton coal mine, using seconds pendulums swinging on agate plates, timed by
precision chronometers synchronized by an electrical circuit. He found the lower pendulum was slower by 2.24
seconds per day. This meant that the gravitational acceleration at the bottom of the mine, 1250 ft below the
surface, was 1/14,000 less than it should have been from the inverse square law; that is the attraction of the
spherical shell was 1/14,000 of the attraction of the Earth. From samples of surface rock he estimated the mass of
the spherical shell of crust, and from this estimated that the density of the Earth was 6.565 times that of water.
Von Sterneck attempted to repeat the experiment in 1882 but found inconsistent results.
• Repsold-Bessel pendulum: It was time-consuming and error-prone to repeatedly swing the
Kater's pendulum and adjust the weights until the periods were equal. Friedrich Bessel
showed in 1835 that this was unnecessary.[104] As long as the periods were close together, the
gravity could be calculated from the two periods and the center of gravity of the
pendulum.[105] So the reversible pendulum didn't need to be adjustable, it could just be a bar
with two pivots. Bessel also showed that if the pendulum was made symmetrical in form
about its center, but was weighted internally at one end, the errors due to air drag would
cancel out. Further, another error due to the finite diameter of the knife edges could be made
to cancel out if they were interchanged between measurements. Bessel didn't construct such a
pendulum, but in 1864 Adolf Repsold, under contract by the Swiss Geodetic Commission
made a pendulum along these lines. The Repsold pendulum was about 56 cm long and had a
period of about 3⁄4 second. It was used extensively by European geodetic agencies, and with
the Kater pendulum in the Survey of India. Similar pendulums of this type were designed by
Charles Pierce and C. Defforges.

Repsold
pendulum, 1864
Pendulum 171

• Von Sterneck and Mendenhall gravimeters: In

1887 Austro-Hungarian scientist Robert von
Sterneck developed a small gravimeter pendulum
mounted in a temperature-controlled vacuum tank to
eliminate the effects of temperature and air pressure.
The pendulum had a half-second period, and was
about 25 cm long. It was nonreversible, so it was
used for relative gravity measurements, but its small
size made the apparatus small and portable. The
period of the pendulum was picked off by reflecting
the image of an electrical spark created by a
precision chronometer off a mirror mounted at the
top of the pendulum rod. The Von Sterneck
instrument, and a similar instrument developed by
Thomas C. Mendenhall of the US Coast and
Geodetic Survey in 1890,[106] were used extensively Pendulums used in Mendenhall gravimeter, 1890

for surveys into the 1920s.

The Mendenhall pendulum was actually a more accurate timekeeper than the highest precision clocks of the
time, and as the 'world's best clock' it was used by A. A. Michelson in his 1924 measurements of the speed of
light on Mt. Wilson, California.[106]
• Double pendulum gravimeters: Starting in 1875, the increasing accuracy of pendulum measurements revealed
another source of error in existing instruments: the swing of the pendulum caused a slight swaying of the tripod
stand used to support portable pendulums, introducing error. In 1875 Charles S Peirce calculated that
measurements of the length of the seconds pendulum made with the Repsold instrument required a correction of
0.2 mm due to this error.[107] In 1880 C. Defforges used a Michelson interferometer to measure the sway of the
stand dynamically, and interferometers were added to the standard Mendenhall apparatus to calculate sway
corrections.[108] A method of preventing this error was first suggested in 1877 by Hervé Faye and advocated by
Peirce, Cellérier and Furtwangler: mount two identical pendulums on the same support, swinging with the same
amplitude, 180° out of phase. The opposite motion of the pendulums would cancel out any sideways forces on the
support. The idea was opposed due to its complexity, but by the turn of the century the Von Sterneck device and
other instruments were modified to swing multiple pendulums simultaneously.
• Gulf gravimeter: One of the last and most accurate
pendulum gravimeters was the apparatus developed
in 1929 by the Gulf Research and Development
Co.[109] [110] It used two pendulums made of fused
quartz, each 10.7 inches (272 mm) in length with a
period of 0.89 second, swinging on pyrex knife edge
pivots, 180° out of phase. They were mounted in a
permanently sealed temperature and humidity
controlled vacuum chamber. Stray electrostatic
charges on the quartz pendulums had to be
discharged by exposing them to a radioactive salt
before use. The period was detected by reflecting a
light beam from a mirror at the top of the pendulum,
Quartz pendulums used in Gulf gravimeter, 1929
Pendulum 172

recorded by a chart recorder and compared to a precision crystal oscillator calibrated against the WWV radio time
signal. This instrument was accurate to within (0.3–0.5)×10−7 (30–50 microgals or 3–5 nm/s2).[109] It was used
into the 1960s.
Relative pendulum gravimeters were superseded by the simpler LaCoste zero-length spring gravimeter, invented in
1934 by Lucien LaCoste.[106] Absolute (reversible) pendulum gravimeters were replaced in the 1950s by free fall
gravimeters, in which a weight is allowed to fall in a vacuum tank and its acceleration is measured by an optical
interferometer.[61]

Standard of length
Because the acceleration of gravity is constant at a given point on Earth, the period of a simple pendulum at a given
location depends only on its length. Additionally, gravity varies only slightly at different locations. Almost from the
pendulum's discovery until the early 19th century, this property led scientists to suggest using a pendulum of a given
period as a standard of length.
Until the 19th century, countries based their systems of length measurement on prototypes, metal bar primary
standards, such as the standard yard in Britain kept at the Houses of Parliament, and the standard toise in France,
kept at Paris. These were vulnerable to damage or destruction over the years, and because of the difficulty of
comparing prototypes, the same unit often had different lengths in distant towns, creating opportunities for fraud.[111]
Enlightenment scientists argued for a length standard that was based on some property of nature that could be
determined by measurement, creating an indestructible, universal standard. The period of pendulums could be
measured very precisely by timing them with clocks that were set by the stars. A pendulum standard amounted to
defining the unit of length by the gravitational force of the Earth, for all intents constant, and the second, which was
defined by the rotation rate of the Earth, also constant. The idea was that anyone, anywhere on Earth, could recreate
the standard by constructing a pendulum that swung with the defined period and measuring its length.
Virtually all proposals were based on the seconds pendulum, in which each swing (a half period) takes one second,
which is about a meter (39 inches) long, because by the late 1600s it had become a standard for measuring gravity
(see previous section). By the 1700s its length had been measured with sub-millimeter accuracy at a number of cities
in Europe and around the world.
The initial attraction of the pendulum length standard was that it was believed (by early scientists such as Huygens
and Wren) that gravity was constant over the Earth's surface, so a given pendulum had the same period at any point
on Earth.[111] So the length of the standard pendulum could be measured at any location, and would not be tied to
any given nation or region; it would be a truly democratic, worldwide standard. Although Richer found in 1672 that
gravity varies at different points on the globe, the idea of a pendulum length standard remained popular, because it
was found that gravity only varies with latitude. Gravitational acceleration increases smoothly from the equator to
the poles, due to the oblate shape of the Earth. So at any given latitude (east-west line), gravity was constant enough
that the length of a seconds pendulum was the same within the measurement capability of the 18th century. So the
unit of length could be defined at a given latitude and measured at any point at that latitude. For example, a
pendulum standard defined at 45° north latitude, a popular choice, could be measured in parts of France, Italy,
Croatia, Serbia, Romania, Russia, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, the United States and Canada. In addition, it could
be recreated at any location at which the gravitational acceleration had been accurately measured.
By the mid 19th century, increasingly accurate pendulum measurements by Edward Sabine and Thomas Young
revealed that gravity, and thus the length of any pendulum standard, varied measurably with local geologic features
such as mountains and dense subsurface rocks.[112] So a pendulum length standard had to be defined at a single point
on Earth and could only be measured there. This took much of the appeal from the concept, and efforts to adopt
pendulum standards were abandoned.
Pendulum 173

Early proposals
One of the first to suggest defining length with a pendulum was Flemish scientist Isaac Beeckman[113] who in 1631
recommended making the seconds pendulum "the invariable measure for all people at all times in all places".[114]
Marin Mersenne, who first measured the seconds pendulum in 1644, also suggested it. The first official proposal for
a pendulum standard was made by the British Royal Society in 1660, advocated by Christiaan Huygens and Ole
Rømer, basing it on Mersenne's work,[115] and Huygens in Horologium Oscillatorum proposed a "horary foot"
defined as 1/3 of the seconds pendulum. Christopher Wren was another early supporter. The idea of a pendulum
standard of length must have been familiar to people as early as 1663, because Samuel Butler satirizes it in
Hudibras:[116]
Upon the bench I will so handle ‘em
That the vibration of this pendulum
Shall make all taylors’ yards of one
Unanimous opinion
In 1671 Jean Picard proposed a pendulum defined 'universal foot' in his influential Mesure de la Terre.[117] Gabriel
Mouton around 1670 suggested defining the toise either by a seconds pendulum or a minute of terrestrial degree. A
plan for a complete system of units based on the pendulum was advanced in 1675 by Italian polymath Tito Livio
Burratini. In France in 1747, geographer Charles Marie de la Condamine proposed defining length by a seconds
pendulum at the equator; since at this location a pendulum's swing wouldn't be distorted by the Earth's rotation.
British politicians James Steuart (1780) and George Skene Keith were also supporters.
By the end of the 18th century, when many nations were reforming their weight and measure systems, the seconds
pendulum was the leading choice for a new definition of length, advocated by prominent scientists in several major
nations. In 1790, then US Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed to Congress a comprehensive decimalized
US 'metric system' based on the seconds pendulum at 38° North latitude, the mean latitude of the United States.[118]
No action was taken on this proposal. In Britain the leading advocate of the pendulum was politician John Riggs
Miller.[119] When his efforts to promote a joint British–French–American metric system fell through in 1790, he
proposed a British system based on the length of the seconds pendulum at London. This standard was adopted in
1824 (below).

The meter
In the discussions leading up to the French adoption of the metric system in 1791, the leading candidate for the
definition of the new unit of length, the meter, was the seconds pendulum at 45° North latitude. It was advocated by
a group led by French politician Talleyrand and mathematician Antoine Nicolas Caritat de Condorcet. This was one
of the three final options considered by the French Academy of Sciences committee. However on March 19, 1791
the committee instead chose to base the meter on the length of the meridian through Paris. A pendulum definition
was rejected because of its variability at different locations, and because it defined length by a unit of time.
(Ironically, since 1983 the meter has been officially defined in terms of the length of the second and the speed of
light.) A possible additional reason is that the radical French Academy didn't want to base their new system on the
second, a traditional and nondecimal unit from the ancien regime.
Although not defined by the pendulum, the final length chosen for the meter, 10−7 of the pole-to-equater meridian,
was very close to the length of the seconds pendulum (0.9937 m), within 0.63%. Although no reason for this
particular choice was given at the time, it was probably to facilitate the use of the seconds pendulum as a secondary
standard, as was proposed in the official document. So the modern world's standard unit of length is certainly closely
linked historically with the seconds pendulum.
Pendulum 174

Britain and Denmark

Britain and Denmark appear to be the only nations that (for a short time) based their units of length on the pendulum.
In 1821 the Danish inch was defined as 1/38 of the length of the mean solar seconds pendulum at 45° latitude at the
meridian of Skagen, at sea level, in vacuum.[120] [121] The British parliament passed the Imperial Weights and
Measures Act in 1824, a reform of the British standard system which declared that if the prototype standard yard was
destroyed, it would be recovered by defining the inch so that the length of the solar seconds pendulum at London, at
sea level, in a vacuum, at 62 °F was 39.1393 inches.[122] This also became the US standard, since at the time the US
used British measures. However, when the prototype yard was lost in the 1834 Houses of Parliament fire, it proved
impossible to recreate it accurately from the pendulum definition, and in 1855 Britain repealed the pendulum
standard and returned to prototype standards.

Other uses

Seismometers
A pendulum in which the rod is not vertical but almost horizontal was used in early seismometers for measuring
earth tremors. The bob of the pendulum does not move when its mounting does, and the difference in the movements
is recorded on a drum chart.

Schuler tuning
As first explained by Maximilian Schuler in a 1923 paper, a pendulum whose period exactly equals the orbital period
of a hypothetical satellite orbiting just above the surface of the earth (about 84 minutes) will tend to remain pointing
at the center of the earth when its support is suddenly displaced. This principle, called Schuler tuning, is used in
inertial guidance systems in ships and aircraft that operate on the surface of the Earth. No physical pendulum is used,
but the control system that keeps the inertial platform containing the gyroscopes stable is modified so the device acts
as though it is attached to such a pendulum, keeping the platform always facing down as the vehicle moves on the
curved surface of the Earth.

Coupled pendulums
In 1665 Huygens made a curious observation about pendulum clocks. Two clocks had been placed on his
mantlepiece, and he noted that they had acquired an opposing motion. That is, their pendulums were beating in
unison but in the opposite direction; 180° out of phase. Regardless of how the two clocks were started, he found that
they would eventually return to this state, thus making the first recorded observation of a coupled oscillator.[123]
The cause of this behavior was that the two pendulums were affecting each other through slight motions of the
supporting mantlepiece. Many physical systems can be mathematically described as coupled oscillation. Under
certain conditions these systems can also demonstrate chaotic motion.
Pendulum 175

Religious practice
Pendulum motion appears in religious ceremonies as well. The swinging incense burner called a censer, also known
as a thurible, is an example of a pendulum.[124] Pendulums are also seen at many gatherings in eastern Mexico where
they mark the turning of the tides on the day which the tides are at their highest point. See also pendula for divination
and dowsing.

Execution
Using the basic principal of the pendulum, the weight (bob) is replaced by an axe head. The victim is strapped to a
table below, the device is activated, and the axe begins to swing back and forth through the air. With each pass, or
return, the pendulum drops, gradually coming into closer proximity of the victim's torso, until finally cleaved.
Because of the time required before the mortal action of the axe is complete, the pendulum is considered a method of
torturing the victim before their demise.[125]

See also
• Pendulum (mathematics)
• Pendulum clock
• Gridiron pendulum
• Simple harmonic motion
• Conical pendulum
• Spherical pendulum
• Double pendulum
• Foucault pendulum
• Kater's pendulum
• Harmonograph (a.k.a. "Lissajous pendulum")
• Metronome
• Seconds pendulum
• Torsional pendulum
• Inverted pendulum
• Furuta pendulum

External links
• NAWCC National Association of Watch & Clock Collectors Museum [126]
• Graphical derivation of the time period for a simple pendulum [127]
• A more general explanation of pendula [128]
• Web-based calculator of pendulum properties from numerical inputs [129]
• FORTRAN code for a numerical model of a simple pendulum [130]
• FORTRAN code for modeling of a simple pendulum using the Euler and Euler-Cromer methods [131]
• Simple Pendulum Applet [132]
• Interrupted Pendulum [133] Java Applet
Pendulum 176

Further reading
• Michael R. Matthews, Arthur Stinner, Colin F. Gauld (2005)The Pendulum: Scientific, Historical, Philosophical
and Educational Perspectives, Springer
• Michael R. Matthews, Colin Gauld and Arthur Stinner (2005) The Pendulum: Its Place in Science, Culture and
Pedagogy. Science & Education, 13, 261-277.
• Matthys, Robert J. (2004). Accurate Pendulum Clocks [134]. UK: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 0198529716.
• Nelson, Robert; M. G. Olsson (February 1986). "The pendulum - Rich physics from a simple system" [135].
American Journal of Physics 54 (2): 112–121. doi:10.1119/1.14703 [136]. Retrieved 2008-10-29.

References
Note: most of the sources below, including books, are viewable online through the links given.
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17thcenturymaths.com. . Retrieved 2009-03-01., Part 4, Definition 3, translated July 2007 by Ian Bruce
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[94] Baker, Lyman A. (Spring 2000). "Chancellor Bacon" (http:/ / www-personal. ksu. edu/ ~lyman/ english233/ Voltaire-Bacon. htm). English
233 - Introduction to Western Humanities. English Dept., Kansas State Univ.. . Retrieved 2009-02-20.
[95] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.9 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA9)
[96] Poynting, John Henry; Joseph John Thompson (1907). A Textbook of Physics, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA20#). London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp. 20. .
[97] Victor F., Lenzen; Robert P. Multauf (1964). "Paper 44: Development of gravity pendulums in the 19th century" (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA307). United States National Museum Bulletin 240: Contributions from the Museum of
History and Technology reprinted in Bulletin of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. pp. 307. . Retrieved
2009-01-28.
[98] Poynting & Thompson, 1907, p.10 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA10)
[99] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23).
London: Charles Griffin. pp. 22–24. .
[100] Cox, John (1904). Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EXQLAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA311). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
Univ. Press. pp. 311–312. .
[101] Poynting & Thomson 1904, p.23 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA23)
[102] Poynting, John Henry (1894). The Mean Density of the Earth (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dg0RAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA24).
London: Charles Griffin & Co.. pp. 24–29. .
[103] "Gravitation" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DgTALFa3sa4C& pg=PA386). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed.. 7. The
Encyclopaedia Britannica Co.. 1910. pp. 386. . Retrieved 2009-05-28.
[104] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.320 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA320)
[105] Poynting & Thompson 1907, p.18 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TL4KAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA18)
[106] "The downs and ups of gravity surveys" (http:/ / celebrating200years. noaa. gov/ foundations/ gravity_surveys/ welcome. html#at). NOAA
Celebrates 200 Years. US NOAA (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration) (http:/ / noaa. gov). 2007-07-09. .
[107] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.324 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA324)
[108] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.329 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA329)
[109] Woolard, George P. (June 28-29, 1957). "Gravity observations during the IGY" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=dUIrAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA200). Geophysics and the IGY: Proceedings of the symposium at the opening of the International
Geophysical Year. Washington DC: American Geophysical Union, Nat'l Academy of Sciences. pp. 200. . Retrieved 2009-05-27.
[110] Lenzen & Multauf 1964, p.336, fig.28 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=A1IqAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA2-PA336)
[111] Michael R., Matthews (2001). "Methodology and Politics in Science: The fate of Huygens 1673 proposal of the pendulum as an
international standard of length and some educational suggestions" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6Mk3YwBe5L4C& pg=PA296).
Pendulum 180

