1

CONNECTING THEORY TO PRACTICE: ELL IN ECE

Connecting Theory to Practice: Implications for Instruction of ELL Students in Early Childhood
Education

INTRODUCTION
Various theoretical frameworks discussed throughout the Multilingual Socialization and
Development course this quarter can be translated into five best practices for English language
learner (ELL) instruction, the first two of which will be described as they relate to the interaction
between the learning climate and second language acquisition (SLA) in early childhood. The
following analysis of theoretical perspectives has sought to demonstrate how effective language
education pedagogy is best supported by the creation of a learning environment which, 1)
practices the implementation of a strong sense of sociocultural sensitivity and socio-emotional
supportiveness and additionally, 2) provides equitable access and support for both the first and
second languages within its design and implementation. By following these two practices, in
addition to the three outlined in later sections, education serves as a foundational, organic
development of the community as a whole, and a reflection of theory-building through
understanding. The aforementioned first two practices are closely related, but bring to light two
distinct needs of the educational environment to ensure that transferrable learning is built upon in
meaningful ways. What would meaningful and transferrable learning look like in ELL education
in early childhood?

2
CONNECTING THEORY TO PRACTICE: ELL IN ECE
1) An effective ELL classroom environment practices the implementation of a strong sense of
sociocultural sensitivity and socio-emotional supportiveness
As authors Lightbrown and Spada (2006) contend, the sociocultural environment of the
school and its community directly shape the various forms of micro-interactions that take place
in a second language learning classroom, and therefore the nature of the students learning over
the course of the school year. Studies within their How Languages Are Learned (2006)
publication provide evidence supporting the theory that the creation of social relations,
identities and ideologies plays a central role in endowing learners with the appropriate
languaculture necessary to belong to their sociocultural group. This directly implies that
proficiency in second language learning cannot be examined without first considering the impact
of social learning contexts within the classroom (pp. 473-475). Furthermore, the focus of
ethnographic studies in second or foreign languages classrooms is not on learning or teaching
alone, but also on the impact of social, cultural, and political realities on cognitive
development, especially in terms of linguistic and social growth. Based upon conclusions made
in three separate ethnographies, Lightbrown and Spada (2006) demonstrate that the role of sociopolitical change; separation of second language learners; and contrasting language environments
in the home and at school all directly affect the development of the learner (p. 133-135). In order
to combat these inherent challenges within the diverse ELL demographic in the United States,
features of a supportive classroom include providing a comfortable environment for learning;
allowing for planned, meaningful interactions with peers; using language to support other forms
of learning; making available problem solving opportunities; providing models of language
that are challenging but overall comprehensible; and providing plenty of opportunities for the
teacher and student to interact on an individual basis (Gibbons 1993, p. 11). These features

3
CONNECTING THEORY TO PRACTICE: ELL IN ECE
indicate the practice of sociocultural sensitivity, and promote learning on the basis of its role in
socially responsible and supportive ELL instruction.

2) An effective ELL classroom environment promotes the practice of equitable access to

interactions and learning resources in both the first and second languages of the learners
As discussed above, language learning is a primarily social experience, because the
role of language is to use action and communication in order to achieve things in the real
world. Especially in its earliest stages, the ELL learning experience reflects a reliance on social
interaction to first introduce ideas that will later be acquired and owned conceptually (Walqu
& Van Lier 2010, p. 4-5). With this assertion in mind, a second practice of an effective ELL
classroom environment is to promote equitable access to interactions and learning resources in
both the first and second languages of the learners. This second best practice reflects the most
direct environmental factor, the community inside and outside of the classroom, that best
supports motivation in learning; most notably in that learning must be meaningful and connected
to the learners previous knowledge, sociocultural context and educational goals.
Second language acquisition passes through systematic and predictable developmental
sequences, just as first language acquisition does, and many aspects of its sequences are
remarkably similar among learners, even across a wide range of different first language
backgrounds (Lightbrown & Spada, 1996, p. 83). In order to provide equitable access to
materials and support in both the first and second languages, the ELL classroom environment
must capitalize on the impact of learner identity and motivation as evidenced by their connection
to meaningful, transferrable learning within the whole of their community. Teachers must
therefore strive not to affect intrinsic motivation beyond their own understanding, but to instead

