Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English

International Baccalaureate Resources

Item
Paper #1 Description
Paper #2 Description
Individual Oral
Commentary and
Discussion
Description
Paper #1 Rubric

Paper #2 Rubric

IOCD Rubric
Command Terms &
Other Definitions
from IOC
Common Literary
Terms
Preparing to Write a
Commentary
SOAPSTone
Explanation
Color Marking
Explanation
DIDLS

Used for
Reference
Reference
Reference

External Assessment
Paper #1; Literary
Analysis; Various
Writing Assignments
External Assessment
Paper #2;
Comparative Literary
Analysis; Various
Writing Assignments
Internal IOCD, Practice
Oral Commentaries
Dissecting writing
prompts/directions
Elevating vocabulary
when discussing
literature
General ideas when
writing about
literature
Annotation strategy

Page #
2
2
3

8
11

12

19

Annotation strategy
Annotation strategy
1

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English

Paper 1: Literary commentary

Duration: 2 hours
Weighting: 20%

Paper 1 contains two previously unseen passages and students are instructed to write a literary
commentary on one of these passages. One passage will be poetry; the other passage will be
taken from works such as:

a novel or short story

an essay

a biography

a journalistic piece of writing of literary merit.

The passages for commentary may be either a complete piece of writing or an extract from a
longer piece, and wherever possible they will not have been written by authors listed on the PLA
nor be taken from works
likely to have been studied in class.
The term literary commentary is used to refer to a close reading of a passage that is
presented in the form of an essay. Students need to explore aspects such as content,
technique, style, structure, theme and language, and they are assessed on their ability to:

demonstrate understanding of the thought and feeling in the passage through

interpretation that is
supported by detailed references to the passage

analyse and appreciate how the passage achieves its

effects.
There are many acceptable ways of approaching and structuring a literary commentary, but
a good commentary explains, rather than merely summarizing content or listing effects. All
commentaries should be continuous and developed; commentaries comprising unrelated
paragraphs will not merit a high achievement level.
The paper is assessed according to the assessment criteria published in this guide. The
maximum mark for
paper 1 is 20.

Paper 2: Essay
Duration: 2 hours
Weighting: 25%
Paper 2 contains three essay questions for each literary genre represented on the PLA of the
language A

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English
being examined. Students answer one essay question only.
The essay is written under examination conditions, without access to the studied texts. Each
question directs students to explore the ways in which content is delivered through the conventions of
the selected genre. Students are required to compare and contrast the similarities and differences
between at least two of the works studied in part 3 of the course. The comparison of the works is
assessed under criterion B: response to the question (see External assessment criteriaSL and
External assessment criteriaHL).
The paper is assessed according to the assessment criteria published in this guide. The maximum
mark for
paper 2 is 25.

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English

Individual oral commentary and discussion

Weighting: 15%
Duration: 20 minutes

Individual oral commentary: 10 minutes

The individual commentary is a literary analysis of a poem, or an extract from a poem, selected
by the
teacher from the poetry studied in part 2 of the syllabus.

until

Students must not know on which poem, or extract from a poem, the commentary will be based
the start of the preparation period.

The poem must be accompanied by one or two guiding questions set by the teacher.

Discussion: 10 minutes

The discussion is conduc ted by the teacher and follows immediately af ter the
individual oral
commentary without stopping the recording.

The work on which the discussion questions are based must be one of the part 2 works that
was not
used for the commentary.

The student must not know on which work the discussion questions will be asked until the time
of the
discussion (that is, after the commentary).

Focus and structure

Students should aim to identify and explore all significant aspects of the extract. These include:

situating the extract as precisely as possible in the context of the poem from which it has been
taken
(or in the body of work, in the case of a complete poem)

commenting on the effectiveness of the writers techniques, including the use of stylistic
devices and
their effect(s) on the reader.
The commentary should focus on the extract itself, relating it to the whole poem (or body of work
when a
complete poem is used). It should not be used as a springboard for a discussion of everything the
student knows about the work in question.
A commentar y should be sustained and well organized. It should neither be delivered as a series
of unconnected points nor take the form of a narration or a line-by-line paraphrase of the passage or
poem.
Students should talk up to, but not beyond, 8 minutes, with 2 minutes for subsequent questions.
When students do not speak for up to 8 minutes, the remainder of the 10 minutes must be filled with
subsequent
questions.