Science, Education, and Culture: The contribution of history and philosophy of science. Springer. pp. 296. ISBN 0792369726. .
[112] Renwick, James (1832). The Elements of Mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gOEJAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA286). Philadelphia:
Carey & Lea. pp. 286–287. .
[113] Alder, Ken (2003). The measure of all things: The seven-year odyssey and hidden error that transformed the world (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=jwsDERPMPhsC& pg=RA1-PT27& dq=marin+ mersenne+ second+ pendulum& as_brr=3). US: Simon and Schuster. pp. 88.
ISBN 0743216768. .
[114] cited in Jourdan, Louis (Mon, 22 Oct 2001 06:59:02). "Re: SI and dictionaries" (http:/ / www. mail-archive. com/ usma@colostate. edu/
msg07023. html). USMA mailing list. . Retrieved 2009-01-27.
[115] Agnoli, Paolo; Giulio D'Agostini (December 2004). "Why does the meter beat the second?" (http:/ / www. citebase. org/
fulltext?format=application/ pdf& identifier=oai:arXiv. org:physics/ 0412078). Arxiv database. . Retrieved 2009-01-27., p.6
[116] quoted in LeConte, John (August 1885). "The Metric System" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sFQ4AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA178). The
Overland Monthly (San Francisco: Bacon and Co.) 6 (2): 178. . Retrieved 2009-03-04.
[117] Zupko, 1990, p.131 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1)
[118] Zupko, 1990, p.140-141 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1)
[119] Zupko, 1990, p.93 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=twUNAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA131& source=gbs_selected_pages& cad=0_1)
[120] Schumacher, Heinrich (1821). "Danish standard of length" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KwEXAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA184). The
Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature and the Arts (London: The Royal Institution of Great Britain) 11 (21): 184–185. . Retrieved
2009-02-17.
[121] "Schumacher, Heinrich Christian" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=OlJMAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA686& lpg=PA686). The American
Cyclopedia. 14. D. Appleton & Co., London. 1883. pp. 686. . Retrieved 2009-02-17.
[122] Trautwine, John Cresson (1907). The Civil Engineer's Pocket-Book, 18th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qg41AAAAMAAJ&
pg=PA216). New York: John Wiley. pp. 216. .
[123] Toon, John (September 8, 2000). "Out of Time: Researchers Recreate 1665 Clock Experiment to Gain Insights into Modern Synchronized
Oscillators" (http:/ / gtresearchnews. gatech. edu/ newsrelease/ PENDULUM. html). Georgia Tech. . Retrieved 2007-05-31.
[124] An interesting simulation of thurible motion can be found at this site (http:/ / www. sciences. univ-nantes. fr/ physique/ perso/ gtulloue/
Meca/ Oscillateurs/ botafumeiro. html#manip).
[125] R.D. Melville (1905), "The Use and Forms of Judicial Torture in England and Scotland," The Scottish Historical Review, vol. 2, p. 228;
Geoffrey Abbott (2006) Execution: the guillotine, the Pendulum, the Thousand Cuts, the Spanish Donkey, and 66 Other Ways of Putting
Someone to Death, MacMillan, ISBN 0312352220, p. 213. Both refer to the use of the pendulum (pendola)by inquisitorial tribunals. Melville,
however, refers only to its use as a torture method, while Abbott suggests that the device was purposely allowed to kill the victim if he refused
to confess.
[126] http:/ / www. nawcc. org
[127] http:/ / www. sque. co. uk/ physics/ simple-pendulum/
[128] http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ physics/ Pendulum. html
[129] http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ phys/ newtonian/ pendulum
[130] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ CL-2. txt
[131] http:/ / www. phy. ilstu. edu/ ~mnorton/ Cl-3. txt
[132] http:/ / www. physics-lab. net/ applets/ simple-pendulum
[133] http:/ / phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Pendulum. htm
[134] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Lx0v2dhnZo8C& pg=PA27& sig=yYIWqaccL-YA2Mrigw4sFw5k-tk
[135] http:/ / fy. chalmers. se/ ~f7xiz/ TIF080/ pendulum. pdf
[136] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119%2F1. 14703
Precession 181

Precession
Precession is a change in the orientation of the rotation axis of a
rotating body. It can be defined as a change in direction of the rotation
axis in which the second Euler angle (nutation) is constant. In physics,
there are two types of precession: torque-free and torque-induced.
In astronomy, "precession" refers to any of several slow changes in an
astronomical body's rotational or orbital parameters, and especially to
the Earth's precession of the equinoxes. See Precession (astronomy).

Torque-free
Torque-free precession occurs when the axis of rotation differs slightly
from an axis about which the object can rotate stably: a maximum or Precession of a gyroscope
minimum principal axis. Poinsot's construction is an elegant
geometrical method for visualizing the torque-free motion of a rotating rigid body. For example, when a plate is
thrown, the plate may have some rotation around an axis that is not its axis of symmetry. This occurs because the
angular momentum (L) is constant in absence of torques. Therefore it will have to be constant in the external
reference frame, but the moment of inertia tensor (I) is non-constant in this frame because of the lack of symmetry.
Therefore the spin angular velocity vector ( ) about the spin axis will have to evolve in time so that the matrix
product L = I . remains constant.

When an object is not perfectly solid, internal vortices will tend to damp torque-free precession, and the rotation axis
will align itself with one of the inertia axes of the body.
The torque-free precession rate of an object with an axis of symmetry, such as a disk, spinning about an axis not
aligned with that axis of symmetry can be calculated as follows:

where is the precession rate, is the spin rate about the axis of symmetry, is the angle between the axis of
symmetry and the axis about which it precesses, is the moment of inertia about the axis of symmetry, and is
moment of inertia about either of the other two perpendicular principal axes. They should be the same, due to the
symmetry of the disk.[1]
Another type of torque-free precession can occur when there are multiple reference frames at work. For example, the
earth is subject to local torque induced precession due to the gravity of the sun and moon acting upon the earth’s
axis, but at the same time the solar system is moving around the galactic center. Consequently, an accurate
measurement of the earth’s axial reorientation relative to objects outside the frame of the moving galaxy (such as
distant quasars commonly used as precession measurement reference points) must account for a minor amount of
non-local torque-free precession, due to the solar system’s motion.

Torque-induced
Torque-induced precession (gyroscopic precession) is the phenomenon in which the axis of a spinning object (e.g. a
part of a gyroscope) "wobbles" when a torque is applied to it. The phenomenon is commonly seen in a spinning toy
top, but all rotating objects can undergo precession. If the speed of the rotation and the magnitude of the torque are
constant the axis will describe a cone, its movement at any instant being at right angles to the direction of the torque.
In the case of a toy top, if the axis is not perfectly vertical the torque is applied by the force of gravity tending to tip
it over.
Precession 182

The device depicted on the right here is gimbal mounted. From inside
to outside there are three axes of rotation: the hub of the wheel, the
gimbal axis and the vertical pivot.
To distinguish between the two horizontal axes, rotation around the
wheel hub will be called 'spinning', and rotation around the gimbal axis
will be called 'pitching.' Rotation around the vertical pivot axis is
called 'rotation'.
First, imagine that the entire device is rotating around the (vertical)
pivot axis. Then, spinning of the wheel (around the wheelhub) is
added. Imagine the gimbal axis to be locked, so that the wheel cannot
pitch. The gimbal axis has sensors, that measure whether there is a
torque around the gimbal axis. The response of a rotating system to an applied
torque. When the device swivels, and some roll is
In the picture, a section of the wheel has been named dm1. At the added, the wheel tends to pitch.
depicted moment in time, section dm1 is at the perimeter of the rotating
motion around the (vertical) pivot axis. Section dm1 therefore has a lot of angular rotating velocity with respect to the
rotation around the pivot axis, and as dm1 is forced closer to the pivot axis of the rotation (by the wheel spinning
further), due to the Coriolis effect dm1 tends to move in the direction of the top-left arrow in the diagram (shown at
45°) in the direction of rotation around the pivot axis. Section dm2 of the wheel starts out at the vertical pivot axis,
and thus initially has zero angular rotating velocity with respect to the rotation around the pivot axis, before the
wheel spins further. A force (again, a Coriolis force) would be required to increase section dm2's velocity up to the
angular rotating velocity at the perimeter of the rotating motion around the pivot axis. If that force is not provided,
then section dm2's inertia will make it move in the direction of the top-right arrow. Note that both arrows point in the
same direction.

The same reasoning applies for the bottom half of the wheel, but there the arrows point in the opposite direction to
that of the top arrows. Combined over the entire wheel, there is a torque around the gimbal axis when some spinning
is added to rotation around a vertical axis.
It is important to note that the torque around the gimbal axis arises without any delay; the response is instantaneous.
In the discussion above, the setup was kept unchanging by preventing pitching around the gimbal axis. In the case of
a spinning toy top, when the spinning top starts tilting, gravity exerts a torque. However, instead of rolling over, the
spinning top just pitches a little. This pitching motion reorients the spinning top with respect to the torque that is
being exerted. The result is that the torque exerted by gravity - via the pitching motion - elicits gyroscopic precession
(which in turn yields a counter torque against the gravity torque) rather than causing the spinning top to fall to its
side.
Precession or gyroscopic considerations have an effect on bicycle performance at high speed. Precession is also the
mechanism behind gyrocompasses.
Gyroscopic precession also plays a large role in the flight controls on helicopters. Since the driving force behind
helicopters is the rotor disk (which rotates), gyroscopic precession comes into play. If the rotor disk is to be tilted
forward (to gain forward velocity), its rotation requires that the downward net force on the blade be applied roughly
90 degrees (depending on blade configuration) before, or when the blade is to one side of the pilot and rotating
forward.
To ensure the pilot's inputs are correct, the aircraft has corrective linkages which vary the blade pitch in advance of
the blade's position relative to the swashplate. Although the swashplate moves in the intuitively correct direction, the
blade pitch links are arranged to transmit the pitch in advance of the blade's position.
Precession 183

Classical (Newtonian)
Precession is the result of the angular
velocity of rotation and the angular velocity
produced by the torque. It is an angular
velocity about a line which makes an angle
with the permanent rotation axis, and this
angle lies in a plane at right angles to the
plane of the couple producing the torque.
The permanent axis must turn towards this
line, since the body cannot continue to rotate
about any line which is not a principal axis
of maximum moment of inertia; that is, the
permanent axis turns in a direction at right
angles to that in which the torque might be
expected to turn it. If the rotating body is
symmetrical and its motion unconstrained,
and if the torque on the spin axis is at right
angles to that axis, the axis of precession
will be perpendicular to both the spin axis
and torque axis.
The torque caused by the two opposing forces Fg and -Fg causes a change in the
angular momentum L in the direction of that torque. This causes the top to precess.
Under these circumstances the angular
velocity of precession is given by:

In which Is is the moment of inertia, is the angular velocity of spin about the spin axis, and m*g*r are the force
and radius that comes from the torque.The torque vector originates at the center of mass. Using = , we find

that the period of precession is given by:

In which Is is the moment of inertia, Ts is the period of spin about the spin axis, and is the torque. In general the
problem is more complicated than this, however.

Relativistic
The special and general theories of relativity give three types of corrections to the Newtonian precession, of a
gyroscope near a large mass such as the earth, described above. They are:
• Thomas precession a special relativistic correction accounting for the observer being in a rotating non-inertial
frame.
• de Sitter precession a general relativistic correction accounting for the schwarzschild metric of curved space near
a large non-rotating mass.
• Lense-Thirring precession a general relativistic correction accounting for the frame dragging by the Kerr metric
of curved space near a large rotating mass.
Precession 184

Astronomy
In astronomy, precession refers to any of several gravity-induced, slow and continuous changes in an astronomical
body's rotational axis or orbital path.

Axial precession (precession of the equinoxes)

Axial precession is the movement of the rotational axis of an
astronomical body, whereby the axis slowly traces out a cone. In the
case of the Earth, this type of precession is also known as the
precession of the equinoxes or precession of the equator. The Earth
goes through one such complete precessional cycle in a period of
approximately 26,000 years, during which the positions of stars as
measured in the equatorial coordinate system will slowly change; the
change is actually due to the change of the coordinates. Over this cycle
the Earth's north axial pole moves from where it is now, within 1° of
Polaris, in a circle around the ecliptic pole, with an angular radius of
about 23.5 degrees (or approximately 23 degrees 27 arcminutes [2] ).
The shift is 1 degree in 72 years, where the angle is taken from the
observer, not from the center of the circle.
Precessional movement.
Discovery of the precession of the equinoxes is generally attributed to
the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus (ca. 150 B.C.). The Precession (axial rotation) was later explained by
Newtonian physics. Being an oblate spheroid, the Earth has a nonspherical shape, bulging outward at the equator.
The gravitational tidal forces of the Moon and Sun apply torque as they attempt to pull the equatorial bulge into the
plane of the ecliptic. The portion of the precession due to the combined action of the Sun and the Moon is called
lunisolar precession.

Precession of the ecliptic

The inclination of Earth's orbit drifts up and down. Relative to its present orbit this drift has a period of about 70,000
years. Relative to the invariable plane it has a 100,000 year period. The invariable plane represents the angular
momentum of the solar system, and is approximately the orbital plane of Jupiter.

Perihelion precession
The orbit of a planet around the Sun is not really an ellipse but a flower-petal shape because the major axis of each
planet's elliptical orbit also precesses within its orbital plane, partly in response to perturbations in the form of the
changing gravitational forces exerted by other planets. This is called perihelion precession or apsidal precession.
Discrepancies between the observed perihelion precession rate of the planet Mercury and that predicted by classical
mechanics were prominent among the forms of experimental evidence leading to the acceptance of Einstein's Theory
of Relativity (in particular, his General Theory of Relativity), which accurately predicted the anomalies.[3] [4]
These periodic changes of Earth's orbital parameters, combined with the precession of the equinoxes and of the
inclination of the Earth's axis on its orbit, are an important part of the astronomical theory of ice ages. See also nodal
precession. For precession of the lunar orbit see lunar precession.
Precession 185

See also
• De Sitter precession
• Larmor precession
• Lense-Thirring precession
• Nutation
• Polar motion
• Precession (mechanical)
• Thomas precession
• Euler angles

References
[1] Boal, David (2001). "Lecture 26 - Torque-free rotation - body-fixed axes" (http:/ / www. sfu. ca/ ~boal/ 211lecs/ 211lec26. pdf). . Retrieved
2008-09-17.
[2] Cook, David R. (1999). "Tilt of Earth's Axis" (http:/ / www. newton. dep. anl. gov/ askasci/ env99/ env154. htm). Environmental Earth
Science Archive, Ask A Scientist. United States Department of Energy. . Retrieved 2006-05-24.
[3] Max Born (1924), Einstein's Theory of Relativity (The 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting the observed and calculated
values for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and Earth.)
[4] An even larger value for a precession has been found, for a black hole in orbit around a much more massive black hole, amounting to 39
degrees each orbit. (http:/ / www. dailygalaxy. com/ my_weblog/ 2008/ 03/ 18-billion-suns. html)

• "Moon and Spica", StarDate July 14, 2005, University of Texas McDonald Observatory, (http://stardate.org/
radio/program.php?f=detail&id=20050714)

External links
• Explanation and derivation of formula for precession of a top (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/top.
html)
Larmor precession 186

Larmor precession
In physics, Larmor precession (named after Joseph Larmor) is the
precession of the magnetic moments of electrons, atomic nuclei, and atoms
about an external magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts a torque on the
magnetic moment,

where is the torque, is the magnetic dipole moment, is the angular momentum vector, is the external
magnetic field, is the cross product, and is the gyromagnetic ratio which gives the proportionality constant
between the magnetic moment and the angular momentum.

Larmor frequency
The angular momentum vector precesses about the external field axis with an angular frequency known as the
Larmor frequency,

where is the angular frequency,[1] is the gyromagnetic ratio, and is the magnitude of the magnetic

field[2] and is the g-factor (normally 1, except for in quantum physics).

Each isotope has a unique Larmor frequency for NMR spectroscopy, which is tabulated here [3].

Applications
A famous 1935 paper published by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz predicted the existence of ferromagnetic
resonance of the Larmor precession, which was verified experimentally and independently by J. H. E. Griffiths (UK)
and E. K. Zavoiskij (USSR) in 1946.
Larmor precession is important in nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance and muon spin
resonance.
To calculate the spin of a particle in a magnetic field, one must also take into account Thomas precession.
Larmor precession 187

See also
• Rabi cycle
• Georgia State University HyperPhysics page on Larmor Frequency [4]

References
[1] Spin Dynamics, Malcolm H. Levitt, Wiley, 2001
[2] Louis N. Hand and Janet D. Finch. (1998). Analytical mechanics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=1J2hzvX2Xh8C& pg=PA192&
lpg=PA192& dq=Larmor's+ Theorem& source=bl& ots=AWrslwM4Iw& sig=Pc_sZdUja2NZm0RvRUbRjAEH6eA& hl=en&
ei=oAhcSuisApCy8AT9yZXVDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
p. 192. ISBN 9780521575720. .
[3] http:/ / www-lcs. ensicaen. fr/ pyPulsar/ index. php/ List_of_NMR_isotopes
[4] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ nuclear/ larmor. html

Thomas precession
In physics the Thomas precession, named after Llewellyn Thomas, is a special relativistic correction that applies to
the spin of an elementary particle or the rotation of a macroscopic gyroscope and relates the angular velocity of the
spin of a particle following a curvilinear orbit to the angular velocity of the orbital motion. It can be understood
geometrically as a consequence of the fact that the space of velocities in relativity is hyperbolic, and so parallel
transport of a vector (the gyroscope's angular velocity) around a circle (its linear velocity) leaves it pointing in a
different direction, or understood algebraically as being a result of the non-associativity of the relativistic
velocity-addition formula.
It gives a correction to the spin-orbit interaction in quantum mechanics, which takes into account the relativistic time
dilation between the electron and the nucleus of an atom.
The composition of two Lorentz boosts which are non-colinear, results in a Lorentz transformation that is not a pure
boost but is the product of a boost and a rotation. This rotation is called Thomas rotation, Thomas-Wigner
rotation or Wigner rotation. The rotation was discovered by Thomas in 1926[1] , and derived by Wigner in 1939[2] .
If a sequence of non-colinear boosts returns the spatial origins of a sequence of inertial frame to the starting point,
then the sequence of Wigner rotations combine to produce a net rotation called the Thomas precession[3] .
Thomas precession is a kinematic effect in the flat spacetime of special relativity. In the curved spacetime of general
relativity, Thomas precession combines with a geometric effect to produce de Sitter precession. Although Thomas
precession (net rotation after a trajectory that returns to its starting point) is a purely a kinematic effect, it only
occurs in curvilinear motion and therefore cannot be observed independently of some centripetal force causing the
curvilinear motion such as that caused by an electromagnetic field, gravitational field or mechanical force so Thomas
precession is always accompanied by dynamical effects.[4] That being said, a single discrete Thomas rotation (as
opposed to the series of infinitesimal rotations that add up to Thomas precession) is present in non-dynamical
situations whenever you have 3 or more inertial frames in non-colinear motion - see the velocity composition section
below.
To calculate the spin of a particle in a magnetic field, one must also take into account Larmor precession.
Thomas precession 188

History
Thomas precession in relativity was already known to Ludwik Silberstein,[5] in 1914. But the only knowledge
Thomas had of relativistic precession came from de Sitter's paper on the relativistic precession of the moon, first
published in a book by Eddington[6] .
In 1925 Thomas relativistically recomputed the precessional frequency of the doublet separation in the fine structure
of the atom. He thus found the missing factor 1/2 which came to be known as the Thomas half.
This discovery of the relativistic precession of the electron spin led to the understanding of the significance of the
relativistic effect. The effect was therefore named Thomas precession