4
CONNECTING THEORY TO PRACTICE: ELL IN ECE
provide a supportive and engaging environment in which the student can experience
success through an understanding of their pre-existing knowledge, most significantly
connecting first and second languages (Lightbrown & Spada, 1996, p.185). By promoting
equitable opportunities for varied learning in the classroom environment, educators can
synthesize the real world experiences of their students with the support to pursue knowledge
that will best serve them as a member of the community.
Connecting the practice of sociocultural sensitivity to equitable educational access
establishes the need for learning opportunities that are personally meaningful and reflect the
complex factors of identity, motivation and investment in ELLs. Achieving communicative
competence in a second language involves the learning of vocabulary, pragmatics, and
pronunciation, in addition to the acquisition of morphology and syntax, but current views on
second language acquisition (SLA) emphasize the interaction between factors such as first
language, cognitive processes and samples of target language input (Lightbrown & Spada, 1996,
p. 96). Second language learners differ from young children acquiring their first language in
aspects of both their characteristics and the environments in which their respective language
acquisitions occur (Lightbrown & Spada, 1996, p. 29). Consequently, access to materials and
opportunities for interactions in both languages is crucial to achieving knowledge that is practical
and transferrable to new situations, especially because much of those contexts are outside of the
formal classroom environment itself. For example, the statement that the best way to learn new
vocabulary is through reading has been proven to be true, but there are important factors to
consider in making this assertion, as learning context greatly influences growth of vocabulary.
For example, research demonstrates that second language learners find personally relevant or

5
CONNECTING THEORY TO PRACTICE: ELL IN ECE
interesting reading material to be most beneficial to their word-learning (Lightbrown & Spada,
1996, p. 188).
The remaining three ELL practices discussed in the upcoming sections of this study
specifically describe ways in which general theory in SLA needs to account for the diversity and
range of characteristics and contexts of language learners in order to successfully create and
implement effective language teaching practice (Lightbrown & Spada, 1996, p. 50). This
includes an emphasis on the importance of building on prior knowledge (especially the
knowledge of a first language); differentiating relationships between and across ideas; and
especially encouraging learner focus on the process of knowing, or metacognition; all of which
are essential to fostering second language learning. According to the Quality Teaching for
English Learners (QTEL) initiative, these foci, along with particular tenets of sociocultural
theory, indicate that a learning environment which emphasizes pedagogy of promise (i.e., with
an inclusive, future-forward perspective) and equitable access to learning resources enables
second language learners to thrive in both a social and academic way (Walqu & Van Lier, 2010,
p. 12).

CONCLUSION
Ron Brandts book entitled Powerful Learning (1998) outlines characteristics of an
educational climate that supports powerful acquisition of knowledge. Although it is not
specifically ELL- or early childhood-directed as is this discussion, I feel that the following
conditions included in his central argument outline essential principles that an effective language
learning environment should share in its practices of sociocultural sensitivity and equitable
access:

6
CONNECTING THEORY TO PRACTICE: ELL IN ECE
People learn what is personally meaningful to them; individuals learn differently; people
construct new knowledge by building on their current knowledge; much learning occurs
through social interaction; a positive emotional climate strengthens learning; and learning
is influenced by the total environment (p. 53)

Additionally, Brandt (1998) asserts that powerful learning occurs in schools which are open
systems; that is, those that foster classroom environments which are sensitive to the external
environment, including social, political, and economic conditions (p. 53); as a whole, the ELL
learning climate must be sensitive to the community contexts and identities that create a wide
spectrum of realities for its students in order to best unlock their potential as lifelong learners of
language. Lightbrown & Spada (1996) list characteristics of three different SLA settings, natural
acquistion, structure-based instruction, and communicative instruction as observable language
learning experiences (p. 110-114). Based upon these descriptions and the insight gained in the
course discussions, natural acquisition and communicative instruction best allow for
comprehensive and useful language skills to be acquired by the learner, although some structurebased instruction is not to be entirely disregarded. Lightbrown and Spada (1996) conclude that
instructional approaches that integrate attention to form within communication and contentbased interaction are the most supported by classroom research; those that focus exclusively on
extremes (either meaning or on form) alone are not seen as effective (p. 176).
References
Brandt, R. (2006). Powerful learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.

7
CONNECTING THEORY TO PRACTICE: ELL IN ECE
Gibbons, P. (1993). Planning for a language for learning. In Author, Learning to learn in a
second
language (pp. 9-25). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Lightbrown, P. & Spada, N.M. (2006). How languages are learned. (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford
University Press, USA.
Walqu, A. & Van Lier, L. (2010). Chapter 1: A pedagogy of promise. In Author, Scaffolding the
academic success of adolescent English language learners (pp. 1-12). San Francisco:
WestEd.