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English

Paper 1: Literary commentary (HL)

Criterion A: Understanding and interpretation

the

How well does the students interpretation reveal understanding of the thought and feeling of
passage?

How well are ideas supported by references to the passage?

Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

There is basic understanding of the passage but virtually no attempt at interpretation

and few references to the passage.

There is some understanding of the passage, with a superficial attempt at interpretation

and some appropriate references to the passage.

There is adequate understanding of the passage, demonstrated by an interpretation that is

supported by appropriate references to the passage.

There is very good understanding of the passage, demonstrated by sustained

interpretation supported by well-chosen references to the passage.

There is excellent understanding of the passage, demonstrated by persuasive

interpretation supported by effective references to the passage.

Criterion B: Appreciation of the writers choices

To what extent does the analysis show appreciation of how the writers choices of language,
structure, technique and
style shape meaning?
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

There are few references to, and no analysis or appreciation of, the ways in which
language, structure, technique and style shape meaning.

There is some mention, but little analysis or appreciation, of the ways in which language,
structure, technique and style shape meaning.

There is adequate analysis and appreciation of the ways in which language, structure,
technique and style shape meaning.

There is very good analysis and appreciation of the ways in which language, structure,
technique and style shape meaning.

There is excellent analysis and appreciation of the ways in which language, structure,
technique and style shape meaning.

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English
Criterion C: Organization and development

How well organized, coherent and developed is the presentation of ideas?

Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

Ideas have little organization; there may be a superficial structure, but coherence and
development are lacking.

Ideas have some organization, with a recognizable structure; coherence and

development are often lacking.

Ideas are adequately organized, with a suitable structure; some attention is paid to
coherence and development.

Ideas are effectively organized, with very good structure, coherence and development.

Ideas are persuasively organized, with excellent structure, coherence and development.

Criterion D: Language

How clear, varied and accurate is the language?

How appropriate is the choice of register, style and terminology? (Register refers, in this
context, to the student s use of elements such as vocabular y, tone, sentence struc ture and
terminology appropriate to the commentary.)
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

Language is rarely clear and appropriate; there are many errors in grammar, vocabulary
and sentence construction, and little sense of register and style.

Language is sometimes clear and carefully chosen; grammar, vocabulary and sentence
construction are fairly accurate, although errors and inconsistencies are apparent; the
register and style are to some extent appropriate to the commentary.

Language is clear and carefully chosen, with an adequate degree of accuracy in

grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction despite some lapses; register and style
are mostly appropriate to the commentary.

Language is clear and carefully chosen, with a good degree of accuracy in grammar,
vocabulary and sentence construction; register and style are consistently appropriate to
the commentary.

Language is very clear, effective, carefully chosen and precise, with a high degree of
accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction; register and style are
effective and appropriate to the commentary.

Paper 2: Essay (HL)

Note: The part 3 works MUST be chosen from the relevant

prescribed list of authors (PLA) and be the genre relevant to
the question. If not, the maximum mark for this criterion will
be reduced to 3.

Criterion A: Knowledge and understanding

How much knowledge and understanding has the student shown of the par t 3 work s studied in

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English
relation to the question answered?
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

There is some knowledge but virtually no understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question
answered.

There is mostly adequate knowledge and some superficial understanding of the part 3 works in
relation to the question answered.

There is adequate knowledge and understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question
answered.

There is good knowledge and understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question
answered.
5
There is perceptive knowledge and understanding of the part 3 works in relation to the question
answered.
Criterion B: Response to the question

How well has the student understood the specific demands of the question?

To what extent has the student responded to these demands?

How well have the works been compared and contrasted in relation to the demands of the question?
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

The student shows little awareness of the main implications of the question, and ideas are mainly
irrelevant and/or insignificant. There is little meaningful comparison of the works used in relation to
the question.
The student responds to some of the main implications of the question with some relevant ideas.
There is a superficial attempt to compare the works used in relation to the question.