Conflicting results
In a 2006 survey of the literature Malykin[4] notes that there are numerous conflicting expressions for Thomas
precession. This is partly explained by the fact that different authors use "Thomas precession" to refer to different
things, often without saying what they are referring to and subsequent authors then misinterpret the results and apply
them to other things, but, even taking this into account, some of the expressions in the literature are just plain wrong.
Malykin explains the source of some of these errors: "We emphasize that Thomas considered the rotation of the axes
of the coordinate system accompanying the electron in its motion rather than the electron spin rotation.
Subsequently, this led to a misunderstanding and the emergence of incorrect work on the TP problem. It is possible
to introduce three different reference frames accompanying the electron motion around a circular orbit and, in the
most general case, along a curvilinear trajectory: (i) a reference frame whose coordinate axes remain parallel or
retain their angular position relative to the axes of a laboratory IRF, (ii) a reference frame one of whose coordinate
axes is always coincident with the electron velocity vector, and (iii) a reference frame in which the electron spin
vector retains its orientation relative to the coordinate axes. It is evident that the electron spin vector precesses
relative to the coordinate axes of the two first systems, but the angular velocity of its precession is different in these
systems. ... In several papers concerned with the TP, calculations are performed in the first approximation in
v^2/c^2, where v is the speed of an elementary particle in the laboratory IRF and c is the speed of light. In this case,
all authors arrive at the same expression first derived by Thomas, this being so irrespective of whether they consider
the relativistic rotation of the particle spin or the relativistic rotation of the axes of the coordinate system comoving
with the particle. In the most general case, however, the expressions for the TP obtained by different authors are
radically different. As noted above, the problem is complicated by the fact that different authors assign different
meaning to this expression: some imply the relativistic rotation of the particle spin in the laboratory IRF, some in the
comoving reference frame (in this case, as noted above, the rotation law for the axes of this system may be defined in
three ways), while others refer to the relativistic rotation of the axes of the coordinate system accompanying the
particle in motion. ... As noted above, the expression for the TP in Thomas's first paper was obtained in the first
approximation in v^2/c^2 and is always correct when this condition is fulfilled. In his subsequent work, on
performing calculations for an arbitrary electron velocity v, Thomas derived an expression that correctly describes
the relativistic rotation of the axes of the comoving coordinate system relative to the rest-frame (laboratory) system.
However, because the majority of authors use the term TP in reference to the precession of the spin of an elementary
particle, this subsequently led to several errors and misunderstandings. ... In 1952, in his famous monograph [78],
the Danish scientist C Møller (1904-1980), an acknowledged expert on the theory of relativity, derived an expression
for the TP that coincides, up to a sign, with the corresponding Thomas expression and is correct in the comoving
frame of reference. However, it was stated in Ref. [78] that this expression was written for the laboratory IRF, which
is incorrect. Møller's immense scientific prestige played a negative role in this case: since then, the majority of
authors of papers, monographs, and lecture courses started using the expression for the TP from Ref. [78] or, in the
derivation of suchlike expressions, tried to make them coincident with that given in Ref. [78]. ... At the same time,
because the experimentally observed particle spin precession is caused by the sum of two effects, the TP and the LP,
it is possible to choose different expressions for each of these effects, only provided that these expressions add up to
Thomas precession 189

correspond to expression (14). we conclude that the preferred method is the above-discussed method of recording
the TP with the aid of mechanical gyroscopes in their orbital motion because quantum mechanical effects in
experiments on charged elementary particles partly complicate the interpretation of experimental data."

Applications

In Quantum Mechanics
In quantum mechanics Thomas precession is a correction to the spin-orbit interaction, which takes into account the
relativistic time dilation between the electron and the nucleus in hydrogenic atoms.
Basically, it states that spinning objects precess when they accelerate in special relativity because Lorentz boosts do
not commute with each other.

In a Foucault pendulum
Thomas precession gives a correction to the precession of a Foucault pendulum. For a Foucault pendulum located in
the city of Nijmegen in the Netherlands the correction is:

Velocity composition
Einstein velocity addition is associative and commutative only when and are parallel. In fact,

,where gyr is the mathematical abstraction of Thomas precession into an operator called Thomas gyration and given
by

for all w.
The gyr operator forms the foundation of gyrovector spaces.[7]

Textbooks
• Rindler, Wolfgang (2006). "9". Relativity Special, General and Cosmological (second edition ed.). Dallas: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-856732-5.

External links
• Mathpages article on Thomas Precession [8]
• Alternate, detailed derivation of Thomas Precession [9] (by Robert Littlejohn)

References
[1] L. H. Thomas, "Motion of the spinning electron", Nature 117, 514, 1926
[2] E. P. Wigner, "On unitary representations of the inhomogeneous Lorentz group", Ann. Math. 40, 149–204 (1939).
[3] Relativistic velocity space, Wigner rotation and Thomas precession (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ gr-qc/ 0501070v1), John A. Rhodes, Mark D.
Semon (2005)
[4] G B Malykin, "Thomas precession: correct and incorrect solutions", Physics-Uspekhi 49 (8) 837-853 (2006)
[5] L. Silberstein, The Theory of Relativity (MacMillan London 1914), page 169
[6] A.S. Eddington, The Mathematical Theory of Relativity (Cambridge 1924)
[7] A.A. Ungar, Beyond the Einstein Addition Law and its Gyroscopic Thomas Precession: The Theory of Gyrogroups and Gyrovector Spaces,
Kluwer, 2002.
[8] http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s2-11/ 2-11. htm
Thomas precession 190

[9] http:/ / bohr. physics. berkeley. edu/ classes/ 221/ 0708/ notes/ thomprec. pdf

Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining
orientation, based on the principles of conservation of
angular momentum.[1] A mechanical gyroscope is
essentially a spinning wheel or disk whose axle is free
to take any orientation. This orientation changes much
less in response to a given external torque than it would
without the large angular momentum associated with
the gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque
is minimized by mounting the device in gimbals, its
orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any
motion of the platform on which it is mounted. Solid
state devices also exist, such as the ring laser
gyroscope. A gyroscope

Applications of gyroscopes include navigation (INS) when magnetic compasses do not work (as in the Hubble
telescope) or are not precise enough (as in ICBMs) or for the stabilization of flying vehicles like Radio-controlled
helicopters or UAVs. Due to higher precision, gyroscopes are also used to maintain direction in tunnel mining [2].

Description and diagram

Within mechanical systems or devices, a conventional gyroscope
is a mechanism comprising a rotor journaled to spin about one
axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner gimbal or
ring, the inner gimbal being journaled for oscillation in an outer
gimbal which in turn is journaled for oscillation relative to a
support. The outer gimbal or ring is mounted so as to pivot about
an axis in its own plane determined by the support. The outer
gimbal possesses one degree of rotational freedom and its axis
possesses none. The inner gimbal is mounted in the outer gimbal
so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always
Diagram of a gyro wheel. Reaction arrows about the
perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the outer gimbal. output axis (blue) correspond to forces applied about
the input axis (green), and vice versa.
The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The inner
gimbal possesses two degrees of rotational freedom and its axis
possesses one. The rotor is journaled to spin about an axis which is always perpendicular to the axis of the inner
gimbal. So, the rotor possesses three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two. The wheel responds to
a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the output axis.
The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front wheel of a bicycle. If the
wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel
also turns to the left. In other words, rotation on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis.
A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the output gimbals are of a
free- or fixed- configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal devices would be the attitude reference
gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll and yaw attitude angles in a spacecraft or aircraft.
Gyroscope 191

The center of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. The

rotor simultaneously spins about one axis and is capable of
oscillating about the two other axes, and thus, except for its
inherent resistance due to rotor spin, it is free to turn in any
direction about the fixed point. Some gyroscopes have mechanical
equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements, e.g., the
spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being
pivotally mounted in gimbals. A control moment gyroscope
(CMG) is an example of a fixed-output-gimbal device that is used
on spacecraft to hold or maintain a desired attitude angle or
Animation of a gyro wheel in action
pointing direction using the gyroscopic resistance force.

In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be omitted so that the rotor has only two degrees of
freedom. In other cases, the center of gravity of the rotor may be offset from the axis of oscillation, and thus the
center of gravity of the rotor and the center of suspension of the rotor may not coincide.

History
The earliest known gyroscope was made by German Johann
Bohnenberger, who first wrote about it in 1817. At first he called it the
"Machine".[3] [4] Bohnenberger's gyroscope was based on a rotating
massive sphere.[5] In 1832, American Walter R. Johnson developed a
gyroscope that was based on a rotating disk.[6] [7] The French
mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace, working at the École
Polytechnique in Paris, recommended the machine for use as a
teaching aid, and thus it came to the attention of Léon Foucault.[8] In
1852, Foucault used it in an experiment involving the rotation of the
Earth.[9] [10] It was Foucault who gave the device its modern name, in
an experiment to see (Greek skopeein, to see) the Earth's rotation
(Greek gyros, circle or rotation), although the experiment was
unsuccessful due to friction, which effectively limited each trial to 8 to
10 minutes, too short a time to observe significant movement.

In the 1860s, electric motors made the concept feasible, leading to the
first prototype gyrocompasses; the first functional marine gyrocompass
was patented in 1908 by German inventor Hermann Gyroscope invented by Léon Foucault, and built
by Dumoulin-Froment, 1852. National
Anschütz-Kaempfe. The American Elmer Sperry followed with his
Conservatory of Arts and Crafts museum, Paris.
own design later that year, and other nations soon realized the military
importance of the invention—in an age in which naval might was the
most significant measure of military power—and created their own gyroscope industries. The Sperry Gyroscope
Company quickly expanded to provide aircraft and naval stabilizers as well, and other gyroscope developers
followed suit.[11]

In 1917, the Chandler Company of Indianapolis, Indiana, created the "Chandler gyroscope," a toy gyroscope with a
pull string and pedestal. It has been in continuous production ever since and is considered a classic American toy.
MEMS gyroscopes take the idea of the Foucault pendulum and use a vibrating element, known as a MEMS (Micro
Electro-Mechanical System). The MEMS-based gyro was initially made practical and producible by Systron Donner
Inertial (SDI). Today, SDI is a large manufacturer of MEMS gyroscopes.
Gyroscope 192

In the first several decades of the 20th century, other inventors attempted (unsuccessfully) to use gyroscopes as the
basis for early black box navigational systems by creating a stable platform from which accurate acceleration
measurements could be performed (in order to bypass the need for star sightings to calculate position). Similar
principles were later employed in the development of inertial guidance systems for ballistic missiles.[12]

Properties
A gyroscope exhibits a number of behaviours including precession and
nutation. Gyroscopes can be used to construct gyrocompasses which
complement or replace magnetic compasses (in ships, aircraft and
spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (bicycle, Hubble
Space Telescope, ships, vehicles in general) or be used as part of an
inertial guidance system. Gyroscopic effects are used in toys like
tops,boomerangs,yo-yos, and Powerballs. Many other rotating devices,
such as flywheels, behave gyroscopically although the gyroscopic
effect is not used.

The fundamental equation describing the behavior of the gyroscope is:

A gyroscope in operation with freedom in all

three axes. The rotor will maintain its spin axis
direction regardless of the orientation of the outer
frame.

where the vectors τ and L are, respectively, the torque on the gyroscope and its angular momentum, the scalar I is its
moment of inertia, the vector ω is its angular velocity, and the vector α is its angular acceleration.
It follows from this that a torque τ applied perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and therefore perpendicular to L,
results in a rotation about an axis perpendicular to both τ and L. This motion is called precession. The angular
velocity of precession ΩP is given by the cross product:

Precession can be demonstrated by placing a spinning gyroscope with

its axis horizontal and supported loosely (frictionless toward
precession) at one end. Instead of falling, as might be expected, the
gyroscope appears to defy gravity by remaining with its axis
horizontal, when the other end of the axis is left unsupported and the
free end of the axis slowly describes a circle in a horizontal plane, the
resulting precession turning. This effect is explained by the above
equations. The torque on the gyroscope is supplied by a couple of
forces: gravity acting downwards on the device's centre of mass, and
an equal force acting upwards to support one end of the device. The
rotation resulting from this torque is not downwards, as might be
intuitively expected, causing the device to fall, but perpendicular to Precession on a gyroscope
both the gravitational torque (horizontal and perpendicular to the axis
of rotation) and the axis of rotation (horizontal and outwards from the point of support), i.e. about a vertical axis,
causing the device to rotate slowly about the supporting point.
Gyroscope 193

Under a constant torque of magnitude τ, the gyroscope's speed of precession ΩP is inversely proportional to L, the
magnitude of its angular momentum:

where θ is the angle between the vectors ΩP and L. Thus if the gyroscope's spin slows down (for example, due to
friction), its angular momentum decreases and so the rate of precession increases. This continues until the device is
unable to rotate fast enough to support its own weight, when it stops precessing and falls off its support, mostly
because friction against precession cause another precession that goes to cause the fall.
By convention, these three vectors, torque, spin, and precession, are all oriented with respect to each other according
to the right-hand rule.
To easily ascertain the direction of gyro effect, simply remember that a rolling wheel tends, when entering a corner,
to turn over to the inside.

Gyrostat
A gyrostat is a variant of the gyroscope. The first gyrostat was designed by Lord Kelvin to illustrate the more
complicated state of motion of a spinning body when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on
the pavement, or a hoop or bicycle on the road. It consists of a massive flywheel concealed in a solid casing. Its
behaviour on a table, or with various modes of suspension or support, serves to illustrate the curious reversal of the
ordinary laws of static equilibrium due to the gyrostatic behaviour of the interior invisible flywheel when rotated
rapidly.

US patents
In the USPTO classification scheme, the generic locus for gyroscope patents is Class 74, Machine element or
mechanism, and Subclass 5R. Every rotating body has gyroscopic action, but such devices are not included unless at
least one axis of oscillation is present. The combinations of gyroscopes with other devices are placed in subclass
5.22.
Numbers
• U.S. Patent 839,161 [13], "Steering apparatus for automobile torpedoes".
• U.S. Patent 795,045 [14], "Gyroscopic control apparatus".
• U.S. Patent 785,587 [15], "Mechanical speed governor".
• U.S. Patent 785,425 [16], "Steering mechanism for torpedoes".
• U.S. Patent 751,888 [17], "Governing mechanism for turbines".
• U.S. Patent 738,823 [18], "Electrical apparatus".
• U.S. Patent 730,613 [19], "Meter".
• U.S. Patent 662,484 [20], "Electric top for gyroscopes".
• U.S. Patent 648,878 [21], "Gyroscope for torpedo steering mechanism".
• U.S. Patent 642,704 [22], "Roller bearing car wheel".
• U.S. Patent 484,960 [23], "Gyroscopic top".
• U.S. Patent 461,948 [24], "Gyroscope or revolving toy".
• U.S. Patent 365,530 [25], "Lumber cart".
• U.S. Patent 312,692 [26], "Vehicle wheel".
• U.S. Patent 220,867 [27], "Engine-governor and speed-regulator".
• U.S. Patent 162,446 [28], "Governor for steam engine".
• U.S. Patent 34,298 [29], "Levelling instrument".
Reissued
• U.S. Patent RE024880 [30], "Rate Gyroscope with torsional suspension"
Gyroscope 194

See also
• Aerotrim
• Anti-rolling gyro — Ship gyroscopic roll stabilisers.
• Balancing machine
• Control moment gyroscope
• Countersteering
• Euler angles
• Eric Laithwaite
• Fibre optic gyroscope
• Gimbal lock
• Gyro monorail
• Gyrocar
• Gyrocompass
• Gyroscopic exercise tool
• Inertial navigation system
• Momentum wheel
• Precession
• Quantum gyroscope
• Rate integrating gyroscope
• Rifling
• Ring laser gyroscope
• Segway
• Top
• Vibrating structure gyroscope

Further reading
• Felix Klein and Arnold Sommerfeld, "Über die Theorie des Kreisels" (Tr., About the theory of the gyroscope).
Leipzig, Berlin, B.G. Teubner, 1898-1914. 4 v. illus. 25 cm.
• Audin, M. Spinning Tops: A Course on Integrable Systems. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.

External links
• The Precession and Nutation of a Gyroscope [31]
• Theory and Design of Micromechanical Vibratory Gyroscopes [32] Vladislav Apostolyuk
• The Royal Institution’s 1974–75 Christmas Lecture [33] Professor Eric Laithwaite
Gyroscope 195

References
[1] " Gyroscope (http:/ / demonstrations. wolfram. com/ Gyroscope/ )" by Sándor Kabai, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
[2] http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2009/ may/ 20-things-you-didnt-know-about-tunnels
[3] Johann G. F. Bohnenberger (1817) "Beschreibung einer Maschine zur Erläuterung der Gesetze der Umdrehung der Erde um ihre Axe, und der
Veränderung der Lage der letzteren" [Description of a machine for the explanation of the laws of rotation of the Earth around its axis, and of
the change of the orientation of the latter] Tübinger Blätter für Naturwissenschaften und Arzneikunde, vol. 3, pages 72-83. Available on-line
at: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ files/ File_1. pdf .
[4] The French mathematician Poisson mentions Bohnenberger's gyroscope as early as 1813: Simeon-Denis Poisson (1813) "Mémoire sur un cas
particulier du mouvement de rotation des corps pesans" [Memoir on a special case of rotational movement of massive bodies], Journal de
l'École Polytechnique, vol. 9, pages 247-262. Available on-line at: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ files/ File_2. pdf .
[5] A photograph of Bohnenberger's gyroscope is available on-line here: http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ item_view. cfm?cid=5& scid=12&
iid=24 .
[6] Walter R. Johnson (January 1832) "Description of an apparatus called the rotascope for exhibiting several phenomena and illustrating certain
laws of rotary motion," The American Journal of Science and Art, 1st series, vol. 21, no. 2, pages 265-280. Available on-line at: http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=BjwPAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA265& lpg=PR5& dq=Johnson+ rotascope& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html .
[7] Illustrations of Walter R. Johnson's gyroscope ("rotascope") appear in: Board of Regents, Tenth Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution.... (Washington, D.C.: Cornelius Wendell, 1856), pages 177-178. Available on-line at: http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=fEyT4sTd7ZkC& pg=PA178& dq=Johnson+ rotascope& ie=ISO-8859-1& output=html .
[8] Wagner JF, "The Machine of Bohnenberger," The Institute of Navigation (http:/ / www. ion. org/ museum/ item_view. cfm?cid=5&
scid=12& iid=24)
[9] L. Foucault (1852) "Sur les phénomènes d’orientation des corps tournants entraînés par un axe fixe à la surface de la terre," Comptes rendus
hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des Sciences (Paris), vol. 35, pages 424-427. Available on-line (in French): http:/ / www.
bookmine. org/ memoirs/ pendule. html . Scroll down to "Sur les phénomènes d’orientation ..."
[10] Circa 1852, Friedrich Fessel, a German mechanic and former secondary school teacher, independently developed a gyroscope. See: (1)
Julius Plücker (September 1853) "Über die Fessel'sche rotationsmachine," Annalen der Physik, vol. 166, no. 9, pages 174-177; (2) Julius
Plücker (October 1853) "Noch ein wort über die Fessel'sche rotationsmachine," Annalen der Physik, vol. 166, no. 10, pages 348-351; (3)
Charles Wheatstone (1864) "On Fessel's gyroscope," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 7, pages 43-48. Available on-line at:
http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CtGEAAAAIAAJ& pg=RA1-PA307& lpg=RA1-PA307& dq=Fessel+ gyroscope& source=bl&
ots=ZP0mYYrp_d& sig=DGmUeU4MC8hAMuBtDSQn4GpAyWc& hl=en& ei=N4s9SqOaM5vKtgf62vUH& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=9 .
[11] MacKenzie, Donald. Inventing Accuracy: A Historical Sociology of Nuclear Missile Guidance. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990. pp. 31–40.
ISBN 0-262-13258-3
[12] MacKenzie, pp. 40–42.
[13] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=839,161
[14] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=795,045
[15] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=785,587
[16] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=785,425
[17] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=751,888
[18] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=738,823
[19] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=730,613
[20] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=662,484
[21] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=648,878
[22] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=642,704
[23] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=484,960
[24] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=461,948
[25] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=365,530
[26] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=312,692
[27] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=220,867
[28] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=162,446
[29] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=34,298
[30] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=RE024880
[31] http:/ / www. integerspin. co. uk/ gyro1. htm
[32] http:/ / www. astrise. com/ research/ library/ memsgyro. pdf
[33] http:/ / www. gyroscopes. org/ 1974lecture. asp
Orbit 196

Orbit
In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object
around a point or another body, for example the gravitational orbit
of a planet around a star.[1]
Historically, the apparent motions of the planets were first
understood geometrically (and without regard to gravity) in terms
of epicycles, which are the sums of numerous circular motions.[2]
Theories of this kind predicted paths of the planets moderately
well, until Johannes Kepler was able to show that the motion of
the planets were in fact (at least approximately) elliptical
motions.[3] In Isaac Newton's Principia (1687), Newton derived
the relationships now known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion
from a force-based theory of universal gravitation.[4] Albert
Einstein's later general theory of relativity was able to account for Two bodies with a slight difference in mass orbiting
gravity as due to curvature of space-time, with orbits following around a common barycenter. The relative sizes and
geodesics. type of orbit are similar to the Pluto–Charon system.