Caitlin Araldi
EDC&I 545
Effective Environmental Practices for ELL Classrooms: Presentation Outline
1) An effective ELL classroom environment practices the implementation of a strong sense of
sociocultural sensitivity and socio-emotional supportiveness
Studies within Lightbrown & Spadas How Languages Are Learned (2006) provide evidence
supporting the theory that the creation of social relations, identities and ideologies plays a
central role in endowing learners with the appropriate languaculture necessary to belong to
their sociocultural group. This directly implies that proficiency in second language learning
cannot be examined without first considering the impact of social learning contexts within the
classroom (pp. 473-475).
Features of a supportive classroom include providing a comfortable environment for
learning; allowing for planned, meaningful interactions with peers; using language to support
other forms of learning; making available problem solving opportunities; providing models
of language that are challenging but overall comprehensible; and providing plenty of
opportunities for the teacher and student to interact on an individual basis (Gibbons 1993, p.
11).
2) An effective ELL classroom environment promotes the practice of equitable access to
interactions and learning resources in both the first and second languages of the learners
Especially in its earliest stages, the ELL learning experience reflects a reliance on social
interaction to first introduce ideas that will later be acquired and owned conceptually
(Walqu & Van Lier 2010, p. 4-5).
Second language acquisition passes through systematic and predictable developmental
sequences, just as first language acquisition does, and many aspects of its sequences are
remarkably similar among learners, even across a wide range of different first language
backgrounds (Lightbrown & Spada, 1996, p. 83)
The community inside and outside of the classroom supports motivation in learning; most
notably in that learning must be meaningful and connected to the learners previous
knowledge, sociocultural context and educational goals.Teachers must not strive to affect
intrinsic motivation beyond their own understanding, but to instead provide a supportive and
engaging environment in which the student can experience success through an
understanding of their pre-existing knowledge, most significantly connecting first and second
languages (Lightbrown & Spada, 1996, p.185). By promoting equitable opportunities for
varied learning in the classroom environment, educators can synthesize the real world
experiences of their students with the support to pursue knowledge that will best serve them as
a member of the community.

Caitlin M. Araldi
Professor Manka Varghese
EDC&I 545A: Multilingual Socialization and Development
Final Project: Option B, Best Practices

1) Create a socioculturally-sensitive, emotionally supportive and positive language learning

environment
The sociocultural environment of the school and its community directly shape the various
forms of micro-interactions that take place in a second language learning classroom, and
therefore the nature of the students learning over the course of the school year. In this particular
first-grade study, evidence supported the theory that the creation of social relations, identities
and ideologies plays a central role in endowing learners with the appropriate languaculture
necessary to belong to their sociocultural group. This directly implies that proficiency in second
language learning cannot be examined without first considering the impact of social learning
contexts within the classroom (L&S p. 473-475).
By promoting interaction with learners, question practice plays a fundamental role in
determining how much the learner understands. In a study revealing that teachers ask more
display questions than information questions, but that the reverse was typically true outside
of the classroom, researchers concluded that teacher learner interaction is greatly distorted in
comparison to real world interactions (L&S p. 130).
The formal role that children play as students in transactions shared with adults in their
classroom hides much of their development in social and academic proficiency. This implies that
adults as instructors also play a specific role in shaping a second language learners linguistic
identity by carrying out predictable patterns of demonstrating expectations and modeling for
specific behaviors and tasks related to learning. This includes important cultural and linguistic
information, and has an impact on the social interactions students have with one another,
although not exclusively (L&S p. 487-488).
Exposure to modified or adapted input seems to be a common condition faced by all
language learners, regardless of age. Some of those who interact with language learners on a
regular basis apply an intuitive sense of how best to adjust their speech so that the learner can
understand. Due to this and the frequent distortion of corrective feedback attributed to social
etiquette, it is implied that learners can both benefit and suffer from access to interactions with an
interlocutor (L&S p. 32-33).
Teachers can make a positive contribution to students motivation to learn if classrooms
are places that students enjoy coming to because the content is interesting and relevant to their
age and level of ability, the learning goals are challenging yet manageable and clear, and the
atmosphere is supportive (L&S p. 64).

Caitlin M. Araldi
Professor Manka Varghese
EDC&I 545A: Multilingual Socialization and Development
Final Project: Option B, Best Practices