2
3

The student responds to most of the main implications of the question with consistently relevant ideas.
There is adequate comparison of the works used in relation to the question.

The student responds to the main implications and some subtleties of the question, with relevant and
carefully explored ideas. The comparison makes some evaluation of the works used in relation to the
question.
5
The student responds to all the implications, as well as the subtleties of the question, with convincing
and thoughtful ideas. The comparison includes an effective evaluation of the works in relation to the
question.
Criterion C: Appreciation of the literary conventions of the genre

To what extent does the student identify and appreciate the use of literary conventions in relation to
the question and the works used?
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

Some literary conventions are identified but there is limited development relevant to the question and/or
the works used.

Examples of literary conventions are sometimes correctly identified and developed, with some relevance
to the question and the works used.

Examples of literary conventions are satisfactorily identified and developed, with relevance to the
question and the works used.

Examples of literary conventions are clearly identified and effectively developed, with relevance to
the question and the works used.

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English
5

Examples of literary conventions are perceptively identified and persuasively developed, with clear
relevance to the question and the works used.

Criterion D: Organization and development

How well organized, coherent and developed is the presentation of ideas?

Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

Ideas have little organization; there may be a superficial structure, but coherence and/or
development are lacking.

Ideas have some organization, with a recognizable structure, but coherence and
development are often lacking.

Ideas are adequately organized, with a suitable structure and attention paid to
coherence and development.

Ideas are effectively organized, with a very good structure, coherence and development.

Ideas are persuasively organized, with excellent structure, coherence and development.

Criterion E: Language

How clear, varied and accurate is the language?

How appropriate is the choice of register, style and terminology? (Register refers, in this context, to the
student s use of elements such as vocabular y, tone, sentence struc ture and terminology appropriate to the task.)
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

Language is rarely clear and appropriate; there are many errors in grammar, vocabulary and sentence
construction, and little sense of register and style.

Language is sometimes clear and carefully chosen; grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction
are fairly accurate, although errors and inconsistencies are apparent; the register and style are to
some extent appropriate to the task.

Language is clear and carefully chosen, with an adequate degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary
and sentence construction despite some lapses; register and style are mostly appropriate to the task.

Language is clear and carefully chosen, with a good degree of accuracy in grammar, vocabulary and
sentence construction; register and style are consistently appropriate to the task.

Language is very clear, effective, carefully chosen and precise, with a high degree of accuracy in
grammar, vocabulary and sentence construction; register and style are effective and appropriate to
the task.

Individual oral commentary and discussion (HL)

Criterion A: Knowledge and understanding of the poem

How well is the student s k nowledge and understanding of the poem demonstrated
by their

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English
interpretation?
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

There is limited knowledge and little or no understanding, with poor interpretation and
virtually no relevant references to the poem.

There is superficial knowledge and some understanding, with limited interpretation

occasionally supported by references to the poem.

There is adequate knowledge and understanding, demonstrated by interpretation

supported by appropriate references to the poem.

There is very good knowledge and understanding, demonstrated by careful

interpretation supported by well-chosen references to the poem.

There is excellent knowledge and understanding, demonstrated by individual

interpretation effectively supported by precise and well-chosen references to the
poem.

Criterion B: Appreciation of the writers choices

To what extent does the student appreciate how the writers choices of language, structure,
technique
and style shape meaning?
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

There are few references to, and no appreciation, of the ways in which language,
structure, technique and style shape meaning in the poem.

There is some mention, but little appreciation, of the ways in which language, structure,
technique and style shape meaning in the poem.

There is adequate appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and
style shape meaning in the poem.

There is very good appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and
style shape meaning in the poem.

There is excellent appreciation of the ways in which language, structure, technique and
style shape meaning in the poem.

Criterion C: Organization and presentation of the commentary

To what extent does the student deliver a structured, well-focused commentary?

Marks

Level descriptor

Annapolis High School

English 2: IB Senior English
0

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

The commentary shows little evidence of planning, with very limited structure and/or
focus.