History
In the geocentric model of the solar system, the celestial spheres model was originally used to explain the apparent
motion of the planets in the sky in terms of perfect spheres or rings, but after measurements of the exact motion of
the planets theoretical mechanisms such as the deferent and epicycles were later added. Although it was capable of
accurately predicting the planets position in the sky, more and more epicycles were required over time, and the
model became more and more unwieldy.
The basis for the modern understanding of orbits was first formulated by Johannes Kepler whose results are
summarised in his three laws of planetary motion. First, he found that the orbits of the planets in our solar system are
elliptical, not circular (or epicyclic), as had previously been believed, and that the sun is not located at the center of
the orbits, but rather at one focus.[5] Second, he found that the orbital speed of each planet is not constant, as had
previously been thought, but rather that the speed of the planet depends on the planet's distance from the sun. And
third, Kepler found a universal relationship between the orbital properties of all the planets orbiting the sun. For the
planets, the cubes of their distances from the sun are proportional to the squares of their orbital periods. Jupiter and
Venus, for example, are respectively about 5.2 and 0.723 AU distant from the sun, their orbital periods respectively
about 11.86 and 0.615 years. The proportionality is seen by the fact that the ratio for Jupiter, 5.23/11.862, is
practically equal to that for Venus, 0.7233/0.6152, in accord with the relationship.
While the planetary bodies do have elliptical orbits about the Sun, the eccentricity of the orbits is often not large. A
circle has an eccentricity of zero, Earth's orbit's eccentricity is 0.0167 meaning that the ratio of its semi-minor (b) to
semi-major axis (a) is 99.99%. Mercury has the largest eccentricity of the planets with an eccentricity of 0.2056,
b/a=97.86%. (Eris has an eccentricity of 0.441 and Pluto 0.249. For the values for all planets in one table, see Table
of planets in the solar system.)
Orbit 197

Isaac Newton demonstrated that Kepler's laws were derivable from his
theory of gravitation and that, in general, the orbits of bodies subject to
gravity were conic sections, if the force of gravity propagated
instantaneously. Newton showed that, for a pair of bodies, the orbits'
sizes are in inverse proportion to their masses, and that the bodies
revolve about their common center of mass. Where one body is much
more massive than the other, it is a convenient approximation to take
the center of mass as coinciding with the center of the more massive
body. The lines traced out by orbits dominated by the
gravity of a central source are conic sections: the
Albert Einstein was able to show that gravity was due to curvature of shapes of the curves of intersection between a
plane and a cone. Parabolic (1) and hyperbolic (3)
space-time and was able to remove the assumption of Newton that
orbits are escape orbits, whereas elliptical and
changes propagate instantaneously. In relativity theory orbits follow circular orbits (2) are captive.
geodesic trajectories which approximate very well to the Newtonian
predictions. However there are differences that can be used to determine which theory describes reality more
accurately. Essentially all experimental evidence that can distinguish between the theories agrees with relativity
theory to within experimental measuremental accuracy, but the differences from Newtonian mechanics are usually
very small (except where there are very strong gravity fields and very high speeds).

However, Newtonian mechanics is still used for most purposes since Newtonian mechanics is significantly easier to
use.

Planetary orbits
Within a planetary system; planets, dwarf planets, asteroids (a.k.a. minor planets), comets, and space debris orbit the
central star in elliptical orbits. A comet in a parabolic or hyperbolic orbit about a central star is not gravitationally
bound to the star and therefore is not considered part of the star's planetary system. To date, no comet has been
observed in our solar system with a distinctly hyperbolic orbit. Bodies which are gravitationally bound to one of the
planets in a planetary system, either natural or artificial satellites, follow orbits about that planet.
Owing to mutual gravitational perturbations, the eccentricities of the orbits of the planets in our solar system vary
over time. Mercury, the smallest planet in the Solar System, has the most eccentric orbit. At the present epoch, Mars
has the next largest eccentricity while the smallest eccentricities are those of the orbits of Venus and Neptune.
As two objects orbit each other, the periapsis is that point at which the two objects are closest to each other and the
apoapsis is that point at which they are the farthest from each other. (More specific terms are used for specific
bodies. For example, perigee and apogee are the lowest and highest parts of an Earth orbit, respectively.)
In the elliptical orbit, the center of mass of the orbiting-orbited system will sit at one focus of both orbits, with
nothing present at the other focus. As a planet approaches periapsis, the planet will increase in speed, or velocity. As
a planet approaches apoapsis, the planet will decrease in velocity.
See also:
• Kepler's laws of planetary motion
• Secular variations of the planetary orbits
Orbit 198

Understanding orbits
There are a few common ways of understanding orbits.
• As the object moves sideways, it falls toward the central body. However, it moves so quickly that the central body
will curve away beneath it.
• A force, such as gravity, pulls the object into a curved path as it attempts to fly off in a straight line.
• As the object moves sideways (tangentially), it falls toward the central body. However, it has enough tangential
velocity to miss the orbited object, and will continue falling indefinitely. This understanding is particularly useful
for mathematical analysis, because the object's motion can be described as the sum of the three one-dimensional
coordinates oscillating around a gravitational center.
As an illustration of an orbit around a planet, the Newton's cannonball model may prove useful (see image below).
This is a 'thought experiment', in which a cannon on top of a tall mountain is supposed to be able to fire a cannonball
horizontally at any chosen muzzle velocity. The effects of air friction on the cannonball are ignored (or perhaps the
mountain is high enough that the cannon will be above the Earth's atmosphere, which comes to the same thing.)[6]
If the cannon fires its ball with a low initial
velocity, the trajectory of the ball curves
downward and hits the ground (A). As the
firing velocity is increased, the cannonball
hits the ground farther (B) away from the
cannon, because while the ball is still falling
towards the ground, the ground is
increasingly curving away from it (see first
point, above). All these motions are actually
"orbits" in a technical sense — they are
describing a portion of an elliptical path
around the center of gravity — but the orbits
are interrupted by striking the Earth.

If the cannonball is fired with sufficient

velocity, the ground curves away from the
ball at least as much as the ball falls — so
the ball never strikes the ground. It is now in
what could be called a non-interrupted, or
circumnavigating, orbit. For any specific Newton's cannonball, an illustration of how objects can "fall" in a curve.

combination of height above the center of

gravity and mass of the planet, there is one specific firing velocity (practically unaffected by the mass of the ball
where that is as usual very small relative to the Earth's mass) that produces a circular orbit, as shown in (C).

As the firing velocity is increased beyond this, a range of elliptic orbits are produced; one is shown in (D). If the
initial firing is above the surface of the Earth as shown, there will also be elliptical orbits at slower velocities; these
will come closest to the Earth at the point half an orbit beyond, and directly opposite, the firing point.
At a specific velocity called escape velocity, again dependent on the firing height and mass of the planet, an open
orbit such as (E) results — a parabolic trajectory. At even faster velocities the object will follow a range of
hyperbolic trajectories. In a practical sense, both of these trajectory types mean the object is "breaking free" of the
planet's gravity, and "going off into space".
The velocity relationship of two moving objects with mass can thus be considered in four practical classes, with
subtypes:
1. No orbit
Orbit 199

2. Suborbital trajectories
• Range of interrupted elliptical paths
3. Orbital trajectories (or simply "orbits")
• Range of elliptical paths with closest point opposite firing point
• Circular path
• Range of elliptical paths with closest point at firing point
4. Open (or escape) trajectories
• Parabolic paths
• Hyperbolic paths

Newton's laws of motion

In many situations relativistic effects can be neglected, and Newton's laws give a highly accurate description of the
motion. Then the acceleration of each body is equal to the sum of the gravitational forces on it, divided by its mass,
and the gravitational force between each pair of bodies is proportional to the product of their masses and decreases
inversely with the square of the distance between them. To this Newtonian approximation, for a system of two point
masses or spherical bodies, only influenced by their mutual gravitation (the two-body problem), the orbits can be
exactly calculated. If the heavier body is much more massive than the smaller, as for a satellite or small moon
orbiting a planet or for the Earth orbiting the Sun, it is accurate and convenient to describe the motion in a coordinate
system that is centered on the heavier body, and we can say that the lighter body is in orbit around the heavier. For
the case where the masses of two bodies are comparable, an exact Newtonian solution is still available, and
qualitatively similar to the case of dissimilar masses, by centering the coordinate system on the center of mass of the
two.
Energy is associated with gravitational fields. A stationary body far from another can do external work if it is pulled
towards it, and therefore has gravitational potential energy. Since work is required to separate two massive bodies
against the pull of gravity, their gravitational potential energy increases as they are separated, and decreases as they
approach one another. For point masses the gravitational energy decreases without limit as they approach zero
separation, and it is convenient and conventional to take the potential energy as zero when they are an infinite
distance apart, and then negative (since it decreases from zero) for smaller finite distances.
With two bodies, an orbit is a conic section. The orbit can be open (so the object never returns) or closed (returning),
depending on the total energy (kinetic + potential energy) of the system. In the case of an open orbit, the speed at any
position of the orbit is at least the escape velocity for that position, in the case of a closed orbit, always less. Since
the kinetic energy is never negative, if the common convention is adopted of taking the potential energy as zero at
infinite separation, the bound orbits have negative total energy, parabolic trajectories have zero total energy, and
hyperbolic orbits have positive total energy.
An open orbit has the shape of a hyperbola (when the velocity is greater than the escape velocity), or a parabola
(when the velocity is exactly the escape velocity). The bodies approach each other for a while, curve around each
other around the time of their closest approach, and then separate again forever. This may be the case with some
comets if they come from outside the solar system.
A closed orbit has the shape of an ellipse. In the special case that the orbiting body is always the same distance from
the center, it is also the shape of a circle. Otherwise, the point where the orbiting body is closest to Earth is the
perigee, called periapsis (less properly, "perifocus" or "pericentron") when the orbit is around a body other than
Earth. The point where the satellite is farthest from Earth is called apogee, apoapsis, or sometimes apifocus or
apocentron. A line drawn from periapsis to apoapsis is the line-of-apsides. This is the major axis of the ellipse, the
line through its longest part.
Orbit 200

Orbiting bodies in closed orbits repeat their path after a constant period of time. This motion is described by the
empirical laws of Kepler, which can be mathematically derived from Newton's laws. These can be formulated as
follows:
1. The orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun in one of the focal points of the ellipse. Therefore
the orbit lies in a plane, called the orbital plane. The point on the orbit closest to the attracting body is the
periapsis. The point farthest from the attracting body is called the apoapsis. There are also specific terms for orbits
around particular bodies; things orbiting the Sun have a perihelion and aphelion, things orbiting the Earth have a
perigee and apogee, and things orbiting the Moon have a perilune and apolune (or, synonymously, periselene and
aposelene). An orbit around any star, not just the Sun, has a periastron and an apastron.
2. As the planet moves around its orbit during a fixed amount of time, the line from Sun to planet sweeps a constant
area of the orbital plane, regardless of which part of its orbit the planet traces during that period of time. This
means that the planet moves faster near its perihelion than near its aphelion, because at the smaller distance it
needs to trace a greater arc to cover the same area. This law is usually stated as "equal areas in equal time."
3. For a given orbit, the ratio of the cube of its semi-major axis to the square of its period is constant.
Note that that while the bound orbits around a point mass, or a spherical body with an ideal Newtonian gravitational
field, are all closed ellipses, which repeat the same path exactly and indefinitely, any non-spherical or
non-Newtonian effects (as caused, for example, by the slight oblateness of the Earth, or by relativistic effects,
changing the gravitational field's behavior with distance) will cause the orbit's shape to depart to a greater or lesser
extent from the closed ellipses characteristic of Newtonian two body motion. The 2-body solutions were published
by Newton in Principia in 1687. In 1912, Karl Fritiof Sundman developed a converging infinite series that solves the
3-body problem; however, it converges too slowly to be of much use. Except for special cases like the Lagrangian
points, no method is known to solve the equations of motion for a system with four or more bodies.
Instead, orbits with many bodies can be approximated with arbitrarily high accuracy. These approximations take two
forms.
One form takes the pure elliptic motion as a basis, and adds perturbation terms to account for the gravitational
influence of multiple bodies. This is convenient for calculating the positions of astronomical bodies. The equations
of motion of the moon, planets and other bodies are known with great accuracy, and are used to generate tables for
celestial navigation. Still there are secular phenomena that have to be dealt with by post-newtonian methods.
The differential equation form is used for scientific or mission-planning purposes. According to Newton's laws, the
sum of all the forces will equal the mass times its acceleration (F = ma). Therefore accelerations can be expressed in
terms of positions. The perturbation terms are much easier to describe in this form. Predicting subsequent positions
and velocities from initial ones corresponds to solving an initial value problem. Numerical methods calculate the
positions and velocities of the objects a tiny time in the future, then repeat this. However, tiny arithmetic errors from
the limited accuracy of a computer's math accumulate, limiting the accuracy of this approach.
Differential simulations with large numbers of objects perform the calculations in a hierarchical pairwise fashion
between centers of mass. Using this scheme, galaxies, star clusters and other large objects have been simulated.

Analysis of orbital motion

(See also Kepler orbit, orbit equation and Kepler's first law.)
Note that the following is a classical (Newtonian) analysis of orbital mechanics, which assumes the more subtle
effects of general relativity (like frame dragging and gravitational time dilation) are negligible. Relativistic effects
cease to be negligible when near very massive bodies (as with the precession of Mercury's orbit about the Sun), or
when extreme precision is needed (as with calculations of the orbital elements and time signal references for GPS
satellites[7] ).
Orbit 201

To analyze the motion of a body moving under the influence of a force which is always directed towards a fixed
point, it is convenient to use polar coordinates with the origin coinciding with the center of force. In such coordinates
the radial and transverse components of the acceleration are, respectively:

and

Since the force is entirely radial, and since acceleration is proportional to force, it follows that the transverse
acceleration is zero. As a result,

After integrating, we have

which is actually the theoretical proof of Kepler's 2nd law (A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas
during equal intervals of time). The constant of integration, h, is the angular momentum per unit mass. It then
follows that

where we have introduced the auxiliary variable

The radial force ƒ(r) per unit mass is the radial acceleration ar defined above. Solving the above differential equation
with respect to time[8] yields:

In the case of gravity, Newton's law of universal gravitation states that the force is proportional to the inverse square
of the distance:

where G is the constant of universal gravitation, m is the mass of the orbiting body (planet), and M is the mass of the
central body (the Sun). Substituting into the prior equation, we have

So for the gravitational force — or, more generally, for any inverse square force law — the right hand side of the
equation becomes a constant and the equation is seen to be the harmonic equation (up to a shift of origin of the
dependent variable). The solution is:

where A and θ0 are arbitrary constants.

The equation of the orbit described by the particle is thus:
Orbit 202

where e is:

In general, this can be recognized as the equation of a conic section in polar coordinates (r, θ). We can make a
further connection with the classic description of conic section with:

If parameter e is smaller than one, e is the eccentricity and a the semi-major axis of an ellipse.

Orbital planes
The analysis so far has been two dimensional; it turns out that an unperturbed orbit is two dimensional in a plane
fixed in space, and thus the extension to three dimensions requires simply rotating the two dimensional plane into the
required angle relative to the poles of the planetary body involved.
The rotation to do this in three dimensions requires three numbers to uniquely determine; traditionally these are
expressed as three angles.

Orbital period
The orbital period is simply how long an orbiting body takes to complete one orbit.

Specifying orbits
It turns out that it takes a minimum 6 numbers to specify an orbit about a body, and this can be done in several ways.
For example, specifying the 3 numbers specifying location and 3 specifying the velocity of a body gives a unique
orbit that can be calculated forwards (or backwards). However, traditionally the parameters used are slightly
different.
The traditionally used set of orbital elements is called the set of Keplerian elements, after Johannes Kepler and his
Kepler's laws. The Keplerian elements are six:
• Inclination ( )
• Longitude of the ascending node ( )
• Argument of periapsis ( )
• Eccentricity ( )
• Semimajor axis ( )
• Mean anomaly at epoch ( )
In principle once the orbital elements are known for a body, its position can be calculated forward and backwards
indefinitely in time. However, in practice, orbits are affected or perturbed, by forces other than gravity due to the
central body and thus the orbital elements change over time.
Orbit 203

Orbital perturbations
An orbital perturbation is when a force or impulse which is much smaller than the overall force or average impulse
of the main gravitating body and which is external to the two orbiting bodies causes an acceleration, which changes
the parameters of the orbit over time.

Radial, prograde and transverse perturbations

A small radial impulse given to a body in orbit changes the eccentricity, but not the orbital period (to first order). A
prograde or retrograde impulse (i.e. an impulse applied along the orbital motion) changes both the eccentricity and
the orbital period. Notably, a prograde impulse given at periapsis raises the altitude at apoapsis, and vice versa, and a
retrograde impulse does the opposite. A transverse impulse (out of the orbital plane) causes rotation of the orbital
plane without changing the period or eccentricity. In all instances, a closed orbit will still intersect the perturbation
point.