The focus of ethnographic studies in second or foreign languages classrooms is not on

learning or teaching alone, but also on the impact of social, cultural, and political realities on
cognitive development, especially in terms of linguistic and social growth. Based upon
conclusions made in 3 separate ethnographies, the role of socio-political change; separation of
second language learners; and contrasting language environments in the home and at school all
directly affect the development of the learner (L&S p. 133-135).
Compared to a grade-appropriate academic proficiency in their second language
(CALP), immigrant children have a very different learning period required to achieve
conversational fluency (BICS). Failing to take into account this difference has led to
discriminatory psychological assessment and premature exit into mainstream classrooms
from language support programs (Cummins: BICS & CALP 1st paragraph).
First and second language acquisition differ primarily in the conditions under which
they are commonly learned. In learning a first language, the learner is often exposed to many
one-on-one interactions with adults, whereas during second language learning in school,
children are at a different cognitive and conceptual level, and may compete for teacher
attention. Psychological climate and learning time-frame are also notable differences between
the two acquisition processes (Gibbons p. 10).
Features of a supportive classroom include providing a comfortable environment for
learning; allowing for planned, meaningful interactions with peers; use of language to support
other forms of learning; availability of problem solving opportunities; the models of language
available are challenging but overall comprehensible; and there are plenty of opportunities for
the teacher and student to interact on an individual basis (Gibbons p. 11).
Language learning is a primarily social experience, because the role of language is to
use action and communication in order to achieve things in the real world. Especially in its
earliest stages, learning in general reflects a reliance on social interaction to first introduce
ideas that will later be acquired and owned conceptually (Walqu & Van Lier p. 4-5).

Caitlin M. Araldi
Professor Manka Varghese
EDC&I 545A: Multilingual Socialization and Development
Final Project: Option B, Best Practices

2) Create a learning environment which addresses students pre-existing knowledge,

particularly with regard to their first language (in addition to socioculturally sensitive
practice), and allow for equitable access to learning materials and support
Teachers must therefore strive not to affect intrinsic motivation, but to instead provide a
supportive and engaging environment in which the student can experience success
through an understanding of their pre-existing knowledge (L&S p.185).
The authors conclude that instructional approaches that integrate attention to form
within communication and content-based interaction are the most supported by classroom
research; those that focus exclusively on extremes (either meaning or on form) alone are not seen
as effective (L&S p. 176).
The statement that The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading has been
proven to be true, but there are important factors to consider in making this assertion, as
learning context greatly influences growth of vocabulary. For example, research demonstrates
that second language learners find personally relevant or interesting reading material to be
most beneficial to their word-learning (L&S p. 188).
Second language acquisition passes through systematic and predictable developmental
sequences (just as first language acquisition does) and many aspects of its sequences are
remarkably similar among learners, even across a wide range of different first language
backgrounds (L&S p. 83).
Achieving communicative competence in a second language involves the learning of
vocabulary, pragmatics, and pronunciation, in addition to the acquisition of morphology and
syntax. Current views on second language acquisition emphasize the interaction between factors
such as first language, cognitive processes and samples of target language input (L&S p. 96).
Lightbrown & Spada list characteristics of three different SLA settings, natural
acquistion, structure-based instruction, and communicative instruction as observable language
learning experiences (L&S p. 110-114); based upon these descriptions and the insight I have
gained in our discussions, natural acquisition and communicative instruction best allow for
comprehensive and useful language skills to be acquired by the learner, although some structurebased instruction can be appropriate, depending on the learners educational goals.

Caitlin M. Araldi
Professor Manka Varghese
EDC&I 545A: Multilingual Socialization and Development
Final Project: Option B, Best Practices

Second language learners differ from young children acquiring their first language in
aspects of both their characteristics and the environments in which their respective language
acquisitions occur (L&S p. 29). These various elements imply that the general theory of second
language acquisition needs to account for the diversity and range of characteristics and contexts
of language learners in order to successfully create and implement effective language teaching
practice (L&S p. 50).
The strategic use of bilingual books in both mainstream and second language classrooms
(where English is being taught) underscores the importance of continued support for first
language literacy in order to achieve proficiency in English literacy. The presence of these books
in the classroom also promotes a clear message about the value of languages and cultures in the
learning environment (Ernst-Slavit & Mulhern: Bilingual Books Abstract).
Literacy is consistently associated with academic success and achievement as a part of
cultural capital valued by society. When biliteracy is nurtured, especially when both
languages use the same writing system, literacy skills and strategies are transferred from the first
language to the second and lead to not only comparable educational proficiency overall, but also
high levels of self-confidence in the learner (Ernst-Slavit & Mulhern: Bilingual Books Literacy
and Biliteracy).
Effective strategies for using bilingual books in the classroom take into account
development for a variety of learners, in a variety of settings, and with a variety of interactive
formats. Introducing a new topic that thematically relates to a new lesson is one of many
recommended specific strategies for promoting second language literacy through bilingual books
(Ernst-Slavit & Mulhern: Bilingual Books, 2nd paragraph, Table 1, Strategies for Using
Bilingual Books in the Classroom).
An emphasis on the importance of building on prior knowledge; differentiating
relationships between and across ideas; and especially encouraging learner focus on the
process of knowing (metacognition) are all essential to fostering second language learning.
According to the QTEL initiative, these foci, along with particular tenets of sociocultural
theory (especially those of Vygotsky), indicate that a learning environment which emphasizes
pedagogy of promise enables second language learners to thrive (Walqu & Van Lier p. 12).

Caitlin M. Araldi
Professor Manka Varghese
EDC&I 545A: Multilingual Socialization and Development
Final Project: Option B, Best Practices

SUMMARY
*Ron Brandts Powerful Learning is not language learning specific, but outlines conditions vital

to powerful learning to take place, many of which have direct implications for SLA
environments (Brandt p. 11):
1) People learn what is personally meaningful to them
2) Individuals learn differently
3) People construct new knowledge by building on their current knowledge
4) Much learning occurs through social interaction
5) A positive emotional climate strengthens learning
6) Learning is influenced by the total environment

Running head: BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Best Practices for Bilingual Instruction of School-Age Children

Caitlin Araldi
Hannah Zyung
Elizabeth Holleman
University of Washington

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Best Practices for Bilingual Instruction of School-Age Children

Various theoretical frameworks discussed throughout the Multilingual Socialization and
Development course this quarter can be translated into five best practices for English language
learner (ELL) instruction, the first two of which will be described as they relate to the interaction
between the learning climate and second language acquisition (SLA) in early childhood. The
following analysis of theoretical perspectives has sought to demonstrate how effective language
education pedagogy is best supported by the creation of a learning environment which, 1)
practices the implementation of a strong sense of sociocultural sensitivity and socio-emotional
supportiveness and additionally, 2) provides equitable access and support for both the first and
second languages within its design and implementation. By following these two practices, in
addition to the three outlined in subsequent sections, education serves as a foundational, natural
development of the community as a whole, and a reflection of theory building through
understanding. The aforementioned first two practices are closely related, but bring to light two
distinct needs of the educational environment to ensure that transferrable learning is built upon in
meaningful ways. What would meaningful and transferrable learning look like in ELL education
for school-age children?
Best Practices for Creating a Supportive Bilingual Classroom Environment
A strong sense of sociocultural sensitivity and socio-emotional support should be
implemented.
As authors Lightbown and Spada (2006) contend, the sociocultural environment of the
school and its community directly shape the various forms of micro-interactions that take place
in a second language learning classroom, and therefore the nature of the students learning over
the course of the school year. A study on school-age children published by J. Willet (1995)
2

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

provides evidence supporting the theory that the creation of social relations, identities and
ideologies (p. 473) plays a central role in endowing learners with the appropriate
languaculture (p. 475) necessary to belong to their sociocultural group. This directly implies
that proficiency in second language learning cannot be examined without first considering the
impact of social learning contexts within the classroom. Furthermore, the focus of ethnographic
studies in second or foreign languages classrooms is not on learning or teaching alone, but also
on the impact of social, cultural, and political realities on cognitive development, especially in
terms of linguistic and social growth (J. Willet, 1995, p. 474). Based upon conclusions made in
three separate ethnographies, Lightbown and Spada (2006) demonstrate that the role of sociopolitical change; separation of second language learners; and contrasting language environments
in the home and at school all directly affect the development of the learner (pp. 133-135). In
order to combat these inherent challenges within the diverse ELL demographic in the United
States, features of a supportive classroom include providing the following:
A comfortable environment for learning; allowing for planned, meaningful interactions
with peers; using language to support other forms of learning; making available problem
solving opportunities; providing models of language that are challenging but overall
comprehensible; and providing plenty of opportunities for the teacher and student to
interact on an individual basis (Gibbons, 1993, p. 11).
These features indicate the practice of sociocultural sensitivity, and promote learning on the basis
of its role in socially responsible and supportive ELL instruction.
The practice of equitable access to interactions and learning resources in both the first and
second languages of the learners should be promoted.