Orbital decay
If an orbit is about a planetary body with significant atmosphere, its orbit can decay because of drag. Particularly at
each periapsis, the object experiences atmospheric drag, losing energy. Each time, the orbit grows less eccentric
(more circular) because the object loses kinetic energy precisely when that energy is at its maximum. This is similar
to the effect of slowing a pendulum at its lowest point; the highest point of the pendulum's swing becomes lower.
With each successive slowing more of the orbit's path is affected by the atmosphere and the effect becomes more
pronounced. Eventually, the effect becomes so great that the maximum kinetic energy is not enough to return the
orbit above the limits of the atmospheric drag effect. When this happens the body will rapidly spiral down and
intersect the central body.
The bounds of an atmosphere vary wildly. During solar maxima, the Earth's atmosphere causes drag up to a hundred
kilometres higher than during solar minima.
Some satellites with long conductive tethers can also decay because of electromagnetic drag from the Earth's
magnetic field. Basically, the wire cuts the magnetic field, and acts as a generator. The wire moves electrons from
the near vacuum on one end to the near-vacuum on the other end. The orbital energy is converted to heat in the wire.
Orbits can be artificially influenced through the use of rocket motors which change the kinetic energy of the body at
some point in its path. This is the conversion of chemical or electrical energy to kinetic energy. In this way changes
in the orbit shape or orientation can be facilitated.
Another method of artificially influencing an orbit is through the use of solar sails or magnetic sails. These forms of
propulsion require no propellant or energy input other than that of the sun, and so can be used indefinitely. See statite
for one such proposed use.
Orbital decay can also occur due to tidal forces for objects below the synchronous orbit for the body they're orbiting.
The gravity of the orbiting object raises tidal bulges in the primary, and since below the synchronous orbit the
orbiting object is moving faster than the body's surface the bulges lag a short angle behind it. The gravity of the
bulges is slightly off of the primary-satellite axis and thus has a component along the satellite's motion. The near
bulge slows the object more than the far bulge speeds it up, and as a result the orbit decays. Conversely, the gravity
of the satellite on the bulges applies torque on the primary and speeds up its rotation. Artificial satellites are too
small to have an appreciable tidal effect on the planets they orbit, but several moons in the solar system are
undergoing orbital decay by this mechanism. Mars' innermost moon Phobos is a prime example, and is expected to
either impact Mars' surface or break up into a ring within 50 million years.
Finally, orbits can decay via the emission of gravitational waves. This mechanism is extremely weak for most stellar
objects, only becoming significant in cases where there is a combination of extreme mass and extreme acceleration,
such as with black holes or neutron stars that are orbiting each other closely.
Orbit 204

Oblateness
The standard analysis of orbiting bodies assumes that all bodies consist of uniform spheres, or more generally,
concentric shells each of uniform density. It can be shown that such bodies are gravitationally equivalent to point
sources.
However, in the real world, many bodies rotate, and this introduces oblateness and distorts the gravity field, and
gives a quadrupole moment to the gravitational field which is significant at distances comparable to the radius of the
body.
The general effect of this is to change the orbital parameters over time; predominantly this gives a rotation of the
orbital plane around the rotational pole of the central body (it perturbs the argument of perigee) in a way that is
dependent on the angle of orbital plane to the equator as well as altitude at perigee.

Multiple gravitating bodies

The effects of other gravitating bodies can be very large. For example, the orbit of the Moon cannot be in any way
accurately described without allowing for the action of the Sun's gravity as well as the Earth's.
In general when there are more than two gravitating bodies it is referred to as an n-body problem. Most n-body
problems have no closed form solution, although there are number of special cases.

Light radiation and stellar wind

For smaller bodies particularly, light and stellar wind can cause significant perturbations to the attitude and direction
of motion of the body, and over time can be quite significant. Of the planetary bodies, the motion of asteroids is
particularly affected over large periods when the asteroids are rotating relative to the Sun.

Astrodynamics
Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical
problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. The motion of these objects is usually calculated
from Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation. It is a core discipline within space mission
design and control. Celestial mechanics treats more broadly the orbital dynamics of systems under the influence of
gravity, including both spacecraft and natural astronomical bodies such as star systems, planets, moons, and comets.
Orbital mechanics focuses on spacecraft trajectories, including orbital maneuvers, orbit plane changes, and
interplanetary transfers, and is used by mission planners to predict the results of propulsive maneuvers. General
relativity is a more exact theory than Newton's laws for calculating orbits, and is sometimes necessary for greater
accuracy or in high-gravity situations (such as orbits close to the Sun).

Scaling in gravity
The gravitational constant G is measured to be the following (shown with the 3 most common units):
• (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 N·m2/kg2
• (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 m3/(kg·s2)
• (6.6742 ± 0.001) × 10−11 (kg/m3)−1s−2.
Thus the constant has dimension density−1 time−2. This corresponds to the following properties.
Scaling of distances (including sizes of bodies, while keeping the densities the same) gives similar orbits without
scaling the time: if for example distances are halved, masses are divided by 8, gravitational forces by 16 and
gravitational accelerations by 2. Hence orbital periods remain the same. Similarly, when an object is dropped from a
tower, the time it takes to fall to the ground remains the same with a scale model of the tower on a scale model of the
earth.
Orbit 205

When all densities are multiplied by four, orbits are the same, but with orbital velocities doubled.
When all densities are multiplied by four, and all sizes are halved, orbits are similar, with the same orbital velocities.
These properties are illustrated in the formula (derived from the formula for the orbital period)

for an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis a, of a small body around a spherical body with radius r and average
density σ, where T is the orbital period.

See also
• Artificial satellite orbit
• Escape velocity
• Gravity
• Kepler orbit
• Kepler's laws of planetary motion
• Molniya orbit
• Orbit (dynamics)
• Orbital spaceflight/Sub-orbital spaceflight
• Perifocal coordinate system
• Rosetta (orbit)
• Klemperer rosette
• Trajectory, Hyperbolic trajectory and Parabolic trajectory

External links
• CalcTool: Orbital period of a planet calculator [9]. Has wide choice of units. Requires JavaScript.
• Browser Based Three Dimension Simulation of Orbital Motion [10]. Objects and distance are drawn to scale. Run
on JavaScript-enabled browser such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Opera.
• Java simulation on orbital motion [11]. Requires Java.
• NOAA page on Climate Forcing Data [12] includes (calculated) data on Earth orbit variations over the last 50
million years and for the coming 20 million years
• On-line orbit plotter [13]. Requires JavaScript.
• Orbital Mechanics [14] (Rocket and Space Technology)
• Orbital simulations by Varadi, Ghil and Runnegar (2003) [15] provide another, slightly different series for Earth
orbit eccentricity, and also a series for orbital inclination. Orbits for the other planets were also calculated[16] , but
only the eccentricity data for Earth and Mercury [17] are available online.
• Understand orbits using direct manipulation [18]. Requires JavaScript and Macromedia
• Linton, Christopher (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein [19]. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 0521827507
• Swetz, Frank; et al. (1997). Learn from the Masters! [20]. Mathematical Association of America. ISBN
0883857030
Orbit 206

References
• Abell, Morrison, and Wolff (1987). Exploration of the Universe (fifth ed.). Saunders College Publishing.
[1] orbit (astronomy) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 431123/ orbit)
[2] Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1968, vol. 2, p. 645.
[3] M Caspar, Kepler (1959, Abelard-Schuman), at pp.131–140; A Koyré, The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus, Kepler, Borelli (1973,
Methuen), at pp.277–279.
[4] Kuhn, The Copernican Revolution, pp 238, 246–252
[5] Jones, Andrew. "Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion" (http:/ / physics. about. com/ od/ astronomy/ p/ keplerlaws. htm) (in en). about.com. .
Retrieved 2008-06-01.
[6] See pages 6 to 8 in Newton's "Treatise of the System of the World" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rEYUAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA6)
(written 1685, translated into English 1728, see Newton's 'Principia' - A preliminary version), for the original version of this 'cannonball'
thought-experiment.
[7] Pogge, Richard W.; “Real-World Relativity: The GPS Navigation System” (http:/ / www. astronomy. ohio-state. edu/ ~pogge/ Ast162/ Unit5/
gps. html). Retrieved 25 January 2008.
[8] Fitzpatrick, Richard (2006-02-02). "Planetary orbits" (http:/ / web. archive. bibalex. org/ web/ 20060523200517/ farside. ph. utexas. edu/
teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node155. html). Classical Mechanics – an introductory course. The University of Texas at Austin. Archived from the
original (http:/ / farside. ph. utexas. edu/ teaching/ 301/ lectures/ node155. html) on 2006-05-23. . Retrieved 2009-01-14.
[9] http:/ / www. calctool. org/ CALC/ phys/ astronomy/ planet_orbit
[10] http:/ / orinetz. com/ planet/ animatesystem. php?sysid=QUQTS2CSDQ44FDURR3XD6NUD6& orinetz_lang=1
[11] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ Motion. htm
[12] http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ forcing. html
[13] http:/ / www. bridgewater. edu/ ~rbowman/ ISAW/ PlanetOrbit. html
[14] http:/ / www. braeunig. us/ space/ orbmech. htm
[15] http:/ / astrobiology. ucla. edu/ OTHER/ SSO/
[16] F. Varadi, B. Runnegar, M. Ghil (2003). "Successive Refinements in Long-Term Integrations of Planetary Orbits". The Astrophysical
Journal 592: 620–630. doi: 10.1086/375560 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1086/ 375560).
[17] http:/ / www. astrobiology. ucla. edu/ OTHER/ SSO/ Misc/
[18] http:/ / www. lri. fr/ ~dragice/ gravity/
[19] http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=B4br4XJFj0MC& pg=PA285& lpg=PA285& dq=Leibnitz+ on+ centrifugal+ force& source=bl&
ots=ul5sM-8hez& sig=3eV8RZGxy6Czk3uZZ4_6nxhr3gQ& hl=en& ei=VYT_SaDtOsmrjAfv44iIBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result&
resnum=5
[20] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gqGLoh-WYrEC& pg=PA269& dq=reaction+ fictitious+ rotating+ frame+ %22centrifugal+
force%22& lr=& as_brr=3& as_pt=ALLTYPES& ei=JUH7SYr3GIzckQSSx4XVBA#PPA269,M1
Article Sources and Contributors 207

Article Sources and Contributors

Physics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=343095685  Contributors: (3ucky(3all, -- April, ..Playa187.., 0, 100110100, 10metreh, 130.225.29.xxx, 168..., 1984, 2D, 5 albert
square, 83d40m, 97parnellj, A7x4ev7x7x7x7x, APH, AV2, AVand, Aanand Pranav Sharma, Abdullais4u, Aboeing, Academic Challenger, Accurizer, Ace56, Acroterion, Adashiel, Addshore,
AdjustShift, Aecis, Agaudin, Ageekgal, AgentPeppermint, Agradman, Ahoerstemeier, Aidanscotch, Airumel, Aitias, Ajitflora, Ajraddatz, Ak47K, Akamad, Akriasas, Aksi great, Alan16,
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HurukanLightWarrior, Iamnoah, Ino5hiro, Iridescent, Isaac Dupree, Isnow, J7KY35P21OK, JEBrown87544, Jaredwf, Jimduck, JohnBlackburne, KSmrq, KYN, Kevmitch, Kisielk, Kmhkmh,
LOL, Lambiam, Lantonov, Leland McInnes, Lethe, Lockeownzj00, Loodog, M simin, MFNickster, Magnesium, MarcusMaximus, Mark A Oakley, Mark Foskey, MathKnight, Mckaysalisbury,
Melchoir, Michael Hardy, Michael Ross, Monguin61, Mrahner, Mycroft IV4, Nbarth, Neparis, Nikola Smolenski, Octahedron80, Oleg Alexandrov, Onco p53, Oneirist, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Paul
August, Pip2andahalf, Plugwash, Pouchkidium, Quietly, Qwfp, Rainwarrior, Raiontov, RaulMiller, ReinisFMF, Rgdboer, Rich Farmbrough, Robinh, Romanm, SCEhardt, SDC, Salix alba,
SeventyThree, Silly rabbit, Silsor, Simskoarl, Sreyan, Ssafarik, Stefano85, Sławomir Biały, T-rex, Tadeu, TakuyaMurata, Tarquin, TeH nOmInAtOr, Template namespace initialisation script,
Teorth, Tesseran, Tetracube, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheSolomon, Thinking of England, Thoreaulylazy, Tim Starling, Timrem, Timwi, Tomruen, Uberjivy, Voorlandt, WISo, WVhybrid,
Wars, WhiteCrane, Whitepaw, Wilfordbrimley, Willking1979, Windchaser, Wolfkeeper, Wolfrock, Wshun, Wwoods, X42bn6, Xaos, Yellowdesk, Ysangkok, ZeroOne, Zundark, 323 anonymous
edits

Torque  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342706843  Contributors: 165.123.179.xxx, A. B., A3RO, ABCD, Abel Cavaşi, Aiken drum, Alan Smithee 87, Alansohn,
Alex-thong, Alexburke, Alfred Centauri, Aliencam, Angela, Angr, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Aranoff, ArmadniGeneral, Army1987, Ashmoo, Attilios, Ayrton Prost, Bart133,
Bastard1979, Beetstra, BenFrantzDale, BenedictFindlay, Berndf, Bfigura's puppy, Bigbluefish, BlckKnght, Bliskner, Bobblewik, Bogey97, BorgHunter, Brianyoumans, Brs6480, Brusegadi,
Bryan Derksen, Bstepp99, Buster2058, CambridgeBayWeather, Cassowary, Cdang, Celarnor, Cenarium, CesarB, Ckatz, Complexica, Concernedresident's butler, Conny, Conversion script, Craig
Pemberton, Crohnie, CrossoverManiac, Ctbolt, Cyp, D4g0thur, Dainis, Dan100, Danielkueh, Darrendeng, Db099221, Dennis Brown, Dionyziz, Dogposter, Doradus, DrBob,
DragonflySixtyseven, Ed Poor, Eddiesilverberg, Egil, Ejs-80, Ekeb, Elalga, Eleleszek, Endothermic, Enochlau, Enormousdude, Epijk, Ermishinf, Error792, Femto, Fiziker, Frecklefoot, Fredrik,
Fudoreaper, Fuhghettaboutit, Furrykef, Gail, Gamesguru2, Gcprakashh, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Glenn, Goobernaught, Graham87, Habensm, Headbomb, Herbee, Herbythyme, Heron, Hongooi,
Honkgeese, Hooperbloob, HorsePunchKid, Hu12, Hydrogen Iodide, Icairns, Icep, Igoldste, Ihcoyc, Imasleepviking, InTeGeR13, Indefatigable, Industrial Torque Tools, Inwind, Iridescent, Isis,
Itai, Ixfd64, J031, Jab843, JabberWok, JakeVortex, Jawsper, JeffEpler, Jjron, Johan Lont, Johnb01, Johnhardcastl, KaiMartin, Kanogul, King Lopez, Komencanto, Ksyrie, Lacrimosus, Latka,
Laurascudder, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Leigh8959, LiamE, Liftarn, Lightmouse, Linas, Lironos, Looxix, Loren.wilton, LouisBB, Lseixas, Luci Sandor, Matiasmoreno, Michael Hardy,
Michael Slone, Mikeblas, Mild Bill Hiccup, Motorhead, Mpfiz, Mrand, Muhends, Muro de Aguas, Nabla, Narasimhavarman10, Nehrams2020, Neonumbers, Nikkimaria, Noah Salzman, Noktulo,
Nolafolk, Nonsuch, Nsaa, Oilpanhands, OllieFury, Optimisteo, Oxymoron83, PHenry, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Philip Trueman, Phr en, Physis, Pkbharti, Psb777, Quidproquo2004, Quitequick,
Qutezuce, RG2, Randy Johnston, Reach Out to the Truth, Rfl, Richardcavell, Richguffanti, RobertHannah89, RottweilerCS, Rpf, Rracecarr, Rror, Ruby.red.roses, Rustyfence, SGW, Salix alba,
Samw, Sanpaz, Sbyrnes321, SchfiftyThree, ScooterSES, Sfngan, Sfoskett, Sganesh 88, Shehal, Sidonuke, Sigmundg, Sjc, Sobreira, Soliloquial, Sonett72, SpK, SpectrumAnalyser, Starwiz,
Stephan Leeds, Stevenj, Storm Rider, StradivariusTV, Tabletop, Tarquin, Teutonic Tamer, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, TheEgyptian, Thunderbird2, Tim Starling, Tobias
Hoevekamp, Tom harrison, Totsugeki, Tslocum, Tygrrr, Urhixidur, Usien6, V-train, W0lfie, Wallach2008, Ward20, Wdl1961, Weiyin, Why Not A Duck, Willking1979, Wood Thrush,
Woohookitty, XJamRastafire, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yawe, YellowMonkey, Yidisheryid, Zaidpjd, Zr40, Zs, 522 anonymous edits

Center of mass  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341509916  Contributors: $wgUser, .:Ajvol:., 16@r, 2D, Akradecki, Alfio, AndrewDressel, Anomalocaris, Ant, Antimoni,
Ariadnesthread80, Autopilot, BAxelrod, Batmanand, Beatnick, BenFrantzDale, Bender235, Bishop262, Born2flie, Bowlhover, Brews ohare, BrokenSegue, Bryan Derksen, Burga, CBM,
Capricorn42, CatherineMunro, Charles Matthews, Ched Davis, Codwiki, Complexica, Connelly, Coolhandscot, Cos111, Crisófilax, Dalyup!, DavidCary, Dbenbenn, Ddawson, Demiurge, Djr32,
DnetSvg, DocWatson42, Dolphin51, Donarreiskoffer, Dracontes, Drini, EdC, El C, Ensign beedrill, Epbr123, Feezo, Fizzybrain, Flaming, Frankie1969, Fred Bauder, Freiddie, Friedlad, Gaius
Cornelius, Galoubet, Gene Nygaard, Gerbrant, Giftlite, Glen, Gogo Dodo, Grendelkhan, Hadal, Heroesrule17, Heron, HiDrNick, Hibernian, Hlucho, Hobartimus, Iain, Icairns, IcedNut,
Ienjoymen, Interwiki de, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, JForget, JabberWok, Jagged 85, Japaget, Jerzy, JohnCastle, Jonpin, Juliancolton, Kanags, Karimjb, Keegscee, Kristen Eriksen, Kwamikagami,
LeaveSleaves, Light current, Looxix, M2Ys4U, MER-C, MITBeaverRocks, MK8, MaCRoEco, Maelor, MarcusMaximus, MarkReynolds667, Masonmills1221, MassProp, Mav, Maximus Rex,
Mbell, Mejor Los Indios, Melchoir, Michael Hardy, Mike s, Minesweeper, Mpnpbpvp, Mrzaius, Nakon, NawlinWiki, Nimur, Novangelis, Npai, Octahedron80, Omegatron, Omicronpersei8,
Patrick, Paul August, Paul Niquette, Perfect Proposal, Peterlewis, PhiJ, PhoenixSeraph, Pjvpjv, Pkbharti, Ponyo, Poolkris, R9tgokunks, Radon210, RainbowOfLight, Ratiocinate, Raven4x4x,
Article Sources and Contributors 209