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

As discussed above, language learning is primarily a social experience because the role of
language is to use action and communication in order to achieve things in the real world.
Especially in its earliest stages, the ELL learning experience reflects a reliance on social
interaction to first introduce ideas that will later be acquired and owned conceptually (Walqu
& Van Lier, 2010, pp. 4-5). With this assertion in mind, a second practice of an effective ELL
classroom environment is to promote equitable access to interactions and learning resources in
both the first and second languages of the learners. This practice reflects a consideration for the
most direct environmental factor in language learning, the community inside and outside of the
classroom. This best supports motivation in learning, most notably in that learning must be
meaningful and connected to the learners previous knowledge, sociocultural context and
educational goals.
Second language acquisition passes through systematic and predictable developmental
sequences, just as first language acquisition does, and many aspects of its sequences are
remarkably similar among learners, even across a wide range of different first language
backgrounds (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 83). In order to provide equitable access to materials
and support in both the first and second languages, the ELL classroom environment must
capitalize on the impact of learner identity and motivation as evidenced by their connection to
meaningful, transferrable learning within the whole of their community. Teachers must therefore
strive not to affect the intrinsic motivation that is beyond the classroom, but to instead provide a
supportive and engaging environment in which the student can experience success through an
understanding of their pre-existing knowledge, most significantly connecting first and second
languages (Lightbown & Spada, 1996, p. 185). By promoting equitable opportunities for varied
learning in the classroom environment, educators can synthesize the real world experiences of

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

their students with the support to pursue knowledge that will best serve them as a member of the
community.
Connecting the practice of sociocultural sensitivity to equitable educational access
establishes the need for learning opportunities that are personally meaningful and reflect the
complex factors of identity, motivation and investment in ELLs. Achieving communicative
competence in a second language involves the learning of vocabulary, pragmatics, and
pronunciation, in addition to the acquisition of morphology and syntax (Lightbown & Spada,
2006, p. 96). However, current views on second language acquisition (SLA) emphasize the
interaction between factors such as first language, cognitive processes and samples of target
language input. Second language learners differ from young children acquiring their first
language in aspects of both their characteristics and the environments in which their respective
language acquisitions occur (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Consequently, access to materials and
opportunities for interactions in both languages is crucial to achieving knowledge that is practical
and transferrable to new situations, especially because much of those contexts are outside of the
formal classroom environment itself. For example, the statement that the best way to learn new
vocabulary is through reading has been proven to be true, but there are important factors to
consider in making this assertion, as learning context greatly influences growth of vocabulary
(Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 188). For example, research demonstrates that second language
learners find personally relevant or interesting reading material to be most beneficial to their
word-learning (Lightbown & Spada, 2006).
The remaining three ELL practices discussed in the upcoming sections of this study
specifically describe ways in which general theory in SLA needs to account for the diversity and
range of characteristics and contexts of language learners in order to successfully create and

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

implement effective language teaching practice (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). This includes an
emphasis on the importance of building on prior knowledge (especially the knowledge of a first
language); differentiating relationships between and across ideas; and especially encouraging
learner focus on the process of knowing, or metacognition (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p.
188); all of which are essential to fostering second language learning. According to the Quality
Teaching for English Learners (QTEL) initiative, these foci, along with particular tenets of
sociocultural theory, indicate that a learning environment which emphasizes pedagogy of
promise (i.e., with an inclusive, future-forward perspective) and equitable access to learning
resources enables second language learners to thrive in both a social and academic way (Walqu
& Van Lier, 2010, p. 12).
Ron Brandts book entitled Powerful Learning (1998) outlines characteristics of an
educational climate that supports powerful acquisition of knowledge. Although it is not
specifically ELL- or early childhood-directed as is this discussion, I feel that the following
conditions included in his central argument outline essential principles that an effective language
learning environment should share in its practices of sociocultural sensitivity and equitable
access:
People learn what is personally meaningful to them; individuals learn differently; people
construct new knowledge by building on their current knowledge; much learning occurs
through social interaction; a positive emotional climate strengthens learning; and learning
is influenced by the total environment (p. 53).
Additionally, Brandt (1998) asserts that powerful learning occurs in schools which are open
systems; that is, those that foster classroom environments which are sensitive to the external
environment, including social, political, and economic conditions (p. 53); as a whole, the ELL

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

learning climate must be sensitive to the community contexts and identities that create a wide
spectrum of realities for its students in order to best unlock their potential as lifelong learners of
language. Lightbown & Spada (2006) list characteristics of three different SLA settings, natural
acquistion, structure-based instruction, and communicative instruction as observable language
learning experiences (pp. 110-114). Based upon these descriptions and the insight gained in the
course discussions, natural acquisition and communicative instruction best allow for
comprehensive and useful language skills to be acquired by the learner, although some structurebased instruction is not to be entirely disregarded. Lightbown and Spada (2006) conclude that
instructional approaches that integrate attention to form within communication and contentbased interaction (p. 176) are the most supported by classroom research; those that focus
exclusively on extremes (either meaning or on form) alone are not seen as effective. This is
never more true than in the case of literacy development, because although children begin to
develop a sense of metalinguistic awareness in pre-school years, it becomes increasingly more
refined after entering the school setting, primarily through learning to read (Lightbrown & Spada
2006).