Razimantv, ReasonedLife, Rebroad, Renaissancee, Revotfel, RitKill, RobertG, RockMFR, Rogper, RoyGoldsmith, Rumpuscat, Rydra Wong, Sabby123456789, Sangwinc, Saperaud, Satyakamk,
Sbharris, Sbishop, Shivamnosran, Shkedi, Sitethief, SmilesALot, Something14, Sooner Dave, Srleffler, Steerpike, Strait, Suwatest, TakuyaMurata, Tardis, Tellyaddict, Tezh, The Rambling Man,
Timeroot, Tony873004, TraceyR, Travis Wells, Ttony21, User A1, Vary, Vsmith, Wolfkeeper, Wolfram.Tungsten, Wtmitchell, Wumblebee, Wwoods, X42bn6, Xmole, Yelod, Yeungchunk,
Yurigerhard, Zbayz, Zzyzx11, ‫ينام‬, 254 anonymous edits

Uniform circular motion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=331541453  Contributors: Abdullah Köroğlu, Aminamensroom, BiT, BinaryTed, Brews ohare, Charles Matthews,
Conscious, Da monster under your bed, Dilip rajeev, Feeb denroc, Gaius Cornelius, Giftlite, Healthyporkchops, Incredio, Iridescent, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, JTConroy88, Jimqode,
Jonahgreenthal, Joyous!, Laurascudder, Motorneuron, Neolucifer, Newton Kwong, Nishkid64, Outriggr, Pamputt, Ricardo sandoval, Staka, Steve Pucci, StradivariusTV, Thljcl, Usien6, Victorfri,
Wasted4secondsreadingthis, Wiml, Wood Thrush, Yevgeny Kats, Zzedar, 23 anonymous edits

Angular acceleration  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=335989220  Contributors: ABCD, Chych, Clarkefreak, Daniel.Cardenas, Ddcc, Email4mobile, Ewlyahoocom, Giftlite,
Icairns, J.delanoy, Karol Langner, Lbertolotti, Lsskys, Mattwidmann, Mpfiz, Newagelink, Newone, Oleg Alexandrov, Peterlin, Rama, Robert A. Mitchell, Runningonbrains, RyanCross,
Serrano24, StuRat, Superjoe30, Timwi, Venny85, WojPob, Zafiroblue05, Zaidpjd, គីមស៊្រុន, 37 anonymous edits

Angular velocity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=339982200  Contributors: 48v, Abdull, Aboeing, Army1987, AugPi, BenFrantzDale, BiT, BluCreator, Bluray, BuBZ,
Buster79, Craig Stuntz, Cybersquire, Daniel.Cardenas, Db099221, Dionyziz, Download, Dspradau, ELApro, Ed Poor, Eirik, El C, Freiddie, Frencheigh, Ghalas, Giftlite, Glenn, H2g2bob,
Headbomb, Hongooi, Icairns, Izno, J04n, JohnBlackburne, Jrockley, Juansempere, Kenny56, Leonard G., Lewis86, Linas, Linksreiter, Loganlogn, Michael Hardy, MikeJ9919, Mintleaf, Mxn,
NawlinWiki, Oldlaptop321, Oleg Alexandrov, PAR, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Paul August, Peeter.joot, Pekaje, Peterlin, Plugwash, Qutezuce, Richard001, Sachin381, Slowmover, Small black sun,
Springy Waterbuffalo, Srleffler, Steve Quinn, Svdmolen, T-rex, The Anonymous One, The Young Ones, Thurth, Tim Starling, Topbanana, Trigamma, Ubigcow, Ufim, WakingLili, Whkoh,
Whosasking, Zaidpjd, 137 anonymous edits

Centripetal force  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=343061761  Contributors: 165.123.179.xxx, 16@r, 209.75.42.xxx, 62.6.213.xxx, A3RO, AAA!, Aceawh979, Addasc,
Alansohn, Aly89, AndrewDressel, Ap, AstroNomer, Atif.t2, Attilios, AugPi, Aïki, Ballz4kidz, Belinrahs, BenKovitz, Bobo192, Booyabazooka, Bowlhover, Brews ohare, Bryan Derksen,
Bucephalus, Caknuck, CanadianLinuxUser, Catgut, Cburnett, Choihei, Chrislk02, Cleonis, Conversion script, Crazycomputers, Danielleb32, David Tombe, DeadEyeArrow, Dgies, DiabloDan,
Dicklyon, Drw25, Dustimagic, Dutch chatty, ERcheck, Ency, Euicho, Ewlyahoocom, Exp HP, Fryed-peach, Fuhghettaboutit, Fuzzywallaby, FyzixFighter, Gary King, Ggsgas, Gpd209, Grilo-TC,
Gutza, Haein45, Harald88, Harland1, Headbomb, Hede2000, Henning Makholm, Hoof Hearted, Hotsaucekd, Ian Pitchford, Igoldste, Inklein, Insanity Incarnate, Iridescent, J.delanoy, JabberWok,
JoanneB, John254, Jpc4031, Karol Langner, Kendrick7, Kerrio, Kine, King of Hearts, Krawi, Kurykh, Kyle1278, Larry V, LeFrog, LeaveSleaves, LedgendGamer, Letmebefell, Lilac Soul,
Looxix, Maxno, McSly, Meadsteve, Michael Hardy, Michel M Verstraete, Mike Rosoft, Minesweeper, Minglex, Mini-Geek, Mion, MrDrBob, Mrthebeast, Musical Linguist, N5iln, Narayansg,
Natural Philosopher, NawlinWiki, Ndenison, Nein, Oleg Alexandrov, Oxymoron83, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Peterlin, Pezzells, Phil Boswell, PhySusie, Pisanidavid, Plvekamp, Principia, Radon210,
Rainmonger, Rfc1394, Rich Farmbrough, Rjstott, Roleplayer, Ronhjones, RoyBoy, Rracecarr, Sam Hocevar, Seeleschneider, SendTripItAll, Silly rabbit, Smyth, Snaxe920, Snowolf, Sodium,
Stefano85, StephenBuxton, Stwalkerster, Suhel1992, Supernatent, Svick, Tad Lincoln, Tarquin, Tedder, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tobywharne, Trelvis, UnaLaguna,
User6854, Utkarsh sinha, Uxorion, Versus22, Vinhtantran, VirEximius, Vuen, Weeclarky, WillowW, Wolfkeeper, Wtmitchell, Xanzzibar, Xerxes314, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yevgeny Kats,
Yummifruitbat, ZakuSage, 295 anonymous edits

Right- hand rule  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341222716  Contributors: ARTE, Aboalbiss, Addihockey10, Amit A., AndrewHarvey4, Arcadian, Asmeurer, Barticus88,
BenFrantzDale, Brianhe, Brisvegas, BrokenSegue, CarbonDioxide, Chetvorno, Christopherlin, Conrad.Irwin, Cybercobra, D2x2903, Dah31, Davidesq, Dfred, Dirkbb, Dnvrfantj, Dolphin51, Dual
Freq, Dvaselaar, Edlee, Eptin, Frungi, Gat0r, Giftlite, Gogo Dodo, GregorB, Grzegorj, Gustavb, Gzkn, H2g2bob, Hardyplants, Harej, Isnow, Jaytan, K Eliza Coyne, Kickingvegas, Kjoonlee,
Knotwork, LeheckaG, MFNickster, Macgyver, Mandarax, Martin Rizzo, Master Bigode, Mervyn, Michael Hardy, Mifeet, Minghong, Murakumo-Elite, Nigholith, Nitinpradhan406, Nmnogueira,
Oleg Alexandrov, Omegatron, OverlordQ, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Profero, Qmwne235, Random89, Rpf, Slash, Smack, Speedevil, Subhash15, Sysy, TakuyaMurata, Tesseran, Tosha, VIGNERON,
X42bn6, Zandperl, Zundark, 70 anonymous edits

Coriolis effect  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342827878  Contributors: 0, 100110100, 213.253.40.xxx, 2over0, @modi, A4, Aaron McDaid, Addshore, AdjustShift,
Afogarty, Ahoerstemeier, Ajm81, Alabastair, AlexD, Amorymeltzer, Amosslee, Ancheta Wis, Andrewjlockley, Andrewlp1991, Ann Stouter, Antandrus, Ante Aikio, Army1987, Ashhley!,
Ask123, Asknine, Atkinson 291, Atmoz, Attilios, Aviast, Awickert, AxelBoldt, AySz88, Ball of pain, Bantosh, Bazonka, Benua, Berkut, Bigbluefish, BillFlis, Birdhombre, Blahm, Blake-,
Bob.v.R, Bobblewik, Bobelehman, Bobo192, Boccobrock, Bowfee, Brews ohare, Brighterorange, Brockert, Bryan Derksen, Bsodmike, Buster2058, Bwilkins, CPColin, CWY2190, Calvin 1998,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianLinuxUser, Canthusus, Capecodeph, CarbonCopy, CardinalDan, Carrionluggage, Cbdorsett, Chanerdar, Charles Benham, Chetvorno, Chowbok,
Chrishomingtang, Chuck Carroll, Citrab121, Cjolly92, Cleonis, Cmapm, Colin Angus Mackay, CommonsDelinker, Conscious, Conversion script, Cornflake pirate, Correogsk, CurlyGirl93, DHN,
Dan100, Dancter, Dankelley, Davehi1, David J Wilson, David Tombe, DavidH, Deeptrivia, Denni, DerHexer, Deundre, DewiMorgan, Dgroseth, Diablod666, Dicklyon, Dirac66, Dna26,
Dolphin51, Dr Smith, Drphysics, EWS23, Echidna, Eejey, Eequor, Eisnel, El C, Elektron, Elg26, Ellywa, Elpaw, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Esperant, Eug, Evil saltine, Fail,
Faithlessthewonderboy, Fang Aili, Farbror Erik, Fenderbenderstrat, Firsfron, Flowirin, ForestDim, FrancoGG, Frecklefoot, Frogital, Funandtrvl, FyzixFighter, GangofOne, Gareth Owen, Gark,
Gavintlgold, Gbuffett, Gelo71, Gene Nygaard, Getztashida, Ghirlandajo, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gioto, Glenn, Glennd83, Gnowor, Gogo Dodo, Gwernol, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Hairy Dude,
HalfShadow, Headbomb, Herbert Dingle, Heron, Heycobber15, Howcheng, Hugh24, ILike2BeAnonymous, Ian Strachan, IceKarma, Ilario, Ilikemen123456789, Introgressive, Iridescent,
Irishguy, Itub, Itwilltakeoff, J.delanoy, JForget, Jahon whahite, Jake roman, Jarvi006, Javalenok, Jbuford39, Jdchamp31, Jeepday, JerryFriedman, Jh51681, Jimfbleak, Jimp, Jmcc150, John254,
Johndarrington, Jonathan Hall, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jowan2005, Jptate, Jrobinjapan, Jrockley, Juliancolton, Jxg, Kanonkas, Karl Palmen, Karol Langner, Kaszeta, Kbk, Kenyon,
KevinDM84, Kgasso, Kingpin13, KiwiKittyBoy, Kjkolb, Krea, Kuru, Kurykh, Kzollman, L fle, La goutte de pluie, LapoLuchini, Laserpointergenius, Laurascudder, Lestrade, Ligand, Lighthead,
Lights, Linas, Ling.Nut, Livajo, Lo2u, Logicus, Looxix, LordHarris, LostAccount, MC10, Magic.dominic, MagneticFlux, Makewa, Maniac18, Marnanel, Masiano, Maskedskulker, Mav,
Maximillion Pegasus, Melchoir, Menschenfresser, Mhs5392, Michael Hardy, Midway, Mikez, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mooquackwooftweetmeow, Morn, Mr Minchin, Mrniceguy85020, Mrtomh,
Mschlindwein, Myrtone86, Mysid, NCS2004, NHRHS2010, Nashpur, Netkinetic, Nfutvol, Nick.hardman, Nikai, Nilfanion, Nimur, NineEighteen, Obradovic Goran, Ohnoitsjamie, OlEnglish,
Old Moonraker, Oleg Alexandrov, Oliballz, OrbitOne, Oreo Priest, Oxymoron83, PIrish, ParticleMan, Pavel Vozenilek, Pbn, PeR, Pearle, Perceval, Pflatau, Philippe, Philosophus, Piano non
troppo, Pinethicket, Pishogue, Plasticup, Pleasantville, Plvekamp, Procellarum, Psb777, PseudoSudo, Pt, Quadrius, Rakesh Dhanireddy, Raylopez99, Rehman, RexNL, Riana, Rich Farmbrough,
Richard, Richard B, Ridernyc, Rjstott, Rmotz, Robinh, RodC, Rodrigob, Roflcopter123abc, Ronhjones, Rossami, Rracecarr, Rrburke, Rror, Rune.welsh, Runningonbrains, RupertMillard, Ruyn,
SWAdair, Saperaud, Saulpwanson, SchfiftyThree, Semperf, Sf222, Shadowlynk, Shantavira, SidP, Sigma 7, Sj, Skankboy, Smalljim, Spellcast, Splatt, Spoon!, Starpine, Stephenchou0722,
Steverapaport, Strider01, StuRat, Suisui, Svance, Svick, Swamp Ig, Szopen, TakuyaMurata, Tcsetattr, Techman224, That CS Guy, The Albino Alligator, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not
Be, The2dayslate, Thegreatdr, Theresa knott, Thick as a Planck, Thrapper, Tide rolls, Timbercat, Tinus, Titoxd, Tom, Tom is short, Tomtheman5, Tonderai, Toxicity², Trelvis, Tripodian, Tyler,
Udirock, User A1, Utcursch, Valley2city, Vandymorgan, VectorField, Vectro, Vildricianus, Viscious81, Vishnava, Vitaleyes, Vsmith, Vyznev Xnebara, Warren oO, Wavelength, White 720,
Wikiscient, William M. Connolley, Willking1979, WilyD, WitchDrSmith, Wolf grey, Wolfkeeper, Woodshed, Woodstone, Wperdue, Wwoods, XJamRastafire, Xaos, Xiner, Xxhopingtearsxx,
Yurivict, Zaheen, Zazou25, Zelda Simpson, Zvn, 797 anonymous edits

Angular momentum  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342242425  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., 165.123.179.xxx, 6birc, Abhishek727, Adam Rock, Alan Smithee 87, Alansohn,
AlexBrett, Andonee, Andrei Stroe, Andries, Anonymous Dissident, ArglebargleIV, Army1987, Asplace, AstroNomer, AugPi, AxelBoldt, Azuring, Barticus88, BenFrantzDale, Bensaccount,
Bowlhover, Brews ohare, Buster79, CambridgeBayWeather, Capecodeph, CarlosPatiño, Charles Matthews, Chetvorno, Closedmouth, Coffee, Complexica, Conversion script, Crazynas,
DCEdwards1966, DMacks, Dan Gluck, Daniel.Cardenas, Dark Formal, Darthmgh, Dave6, Davidryan168, Dedicated to learn, DerHexer, Dicklyon, Dkasak, Donatus, DrBob, EconoPhysicist, El
C, Enochlau, Enormousdude, F3meyer, Fibonacci, Fresheneesz, Fuhghettaboutit, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Glenn, Gonzalo Diethelm, H2g2bob, Happy-melon, Headbomb, Heron,
Hooperbloob, Ian Glenn, Icairns, J04n, JCO312, JaGa, JabberWok, JakeVortex, JeffBobFrank, Jmcc150, Joanjoc, JohnOwens, Jorfer, Joshua Issac, Karol Langner, Kenny56, Kristen Eriksen,
Ksant3, Laoma, Laterensis, LaurelESH, Linas, Localzuk, Loodog, Looxix, LorenzoB, Lowellian, Lseixas, Maelnuneb, MathKnight, Matusz, Maurice Carbonaro, Mets501, Michael Hardy,
Mike2vil, Milez, Monurkar, Mr Stephen, MuDavid, Nikai, Norvy, Oda Mari, Out of Phase User, Oxymoron83, P.wormer, PAR, Passw0rd, Patrick, Pdefer, Pharaoh of the Wizards, PhySusie,
Phys, Pkbharti, Psymun747, Qutezuce, R3m0t, Radon210, Rednblu, Rich Farmbrough, Richard001, Rmhermen, Rmrfstar, Ro234, RobertRHannah89, Rogper, Rossami, Rpiphysicsnerd1111,
Rrburke, Savant13, Sbyrnes321, Selkem, Shalom Yechiel, Solvang, Special-T, Sreyan, Srleffler, Starwiz, Steve Quinn, StewartMH, StradivariusTV, Taichi, Tarquin, TeeEmCee, The Anome, The
Thing That Should Not Be, TimothyRias, Timsdad, User A1, Vonregensburg, W0lfie, WaysToEscape, Wolfkeeper, Xanzzibar, Xenonice, Xxanthippe, Yawe, Zaidpjd, Zero sharp, Zzigee, 267
anonymous edits

Rotation  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342832776  Contributors: -- April, Abc518, Adam78, Algebraist, Allendaves, Altenmann, AndrewHowse, Andycjp, Antandrus,
AstroHurricane001, AstroNomer, AugPi, Badgernet, BenFrantzDale, Bobo192, BorisFromStockdale, Bremerenator, CALR, CLW, Calculus HK, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Chuckiesdad, Corvus
Fox, Cuchullain, Cutler, David Prentiss, Davidwr, Dbenbenn, Dcfleck, Dhruv.mongia, Dirkbb, Dna-webmaster, DocWatson42, Dyersgoodness, Dysprosia, Ed Poor, El C, Eliyak, Epbr123, Epolk,
Equendil, Erik9, Ewlyahoocom, Excirial, Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Fredrik, Friedfish, Gaff, Gaius Cornelius, Gbleem, Gerbrant, Giftlite, Glenn, Gnahz99, Hairy Dude, Harp, Heron, Hut 6.5,
Hyacinth, Ignatzmice, InkKznr, Inwind, J.delanoy, J04n, JMyrleFuller, Jaredwf, JasmineVioletWinston, Jeff3000, Jorunn, Jshadias, Juansempere, KSmrq, Karol Langner, Katefan0, Kborer,
Kosebamse, Levineps, M samadi, MER-C, MFNickster, MSGJ, MarSch, Martin451, MartinDK, MathsIsFun, Michael Hardy, Mintleaf, Modest Genius, NYCJosh, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Nurg,
Oleg Alexandrov, On the other side, Oneiros, PGNicolay, Pamplelune, Parvons, Patrick, Peterlin, Phil1988, PhySusie, Pinethicket, Plastadity, Pleasantville, Portalian, RJASE1, RJHall, RJaguar3,
Ranveig, Recury, Reddi, Res2216firestar, Rholton, Riott Nyte, Rjwilmsi, Romanskolduns, Schenectady, ScienceApologist, Semperf, Sjoerd22, Smack, Sriharsha.karnati, Stevertigo,
Suicidalhamster, Swpb, SylvieHorse, Sławomir Biały, TakuyaMurata, Tarquin, Taychef, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheEgyptian, ThomasO1989, Tim1357, Tom.k, Tomcj,
Tosha, VanBurenen, Wedesoft, WikiLaurent, Willworkforicecream, Wingchi, Wolfkeeper, Youssefsan, Zbayz, ZeroOne, 191 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 210