Best Practices for Bilingual Classroom Instruction

Literacy development should be fostered in both the primary and secondary language.
One best practice or strategy to teach English Language Learners (ELLs) is to foster
literacy development in both the primary and secondary language. Krashen (2002) discusses the
importance of the literacy development in L1; ELLs who have literacy skills in L1 are more
likely to develop L2 literacy. He also supports the idea of maintaining knowledge ones first
language while learning a second language. Furthermore, with regard to the second language

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

learning process, voluntary and pleasure reading in L2 enables readers to easily access
interesting reading (Krashen, 2002). Drnyei (2009) illustrates the point that compulsory
reading at school is called extrinsic motivation, which undermines ones intrinsic motivation to
learn a new language, while pleasure and voluntary reading is a crucial factor that contributes a
learners intrinsic motivation. In sum, since reading experience in L1 and free reading in L2
positively affect L2 literacy development, such as reading ability, grammar, and vocabulary, the
maintenance of literacy in L1 and free readings in L2 should be prioritized.
Another good way to improve literacy skills for ELLs is the use of bilingual books.
Mainly, the role of bilingual books is linked to psychological and cultural support for ELLs.
Reading in L1 encourages ELLs to consider themselves good readers even when they with
struggle with learning L2 (Ernst-Slavit & Mulhern, 2003). Using the native language helps
students to avoid cognitive confusion and achievement gaps in school performance. Therefore,
literacy in L1 not only leads to ELLs subsequent academic success, but also increases selfconfidence (Collier, 1992). Since reading and writing abilities in L1 increase enthusiasm, ELLs
are more likely to be motivated to learn and comprehend L2. Literacy in the minority language
not only offers a greater opportunity to maintain ones individual knowledge of that language,
but also encourages feelings of rootedness, self-esteem, the vision and world-view of one's
heritage culture, self-identity and intellectual empathy (Baker, 1993, p. 202). This allows
students to foster feelings of confidence, competence, and cultural identity. Encouragement of
literacy development does not need to be limited to the second language because students prior
knowledge can actually help them with their second language acquisition.
Teachers should incorporate the childs first language when possible so the child may
benefit from their prior knowledge.

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

There has been controversy as to whether or not the target language should be the only
language used in second language classrooms. Translanguaging, code-mixing, and flexible
bilingual instruction are all strategies that use both the target language and the first language to
help second language students benefit from knowledge they already have from their first
language. The use of both languages can aid in students understanding of concepts taught in the
classroom. This can also help students gain confidence by reassuring them that their knowledge
of their first language is helpful and should provide encouragement in their second language
learning.
Many students experience difficulties understanding concepts in a target language mean
because a comparable phrase may not exist in their first language. Teachers can use students
previous knowledge of a first language as a resource in teaching the second language. In some
bilingual classrooms, each language is used to convey a different informational message but it
is in the bilingualism of the text that the full message is conveyed (Creese & Blackledge, 2010,
p. 108). The use of both languages allows students to better understand concepts and vocabulary
that is being taught, rather than the students having gaps in their learning. The term heteroglossia
captures not only code-switching, using both the first and target language intermittently in a
conversation, but acknowledges that code-switching changes along with context and brings with
it social implications (Bailey, 2007). Code-switching not only aids in communication that
benefits understanding on the students part, but can help the teacher understand where a student
may need more clarification.
Reading in a childs first language should also be encouraged in the classroom. Simply
knowing how to read in a first language can aid students in learning the target language and can
be very valuable knowledge. Children who are literate in one language already know that print

BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

carries meaning, that the stream of print is broken into segments such as words or characters, and
that there are rules about how print is laid out on the page (Enrst-Slavit & Mulhern, 2003).
These general understandings about how reading works can carry over to the second language,
even when the first and second languages are dissimilar. Because literacy skills such as these
transfer, reading in a primary language should not be discouraged since it can actually help the
student learn to read better in the second language (Krashen, 2002). When reading bilingual
books, students can use both languages to figure out sentences or words they are stuck on,
allowing them to read more independently and facilitate the transfer of knowledge.
Literacy development in both the first and second languages can also boost how students
feel about themselves. They may feel like they have a deep understanding of the topic, rather
than only superficial understanding. Using both languages in the classroom can allow students
who may otherwise be hesitant to use the target language to participate. This may (or can) boost
students confidence and identity (Creese & Blackledge, 2010). This confidence can be rooted in
added opportunities to learn the target language. Children who can begin their schooling in
[their first language] will have more self-confidence, will be able to learn more effectively in the
early school years, and will not lose valuable time in a period of limbo during which they
struggle to understand what is happening in the classroom (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 186).
By utilizing both languages with the student, especially the use of bilingual books, a teacher can
help a student gain a deeper understanding of the content. As students gain more confidence in
their abilities, they may become more motivated to work hard to learn the target language. In
turn, this motivation can help students become engaged in the content and language instruction.
Language and content should be taught simultaneously.