Rigid body  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340523351  Contributors: Abdull, Abdullah Köroğlu, Aboeing, Albedo, Algebraist, AndrewDressel, AndrewHowse, Borgx,
Brews ohare, Charles Matthews, Da Joe, E mraedarab, Equendil, Fropuff, Giftlite, Ideal gas equation, J04n, Jalexiou, JimR, Juansempere, Kubigula, Laurascudder, Linas, M samadi,
MarcusMaximus, Melesse, Nk, Obakeneko, Oleg Alexandrov, Origin415, P.wormer, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Peterlin, Rjwilmsi, Sanpaz, Shim'on, Silly rabbit, Starsong, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Thurth, XCelam, XJamRastafire, ZeroOne, 31 anonymous edits

Moment of inertia  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341729593  Contributors: 01001, ABCD, Ablewisuk, Aiden1983, Alansohn, AlphaPyro, Ameliorate!, Anarchic Fox,
Andres, Andy120, AquaDTRS, AugPi, Baccyak4H, Backpackadam, Basiliasayoto, BenFrantzDale, Bobo192, Boompiee, Bradjamesbrown, Budgie31, Burn, Camw, Cataphract, Charles
Matthews, Chetvorno, Complexica, Coneslayer, CosineKitty, Cpl Syx, Craig Pemberton, Cyp, D1ma5ad, Daniel Musto, Dashn98, Dbfirs, Dger, Dhollm, Dirkbb, Dndn1011, Dynabee,
E4mmacro, Ed Poor, Edsanville, Egendomligt, Email4mobile, EndingPop, Enok Walker, Enormousdude, Epbr123, Explicit, Feyrauth, Fresheneesz, FrozenUmbrella, Gaius Cornelius, Giftlite,
Giuliopp, Glueball, Gombang, Grendelkhan, Harriv, Headbomb, Hongooi, Hooperbloob, Hyperquantization, Icairns, Ihope127, Inwind, J-Wiki, Jketola, Joeycharles, Juansempere, KasugaHuang,
Keenan Pepper, Keilana, Kenny56, Lantonov, Laurascudder, Leifisme, Liddo-kun, Light current, LilHelpa, Loodog, Looxix, MagneticFlux, MarcusMaximus, Marcusyoder, Markengel,
MassProp, Mcld, Michael Hardy, Mike2vil, MrB, Nanomage, Nemti, Nephron, Ninly, NotAbel, Notheruser, Oblivious, Orionus, P.wormer, PJC, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Peterlin, Philip Trueman,
Pkbharti, Poochy, Prince Max (scientist), PrintfXh4, Qef, Qllach, Randomblue, RexNL, Rogper, Rpkrawczyk, Runner5k, Sarregouset, Scroggie, SebastianHelm, Sietse Snel, Silly rabbit,
SimpsonDG, SmartGuy, Sonett72, Southern Beau, SpaceFlight89, Spanish windmill, Starwiz, Stefan Kühn, StradivariusTV, StuRat, Stw, Subdolous, Sumanch, Sławomir Biały, Thingg,
ThomasOwens, Thorwald, Thurth, Tony.Cartwright24, Ty8inf, Typobox, Ultimus, User A1, V madhu, Viriditas, White Cat, WhiteHatLurker, WillowW, Wilsonkd, WinstonSmith, Xaos,
YellowMonkey, Yevgeny Kats, Yoshigev, Zaidpjd, Zedall, 345 anonymous edits

Radius of gyration  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340525792  Contributors: Basar, Bryan Derksen, Cardamon, Charles Matthews, Cyprus2k1, Davehi1, Dger, Dimsa,
Giftlite, Infovaeuniversis, John Vandenberg, Jshadias, Keilana, Keizo, Mathmoclaire, Michael zh, MitchamusB, Mpfiz, MyNameIsNotBob, Oleg Alexandrov, Safalra, SebastianHelm, Selkem,
SeventyThree, Splette, TVBZ28, Tastemyhouse, The Epopt, Thurth, Vicki Rosenzweig, Voorlandt, WillowW, XJamRastafire, ‫ينام‬, 39 anonymous edits

Rotational energy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=318827670  Contributors: Andries, BenRG, Bernard Marx, Bryan Derksen, CMD Beaker, Dynabee, Evil saltine,
Fresheneesz, Gene Nygaard, Glenn, Icairns, Jbergquist, JeLuF, Julleras, Krea, MarcusMaximus, Master of Puppets, Mnmngb, P.wormer, Passw0rd, Patrick, Rich Farmbrough, Salsb, Seandop,
SebastianHelm, Segv11, Thurth, Urhixidur, Xp54321, Zaidpjd, 18 anonymous edits

Rotation around a fixed axis  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=338811238  Contributors: AdjustShift, Andreworkney, Brews ohare, Caitlanandrew, Cardamon, Casmith 789,
Cathar11, Charles Matthews, Cometstyles, Dlqmatthew, Engrbatu, FedFeyn, Fresheneesz, Hongooi, Intangir, Jenzee, King of the North East, Linksreiter, Markhurd, Martin451, Mentifisto, Mike
Rosoft, Nick, NuclearWarfare, Oleg Alexandrov, P199, Paolo.dL, Patrick, Quantumelfmage, RainbowOfLight, Rlogan2, Rsfontenot, Sanpaz, SomeGuy11112, StradivariusTV, Tad Lincoln,
Wookiepower2, Zbayz, Лев Дубовой, 43 anonymous edits

Parallel axis theorem  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=340204897  Contributors: Ablewisuk, Acidwillburnyou, Currir55, Dbfirs, Deeptrivia, Dger, Giftlite, Gombang,
Hean.excogitate, Ideal gas equation, Keenan Pepper, Loodog, MagneticFlux, Mercury, Michael Hardy, Mykar15, Nebojsapajkic, Nk, Pkbharti, RG2, Salgueiro, Siddhant, SimpsonDG, StarLight,
Thurth, Tom.Reding, Umbertoumm, Vsmith, YellowMonkey, 34 anonymous edits

Perpendicular axis theorem  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=335169134  Contributors: Capricorn42, Dbfirs, Giftlite, Ideal gas equation, Pkbharti, Pol098, SimpsonDG,
Stephen, YellowMonkey, Zhen Lin, 4 anonymous edits

List of moment of inertia tensors  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=313141779  Contributors: Altkll, Da Joe, Eteq, Fedor Chelnokov, Glome83, Headbomb,
Jalexiou@hotmail.com, Jxmallett, Lantonov, Nimur, Qef, 17 anonymous edits

List of moments of inertia  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342609437  Contributors: 11kravitzn, A19grey, AquaDTRS, ArnoldReinhold, Ave matthew, Baccyak4H,
Bearasauras, Biscuittin, Bochum, Centrx, CiaPan, CosineKitty, Ctrl build, Da Joe, Dexter411, Dger, Dinglebarf, Dudecon, Email4mobile, Ems57fcva, Fresheneesz, Gerweck, Giftlite, Glome83,
Grendelkhan, Hammerite, Headbomb, Hemmingsen, Herbee, Icairns, Icemaja, J-Wiki, JForget, Joerger, Johnmc67, Just James, KasugaHuang, Kevin B12, Kolkje, LPFR, Laurascudder,
Mikiemike, Minesweeper, Obiliz, Paste, Patrick, Prince Max (scientist), Pt, Qef, Ram einstein, RedWolf, Segv11, Sonett72, Starwiz, Tagishsimon, TimBentley, Tresiden, Truthnlove, Zigger, 122
anonymous edits

Simple harmonic motion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342727977  Contributors: 190319m9, Ajl772, Alberto Orlandini, Algofoogle, AnarchMonarch, Anarchic Fox,
Andrew.in.snow, Anskas, Arc de Ciel, AugPi, BenFrantzDale, BiT, BigrTex, CQJ, CatherineMunro, Cburnett, Celebere, Chetvorno, Cimon Avaro, Clt13, Conrad.Irwin, Conversion script, Cutler,
Darklilac, Debresser, Deeptrivia, Dori, El pak, Emperorbma, Feezo, Ferengi, Firsfron, FlattenedShrimp, FranzSS, Fumon, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Golbez, Gonfer, Headbomb, Helenabella,
HexaChord, Hurricane111, Icairns, Insert pseudonym here, Intelligentsium, Itzchinoboi, Izno, J.Wolfe@unsw.edu.au, JARRAF RIBAS, JNW, Jake Wartenberg, Jamesontai, JerrySteal,
Jhartzell42, LeCire, Lensi, Linkinpark342, Little Mountain 5, Lookang, M-le-mot-dit, Masgatotkaca, Mat-C, Mazemaster, Mfox4000, Michael Hardy, Monkeyfacematsui, Moxfyre, Natural
Philosopher, NawlinWiki, Netkinetic, OS2Warp, Oleg Alexandrov, Pdch, Philc 0780, Philip Trueman, Pmcchesn, Polluxian, Poorsod, Ricardo sandoval, Sai2020, Sandycx, Sanpaz, Shane 42,
Slowking Man, Smeapancol, Sodium, Sparetimefiller, Srleffler, Stephenb, StradivariusTV, Sverdrup, TStein, Telanor, Tempodivalse, Thehakimboy, Tibbets74, TidusBlade, Tim Q. Wells,
Timboyk12, Timwilson85, TomyDuby, Trevorcox, Ubiq, Vishnava, Wizard191, Wolfmankurd, Xrchz, Xuanji, Yiyun, 253 anonymous edits

Pendulum  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342658814  Contributors: -- April, 0, 19.7, 2D, A3RO, Abeg92, AdjustShift, Afterguide, Ahoerstemeier, Ahudson, Aitias,
Alansohn, Alasdair, Alberto Orlandini, Aleenf1, Alex Bakharev, Alexf, Allen3, Alternately, Amitch, AnakngAraw, Ancheta Wis, AndonicO, Andrea ying, Ant895, Arse765, Art LaPella, Arthur
Warrington Thomas, Ascidian, Astroview120mm, Atif.t2, Atlant, AugPi, Aunt Entropy, BD2412, Babygene52, BadSeed, Bahy amir, Bartledan, Batmanand, Benplowman, Berland, Big Bird,
Bjaco18, Bobguy7, Bobo192, Bobwama, Bonadea, Booyabazooka, Brianjd, Bringitonhome, Brougham96, Bruunklaus, Bryan Derksen, Bscazz, Burn, CTZMSC3, CWY2190, Cactus.man,
Caesarsgrunt, Caiaffa, Capricorn42, CardinalDan, Carlainz, Cburnett, Cctoide, Charles Matthews, Chetvorno, Chowbok, Chris the speller, Chrisjohnson, Cleonis, Closedmouth, Coffee, Commit
charge, Connelly, Conscious, Corvus cornix, CosineKitty, Crowsnest, D. Recorder, DCLXVI, DVD R W, Da Joe, Dafatman11, DanielLC, Dannyboy3, Darkwind, Dave3457, DavidOaks, Dawn
Bard, Db099221, Dbfirs, DeNoel, Deconstructhis, Decumanus, Deeptrivia, Diablo890, Dil0001, Discospinster, Djinn112, Dr. Sunglasses, Dupz, Dust Filter, Echoez71, Ejurgaite, Ellywa,
Emilytwhon7, EnJx, Enigmatic Affliction, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, Eric45, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Evildictaitor, FR3AKofANiME, Faradayplank, FatalError, Filll, Fingerz, Finn-Zoltan,
Frankenpuppy, Freakonaleash752, FreddoMan, Freiddie, Fresheneesz, Friendly Neighbour, Fuenfundachtzig, Fweebee, Gateway1, Gelo71, Gene Nygaard, Geodyde, Giftlite, Gilliam,
Ginsengbomb, Glenn, Goldom, GrahamColm, Greenguy1090, Guardian, Gwernol, HLewis, Haakon, Habashia, Hannahsarah, Hmains, Hooperbloob, IL7Soulhunter, Icairns, Ifingh8u, Ikanreed,
IndulgentReader, Institute, Ironfistedmonkey, Itub, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JFreeman, JSpung, Jagged 85, JakeParker, James JK, James086, Jidan, JimVC3, Jimp, Jimwox, Jjron, Jklin, Jnb,
Johnteslade, Jtelliott, Julia Rossi, Juliancolton, Jusdafax, Kaiba, Kanonkas, Karn, Kesuari, Kevinmalana, Killerheartburn, Killiondude, Kimyu12, Kjkolb, Krod, Kungfuadam, Kurykh, Lefty
bidder, Leonard G., Lithium81, M-le-mot-dit, MER-C, Mani1, Markco1, Marsen, MarshallKe, Martin451, Masgatotkaca, Mattgirling, McSly, Mduvigneaud, Mellibere, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill
Hiccup, Mnshahri, Morrowulf, Mr.hotkeys, Msn26586, Mygerardromance, Ndrules5673, Nefreat, NellieBly, Neonblak, Netizen, Neurolysis, NewEnglandYankee, Nigelj, Niteowlneils,
Noerdosnum, Novacatz, Nsaa, Obnoxin, Oda Mari, Odedee, Oleg Alexandrov, Olivier, Onevalefan, Orioane, Oxymoron83, Paintman, Paladin2005, Papipaul, Patdreams, Patrick, Pearle, Pedro,
PericlesofAthens, Peter R Hastings, Peterlin, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phe, Pigsonthewing, PlusMinus, Pol098, Pooplove, Poorsod, Porqin, Prashanth338, Prashanthns, Psmith, Pstuart, Qtoktok,
Qwerta4, R'n'B, RJASE1, RJHall, RandomP, Recognizance, RedHillian, Redgolpe, Reeveorama, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, RobertG, Robinh, Ronhjones, Rracecarr, SJP, SUPRATIM DEY,
Sagaciousuk, Scientizzle, Scribblesinmindscapes, Shadoku, Shadow11572, Shigityboombopbam, Sidmow, SilasW, Singularity, Sionus, Sir Isaac, Sky Attacker, Slakr, Smarterchild 13,
Snottywong, Snowmanradio, Soliloquial, Spir, Spitfire, SquidSK, Steel, Steven Weston, Steven Zhang, Storm Rider, StuffOfInterest, Sublime50lbc, Sverdrup, Swpb, Symplectic Map, Tcncv,
Teknic, Tellyaddict, Teradon, Ternit, Terry1944, The Thing That Should Not Be, The ed17, The sock that should not be, TheBendster, TheRanger, Thingg, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Timc,
Tivedshambo, Tom harrison, Tslocum, Ukexpat, Ummit, Unc.hbar, UninvitedCompany, Unrulyevil, VN503, Vald, VanBurenen, Velela, Vicarious, Viper426, Vivio Testarossa, Vsmith, Waggers,
Well, girl, look at you!, WereSpielChequers, WikHead, Wikieditor06, WingkeeLEE, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, XJamRastafire, XaosBits, Xompanthy, Youandme, Zaidpjd, Zamphuor, Zidane
tribal, Zocky, Περίεργος, 863 anonymous edits

Precession  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=341496443  Contributors: 200.191.188.xxx, Abel Cavaşi, AcePilot101, Adam37, Akhen3sir, AlexDusty, AllanBz, Ancheta Wis,
Andre Engels, AndrewDressel, Angelobear, Aramael, AxelBoldt, B00P, Benet Allen, Big Brother 1984, BlueMoonlet, Bryan Derksen, CSWarren, Cacycle, Caid Raspa, Canderson7,
CardinalDan, Charles Matthews, Chenzw, Cleonis, Conversion script, Crastinbic, Cwolfsheep, Cyde, Daniel Arteaga, DavidGPeters, Deadstar, Dfan, Dhaluza, Dmh, Dougweller, Doverbeach01,
Dr Dec, Drake144, Eclecticology, Edward321, Ekhalom, Enochlau, Ewlyahoocom, Fuchsias, Gazouille, Gdr, Giftlite, Glenn, Graymornings, GregBenson, Harp, HeikoEvermann, Henrygb,
Hephaestos, Hesperian, Hhawks12, Hkyriazi, Ian Pitchford, Iceblock, Igoldste, Ingolfson, Jerzy, JesseW, Jic, Jmundo, Joe Kress, Jorfer, Joshua Issac, Juansempere, Karl E. V. Palmen, Karl
Palmen, Karol Langner, KasugaHuang, Kbdank71, Ke6jjj, Kegrad, Kieff, Kingpin13, Kjkolb, Kungfuadam, Kwekubo, La goutte de pluie, Leighxucl, Lemontea, Linas, Lir, Littlealien182, Livajo,
Logologist, Looxix, Lousedamouse, Lumidek, MDSL2005, Maestlin, MarcusMaximus, Mark Foskey, Markus Schmaus, Marx Gomes, MattWright, Maurog, Mav, Melaen, Miraceti, Mormegil,
Mosesofmason, Mulad, Mysid, Müslimix, Natalya, Nemti, Nergaal, Nikai, Ocatecir, Odedee, P.Schellart, Patrick, Paul Drye, Pdn, Persian Poet Gal, Phoenix-forgotten, Pjacobi, Ponder, Portalian,
Portnadler, Pt, ReelExterminator, ReubenGarrett, Romanm, Ryangdotexe, SDC, Sam Korn, Series35, Shimmin, Simeon H, Smg6512, SpeedyGonsales, Spiffy sperry, StuRat, Stw,
TenOfAllTrades, The Anome, The Rationalist, The way, the truth, and the light, Tom Peters, Tom Radulovich, Tony Sidaway, Ungtss, Vicki Rosenzweig, Visionismind, Vuong Ngan Ha,
W.F.Galway, WISo, Wereon, Wetman, Whosasking, William M. Connolley, WolfmanSF, Worldtraveller, XDanielx, Xmnemonic, Xp54321, Zbayz, 224 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 211

Larmor precession  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=336607062  Contributors: Bauleaf, Berland, Charvest, Choij, Chutznik, Csigabi, Dchristle, Dirac66, G-W, Gillen, Henry
Delforn, Karol Langner, Linas, Michael Hardy, Nephron, Nyctea, Pegship, SciYann, Stone, Tdonoughue, WISo, Yamavu, 20 anonymous edits

Thomas precession  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=333993713  Contributors: AndrewDressel, BenRG, Charles Matthews, Charvest, Conscious, Delaszk, GregorB,
Jjalexand, KasugaHuang, Lantonov, Linas, Marasmusine, Mushin, NSH001, Oxnard28, P.Schellart, Pegship, Phys, Pt, Rgdboer, Sbyrnes321, Sinik, Star-Algebra, Tim Starling, YK Times,
Yill577, 16 anonymous edits