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BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

Content-based teaching and second language instruction should not be separated in
teaching ESL in grades K-12 (Achugar & Schleppegrell, 2003). One noticeable advantage of
content and language instructions is the increased the amount of time for learners to be exposed
to the new language (Lightbown & Spada, 2006, p. 159). The fact that each subject area such as
history, math, or science uses different and specific patterns of linguistic features (lexical,
grammatical, and organizational choices) supports the idea that content and language instruction
go hand in hand to fully comprehend the content of the text. Reading activities and analysis of
text based on functional linguistic framework both help students to learn strategies to infer the
meaning from foreign texts. Further, we refer to functional linguistic framework when we
examine how language patterns in each text construct the content (Halliday, 1994). Language
analysis introduced in content instruction, therefore, increases reading as well as critical thinking
skills and access to grade-level content, while learning both the content and academic language.
In How Languages are Learned, the authors explain the six best ways to promote
language learning in classrooms, and one of them is the Two for one approach, which
combines learning the content and the language at the same time (Lightbown & Spada, 2006).
Researchers who support this approach argue that instruction of the content needs to be
complemented by instruction that focuses on language forms. The combination of subject matter
instruction and language instruction creates genuine need to communicate and motivates students
to acquire language in order to understand the content. Cognitively challenging and interesting
content is particularly beneficial for older ELLs in foreign language instruction, where the focus
of lessons is to teach grammatical forms (Lightbrown & Spada, 2006).
Linking content and language instruction allows students to engage in specific content
and in social experiences. Second language instruction that is incorporated into academic content

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BEST BILINGUAL INSTRUCTION PRACTICES

instruction is more effective than only teaching the second language. According to his argument,
this approach is not only helpful for language learning in general, but is also linked to other
parts of human development, such as cognitive and social development (Genesee, 1994, p. 5).
Since language is a tool for social and cognitive development, second language instruction in
isolation separates language learning and other areas of human development. Similar to
Lightbown and Spadas (2006) points, students become motivated to learn the L2 when they
have a sense of academic accomplishment and of increasing competence in using the L2 for
communicative purposes (Genesee, 1994). He continues to point out that learners are encouraged
to learn the L2 because they need to build a relationship with peers and communicate with
teachers about academic content in the L2. Understanding academic content motivates language
learners to the extent that the content is interesting and valuable to them, and instruction and the
classroom environment can therefore influence student interest and engagement.
It is clear that a successful classroom takes into account a supportive classroom
environment and acknowledgement of the students first language. A student must experience
socioemotional support in the classroom, which may be provided through positive opportunities
for growth. Growth might include learning the second language, participating in activities with
peers, or reading bilingual books. Through acknowledging the importance of the students first
language and using their knowledge to their advantage when learning the second language, and
providing them with a classroom environment that fosters growth and support, students can learn
a second language under optimal conditions.

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References
Achugar, M., & Schleppegrell, M. (2003). Learning Language and Learning History: A
Functional Linguistics Approach. Tesol Journal, 12(2), 2127.
Bailey, B. (2007). Heteroglossia and boundaries. In M. Heller (Ed.), Bilingualism: A social
approach (257-276). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave.
Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Multilingual Matters,
Clevedon.
Brandt, R. (2006). Powerful learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development.
Creese, A., & Blackledge, A. (2010). Translanguaging in the Bilingual Classroom: A Pedagogy
for Learning and Teaching? Modern Language Journal, 94, 1, 103-115.
Drnyei, Z. (2009). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching,
31(03), 117. doi:10.1017/S026144480001315X
Enrst-Slavit, G. & Mulhern, M. Bilingual books: Promoting literacy and biliteracy in the secondlanguage and mainstream classroom. Available at
http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=ernst-slavit/index.html.
Genesee, F. (1994). Integrating language and content: Lessons from immersion (Educational
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Gibbons, P. (1993). Planning for a language for learning. In Author, Learning to learn in a
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Halliday, M. A. K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Grammar (2nd ed.). London: Edward
Arnold.
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Krashen, S. (2002). Comment: Developing academic language: Early L1 reading and later L2
reading. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 155/156, 143-151.
Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Oxford University
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Walqu, A. & Van Lier, L. (2010). Chapter 1: A pedagogy of promise. In Author, Scaffolding the
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Willett, J. (1995). Becoming first graders in an L2: An ethnographic study of L2 socialization.
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