Gyroscope  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342611690  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., AGToth, Abhilashharpale, Ahoerstemeier, Airdoo0, Ale jrb, Alexmcfire, Amir198332,
Anclation, Andres, AndrewDressel, Angellcruz, Apostolyuk, Arnero, Ars17, Arydberg, Attilios, Audriusa, AxelBoldt, BarretBonden, Bigbluefish, Bob, Bovineone, Brenont, Bryan Derksen,
Capitalistroadster, Chuunen Baka, Ckatz, Cleonis, Clicketyclack, Clt13, CoolHand77, Crevox, Crum375, Cwkmail, Dancter, Dark Mage, David Haslam, Deagels, Dekisugi, Dmitrek,
DonPMitchell, Dori, Dr Dec, Edison, Edoe, Eliyak, Eteq, Fapertl, Fixentries, Frebel93, FuturedOrange, GTGUSD, GVasil, GeeJo, Giftlite, Glenn, Glennturner, Gordon Vigurs, Gregorydavid,
Gyroscopic, Hackwrench, Hadal, Haham hanuka, Hailey C. Shannon, Hairy Dude, Headbomb, Hephaestos, Heron, Hooperbloob, Hraefen, Hughhunt, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Imsome, Isis4563,
Jamymc, JarrodWood, Jary, Jboyles, Jitse Niesen, Jjjsixsix, Johnjohuy23, Jok2000, Jorfer, JustinWick, Karada, Keenan Pepper, Kenny56, Kevins8, Kieff, Kirchsw, Light current, Linas,
MONESTIER, MSGJ, MacGyver07, Macaddct1984, Magnus Manske, Mandarax, Mani1, Mare, MartinDK, Mayooranathan, Mboverload, Mhss, Michael Hardy, Michal Jurosz, Mr. Lefty,
Muhends, NawlinWiki, NeilN, Nergaal, Nick Pisarro, Jr., Nuno Tavares, Patrick, Pepperpiggle, Peripitus, Petri Krohn, Pleasantville, Pol098, Ragesoss, Rama, Raven in Orbit, RedKnight7,
Roberta F., Robth, Rracecarr, S3000, Sammy0001, Sarah, Selkem, Spitfire, Spliced, SpookyMulder, Stephane.magnenat, StradivariusTV, Svdmolen, Tabletop, TakuyaMurata, The Anome, The
Great Apple, The Singularity, Thelardking, Themfromspace, Thumperward, Tiburon, Tide rolls, Tim Song II, Tony Sidaway, Trusilver, Tuspm, Uncle Milty, Unyoyega, Uorden, Vaceituno, W T
L, WikHead, Wolfkeeper, XJamRastafire, Xenonice, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yintan, Zandperl, Zazou25, Zowie, Zr40, 293 anonymous edits

Orbit  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=342446952  Contributors: (, -- April, 0.39, 128.60.24.xxx, 2over0, 84user, A bit iffy, A.M.962, A8UDI, Agge1000, Ahoerstemeier,
Aitias, Alan Peakall, Alansohn, Alec Connors, Alex.tan, Alfio, Algont, Andy M. Wang, Andycjp, Ante Perkovic, Anyeverybody, Arakunem, Art LaPella, AstroNomer, Azcolvin429, Baa,
Bagatelle, Bastiche, Beland, Beleaf33, Blue520, BobKawanaka, Bobo192, Bowlhover, Bryan Derksen, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CapitalR, Captain panda, Carnildo, Catgut, Causa sui,
Ccraccnam, Cgsguy2, Ch'marr, CharlesGillingham, Chrismiceli, Christopher Thomas, Ciphers, Clappingsimon, Classicalhistory009, Cole.christensen, Cometstyles, Conversion script, Cpiral,
Crazysane, Creator editer, Curps, Da monster under your bed, Daleband, DancingPenguin, Daniel Arteaga, DanielDeibler, Danski14, David Tombe, DavidMcKenzie, Davidmckenzie, DerHexer,
Dicklyon, Discospinster, Djr32, Doc Perel, Doctor sw27, Doradus, Doulos Christos, Dr. Sunglasses, Dragice, Dreamster, Duk, Dvogel, Dysepsion, Dysprosia, EFletcher, Easphi, Eastfrisian,
Eddie Dealtry, Ederiel, Eeekster, Eequor, Egg plant, Einsidler, Eisnel, El pak, Elva7025, Emc2, EmirA, Emote, Epbr123, Equendil, Erik9, Everyme, FKmailliW, Faradayplank, Feyrauth, Firsfron,
Fleem, Flyguy649, Fosse8, Franamax, Francs2000, FrankH, Freakytim, Fsswsb, FyzixFighter, GTBacchus, Gadfium, Galoubet, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gilliam, Glane23, Glenn, Gurch, Hadal,
Haeleth, Harold f, Harp, He6kd, Heron, Hildenja, Hmschallenger, Hobartimus, Icairns, Igoldste, Iokseng, Iridescent, J.delanoy, J04n, JTN, JaGa, Jacobko, Jer10 95, Jerry teps, Jimius, Jiy,
JohnOwens, Joymmart, Jrockley, Juliancolton Alternative, Jyril, KamuiShirou, Karl Palmen, Karl-Henner, Karol Langner, Kbdank71, Kissnmakeup, Kubigula, Kukini, Kurtan, Lakinekaki,
Leafnode, Leon7, Leuqarte, Levineps, Li-sung, Liverpoolfan567, Logicus, Lomn, Looxix, Lrmcfarland, Lunokhod, Lvzon, M0ffx, Mackerm, Marc Venot, Marcus Brute, Mav, Meco, Metacomet,
Mgiganteus1, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Michaelbusch, Mike Rosoft, Mike s, Minesweeper, MinnieRae, Mintleaf, Mishuletz, Mlm42, N2e, Nabla, Nae'blis, Nakon, NickNak, Nickshanks,
Nifky?, Obradovic Goran, Oda Mari, PGWG, Parvons, Patrick, Paul August, PhySusie, Pi@k, Pizza Puzzle, Plrk, Pot, Propaniac, Ptitelise, QuantumEleven, Qxz, RJHall, Ray Van De Walker,
Rich Farmbrough, Richard0612, Richhoncho, Rje, Rjwoer, Rollo44, Rracecarr, Ryulong, Saintrain, Saintswithin, Salix alba, Sam, Sam Hocevar, Sam13024, Sandstein, Saros136, Sdsds, Seth ze,
SeventyThree, Shantavira, Shimeru, Sly Marbro 03, Smartech, Smarthead88, Smurfix, Sowelilitokiemu, Speed CG, Spoon!, Stamcose, Stemonitis, SuperHamster, Swpb, THEN WHO WAS
PHONE?, TJRC, Taka2007, Tapir Terrific, Tauʻolunga, Terry0051, That Guy, From That Show!, The Anome, The Land, The Thing That Should Not Be, The way, the truth, and the light,
TheKMan, TheRanger, Tim Starling, Timir2, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Tom Peters, Tosha, Turk oğlan, Twoe gappes, Ultimatewikisurfer, Unigfjkl, Unyoyega, Urhixidur, Variable, Venu62, Voyajer,
Vsmith, Wassermann, Wavelength, Whalesmith, WikiLaurent, Will ward, WilliamKF, Wolfkeeper, Wuyanhuiyishi, Wwheaton, Wwoods, XJamRastafire, Yekrats, Youandme, Your vexation,
Zaheen, Zambani, Zginder, Zhatt, 354 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 212

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:Pahoeoe fountain original.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pahoeoe_fountain_original.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Jim D. Griggs, HVO (USGS)
staff photographer
Image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Astronaut-EVA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:Lightning in Arlington.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lightning_in_Arlington.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Postdlf
Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francesco_Hayez_001.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Emijrp, G.dallorto, Mattes, Tomisti
Image:Bose Einstein condensate.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NIST/JILA/CU-Boulder
Image:CMS Higgs-event.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Belfer00, Harp, Kaldari, Lapka, Pieter Kuiper, 1
anonymous edits
Image:Hubble ultra deep field high rez edit1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hubble_ultra_deep_field_high_rez_edit1.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
User:Noodle snacks
Image:Modernphysicsfields.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modernphysicsfields.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: F l a n k e r, Karelj,
Mdd, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, YassineMrabet, 1 anonymous edits
Image:IMG 1729 Gemaal met schroef van Archimedes bij Kinderdijk.JPG  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IMG_1729_Gemaal_met_schroef_van_Archimedes_bij_Kinderdijk.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Abdullah Köroğlu, Ellywa, Fransvannes, Havang(nl), Juiced lemon, Koba-chan, WikipediaMaster
Image:Feynman'sDiagram.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Feynman'sDiagram.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Ancheta
Wis
Image:Meissner effect p1390048.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meissner_effect_p1390048.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
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File:Acceleration.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acceleration.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Brews ohare
File:Acceleration components.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acceleration_components.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
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Image:Force.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Force.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Penubag
Image:Aristoteles Louvre2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aristoteles_Louvre2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Original
uploader was Interstate295revisited at en.wikipedia
Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Algorithme,
Bjankuloski06en, Grenavitar, Infrogmation, Kelson, Kilom691, Porao, Saperaud, Semnoz, Siebrand, Sparkit, Thomas Gun, Wknight94, Wst, Zaphod, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Freebodydiagram3 pn.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Freebodydiagram3_pn.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Penubag
Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Alefisico, Alno, Aushulz, Deadstar, G.dallorto,
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Image:Beta Negative Decay.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Beta_Negative_Decay.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Joelholdsworth
Image:Falling ball.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Falling_ball.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:MichaelMaggs
Image:Incline.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Incline.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Stannered
Image:Spring-mass2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spring-mass2.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:BillC
Image:Stokes sphere.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stokes_sphere.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Kraaiennest
Image:Torque animation.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torque_animation.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Yawe
Image:Cross product vector.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cross_product_vector.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Acdx
Image:Right hand rule cross product.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Right_hand_rule_cross_product.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Acdx
Image:Cross product parallelogram.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cross_product_parallelogram.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Acdx
Image:Parallelpiped volume.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parallelpiped_volume.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Brews ohare
Image:Exterior calc cross product.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Exterior_calc_cross_product.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
Leland McInnes at en.wikipedia
Image:Torque,_position,_and_force.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torque,_position,_and_force.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
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Image:moment arm.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_arm.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Tim Starling
Image:PrecessionOfATop.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PrecessionOfATop.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Wxs
Image:Curva di coppia motrice.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Curva_di_coppia_motrice.gif  License: Free Art License  Contributors: User:A7N8X
Image:CoG stable.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CoG_stable.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Helix84
Image:How chair suspension is done.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:How_chair_suspension_is_done.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bender235,
Grafite, Muchosucko
Image:Solarsystembarycenter.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Solarsystembarycenter.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: Carl Smith
Image:orbit1.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit1.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Friendlystar, Julo, Pieter Kuiper
Image:orbit2.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit2.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Friendlystar, Julo, Pieter Kuiper
Image:orbit3.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit3.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Friendlystar, Julo, Kallerna, Pieter Kuiper, Rnt20, 1 anonymous edits
Image:orbit4.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit4.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Friendlystar, Julo, Pieter Kuiper
Image:orbit5.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orbit5.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Friendlystar, Julo, Pieter Kuiper
Image:Center gravity 0.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Center_gravity_0.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Satyakamk
Image:Center gravity 1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Center_gravity_1.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Satyakamk
Image:Center gravity 2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Center_gravity_2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Satyakamk
Image:CoG of L shape.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CoG_of_L_shape.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original JPG (now deleted)
created by Wikicheng. SVG version created by w:en:User:DnetSvgDnetSvg.
Image:COG 1.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COG_1.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:CloakReaver
Image:COG 2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COG_2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was BAxelrod at en.wikipedia
Image:COG 3.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COG_3.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was BAxelrod at en.wikipedia
Image:Amsler integrometer front.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amsler_integrometer_front.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:
Original uploader was Sangwinc at en.wikipedia
Image:Moment planimeter.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_planimeter.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
Sangwinc
Image:Uniform circular motion.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uniform_circular_motion.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Brews ohare
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 213

Image:Velocity-acceleration.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Velocity-acceleration.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:

User:Brews ohare
Image:Breaking String.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Breaking_String.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Brews
ohare
Image:Angular velocity.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Angular_velocity.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:DnetSvg
Image:AngularVelocity01.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AngularVelocity01.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PAR
Image:AngularVelocity02.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AngularVelocity02.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:PAR
Image:Centripetal force diagram.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Centripetal_force_diagram.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Booyabazooka
Image:Uniform motion in circle.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uniform_motion_in_circle.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Brews ohare
Image:Circular motion vectors.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Circular_motion_vectors.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Brews ohare
Image:Banked turn.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banked_turn.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Brews ohare
Image:Nonuniform circular motion.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nonuniform_circular_motion.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Brews ohare
Image:Polar unit vectors.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polar_unit_vectors.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Brews ohare
Image:Local unit vectors.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Local_unit_vectors.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Brews ohare
Image:Cartesian coordinate system handedness.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cartesian_coordinate_system_handedness.svg  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: Darapti, Gustavb, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Rechte-hand-regel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rechte-hand-regel.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Abdull
Image:Right hand rule.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Right_hand_rule.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ARTE, Habutae-mochi, Rnkv2, 2 anonymous
edits
Image:LeftHandOutline.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LeftHandOutline.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Douglas Morrison DougM
Image:Corioliskraftanimation.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Corioliskraftanimation.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Hubi
Image:Earth coordinates.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earth_coordinates.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Brews ohare
Image:Low pressure system over Iceland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Low_pressure_system_over_Iceland.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA
Image:Coriolis effect10.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coriolis_effect10.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: User:Cleontuni,
User:Ogre
Image:Coriolis effect14.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coriolis_effect14.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Cleontuni, Saperaud
Image:Target on turntable.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Target_on_turntable.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Brews ohare
Image:Trajectory for three angles of launch.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trajectory_for_three_angles_of_launch.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: Brews_ohare
Image:Vector relationships.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vector_relationships.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Brews ohare
Image:Cannon force components.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cannon_force_components.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Brews ohare
Image:Coriolis construction.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coriolis_construction.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
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Image:Points of view.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Points_of_view.PNG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Brews
ohare
Image:Coriolis effect11.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coriolis_effect11.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Matthew Trump
Image:Forces parabolic dish.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Forces_parabolic_dish.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Cleonis
Image:Parabolic dish ellipse oscill.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parabolic_dish_ellipse_oscill.gif  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Cleonis
Image:Gyroskop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gyroskop.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Kiko2000, Opponent, Tano4595,
WikipediaMaster
Image:Rotating Sphere.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rotating_Sphere.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Maksim, Oleg Alexandrov,
W!B:, WikipediaMaster, 4 anonymous edits
Image:Rotation illustration.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rotation_illustration.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: HB, Juiced lemon, Maksim, Oleg
Alexandrov, Tano4595, W!B:
Image: Rotation_v_spin_Parent_1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rotation_v_spin_Parent_1.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Allendaves
Image:Flight dynamics with text.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flight_dynamics_with_text.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:ZeroOne
Image:AxialTiltObliquity.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AxialTiltObliquity.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Dna-webmaster
Image:synchro.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Synchro.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Breesk
Image:moment of inertia disc.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_disc.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Qef
Image:Reference line.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reference_line.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rsfontenot
Image:Reference axis.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reference_axis.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Rsfontenot
Image:Parallelaxes.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Parallelaxes.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Keenan Pepper at en.wikipedia
Image:moment of inertia solid sphere.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_solid_sphere.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Qef
Image:moment of inertia hollow sphere.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_hollow_sphere.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Qef
Image:moment of inertia cone.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_cone.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Qef, User:Wiso
Image:moment of inertia solid rectangular prism.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_solid_rectangular_prism.png  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: http://www.vectorsite.net/gfxzmain.html
Image:Moment of inertia rod end.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_rod_end.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
http://www.vectorsite.net/gfxzmain.html
Image:Moment of inertia rod center.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_rod_center.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
http://www.vectorsite.net/gfxzmain.html
Image:Moment of inertia solid cylinder.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_solid_cylinder.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Qef
Image:Moment of inertia thick cylinder h.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_thick_cylinder_h.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:CiaPan
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 214

Image:moment of inertia thin cylinder.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_thin_cylinder.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
http://www.vectorsite.net/gfxzmain.html
Image:moment of inertia thick cylinder h.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_thick_cylinder_h.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:CiaPan
Image:moment of inertia solid cylinder.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_solid_cylinder.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Qef
Image:moment of inertia hoop.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_hoop.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Qef
Image:Ellipsoid_321.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellipsoid_321.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Thrawn562, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Recplane.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Recplane.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Matthew ave jor
Image:Recplaneoff.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Recplaneoff.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Matthew
Image:moment of inertia rod center.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_rod_center.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
http://www.vectorsite.net/gfxzmain.html
Image:moment of inertia rod end.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moment_of_inertia_rod_end.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
http://www.vectorsite.net/gfxzmain.html
Image:torus cycles.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Torus_cycles.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Fropuff
Image:Polygon moment of inertia.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polygon_moment_of_inertia.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
w:en:User:Glome83Glome83
Image:Gaussian 2d.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaussian_2d.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Michael Hardy
Image:Simple harmonic motion animation.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_harmonic_motion_animation.gif  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Evil_saltine
File:Simple Harmonic Motion Orbit.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_Harmonic_Motion_Orbit.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Mazemaster
File:muelle.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Muelle.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: Gonfer
Image:Simple harmonic oscillator.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_harmonic_oscillator.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Oleg Alexandrov
Image:Simple Pendulum Oscillator.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_Pendulum_Oscillator.gif  License: Free Art License  Contributors: User:Tibbets74
File:Simple gravity pendulum.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_gravity_pendulum.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Chetvorno
File:Pendulum animation.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pendulum_animation.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: hubert.christiaen at telenet dot be
File:Gaine Comtoise.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gaine_Comtoise.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:FrancoisFC
File:Grandfather clock pendulum.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grandfather_clock_pendulum.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Charles H. Henderson
and John F. Woodhull
File:Mercury pendulum.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mercury_pendulum.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Augustin-Privat Deschanel
File:Tidens naturlære fig22.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tidens_naturlære_fig22.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Bisgaard
File:Ellicott pendulum.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ellicott_pendulum.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Augustin-Privat Deschanel
File:Riefler clock NIST.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Riefler_clock_NIST.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Michael A. Lombardi, Thomas P. Heavner,
Steven R. Jefferts
File:Pendulum-with-Escapement.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pendulum-with-Escapement.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Silas Ellsworth Coleman
File:Howard astronomical regulator clock.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Howard_astronomical_regulator_clock.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Edward S. Holden
File: Shortt Synchronome free pendulum clock.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shortt_Synchronome_free_pendulum_clock.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Not known
File:Borda and Cassini pendulum experiment.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Borda_and_Cassini_pendulum_experiment.png  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Jean-Charles de Borda and Jean-Dominique Cassini
File:Kater pendulum vertical.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kater_pendulum_vertical.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Watson
File:Kater pendulum use.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kater_pendulum_use.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Henry Kater
File:Using Kater pendulum in India.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Using_Kater_pendulum_in_India.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John
Goldingham
File:Repsold pendulum.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Repsold_pendulum.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Halsey Dunwoody
File:Mendenhall gravimeter pendulums.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mendenhall_gravimeter_pendulums.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: G. R.
Putnam
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