The commentary shows some structure and focus.

The commentary shows evidence of a planned structure and is generally focused.

The commentary is clearly structured and the focus is sustained.

The commentary is effectively structured, with a clear, purposeful and sustained focus.

Criterion D: Knowledge and understanding of the work used in the discussion

How much knowledge and understanding has the student shown of the work used in the
discussion?
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

There is little knowledge or understanding of the content of the work discussed.

There is some knowledge and superficial understanding of the content of the work
discussed.

There is adequate knowledge and understanding of the content and some of the
implications of the work discussed.

There is very good knowledge and understanding of the content and most of the
implications of the work discussed.

There is excellent knowledge and understanding of the content and the implications of
the work discussed.

Criterion E: Response to the discussion questions

How effectively does the student respond to the discussion questions?

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English 2: IB Senior English
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

There is limited ability to respond meaningfully to the discussion questions.

Responses to the discussion questions are sometimes relevant.

Responses to the discussion questions are relevant and show some evidence of
independent thought.

Well-informed responses to the discussion questions show a good degree of

independent thought.

There are persuasive and independent responses to the discussion questions.

Criterion F: Language

How clear, varied and accurate is the language?

How appropriate is the choice of register and style? (Register refers, in this context, to
the students use of elements such as vocabular y, tone, sentence structure and terminology
appropriate to the commentary.)
Marks

Level descriptor

The work does not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

The language is rarely clear and appropriate, with many errors in grammar and
sentence construction and little sense of register and style.

The language is sometimes clear and appropriate; grammar and sentence construction
are generally accurate, although errors and inconsistencies are apparent; register and
style are to some extent appropriate.

The language is mostly clear and appropriate, with an adequate degree of accuracy in
grammar and sentence construction; the register and style are mostly appropriate.

The language is clear and appropriate, with a good degree of accuracy in grammar
and sentence construction; register and style are effective and appropriate.

The language is very clear and entirely appropriate, with a high degree of accuracy in
grammar and sentence construction; the register and style are consistently effective
and appropriate.

Command terms with definitions

Students should be familiar with the following key terms and phrases used in examination questions,
which are to be understood as described below. Although these terms will be used frequently in

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English 2: IB Senior English
examination questions, other terms may be used to direct students to present an argument in a
specific way.

Term
Analyse
Comment
Compare
Compare and contrast
Contrast
Describe
Discuss

Definition as understood by IBO

Break down in order to bring out the essential elements or structure.
Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation.
Give an account of the similarities between two (or more) items or
situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.
Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more)
items or situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.
G i ve an a cco unt of th e di f f e re n ces b e t we e n t wo (o r m o
re) items o r situations, referring to both (all) of them throughout.
Give a detailed account.

Explain

Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of

arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be
presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the
assumptions and interrelationships of the issue.
Give a detailed account including reasons or causes.

Explore

Undertake a systematic process of discovery.

Interpret

U s e k n o w l e d g e an d u n d e r s t an di n g t o re c o g ni z e t re
n d s an d d r a w conclusions from given information.
Observe, study, or make a detailed and systematic examination, in
order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
Give valid reasons or evidence to support an answer or conclusion.
Consider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept. Opinions
and conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with
appropriate evidence and sound argument.

Evaluate
Examine

Investigate
Justify
To what extent

Meaning

Purpose
Register

Style

Stylistic choices

Sometimes referred to as message, it includes layers of

meaning, nuance, denotation, connotation, inference and
subtext.
Also referred to as intent, intention or authors choices.
The use of a variety of tones, pace, volume, pitch, inflection,
vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure that gives the
correct degree of formality appropriate for the specific
context and audience.
The authors choices with regard to all aspects of the text, in
the way various literary and non-literary features have been
used to create certain effects for different purposes and
audiences.
Authors make choices about what they are going to describe
and how to describe it in order to create effect. This umbrella
term encompasses literary and non-literary features:
linguistic devices (rhetorical, syntax, repetition); literary
devices (symbolism, metaphor, simile); and visual devices
(colour, texture, symbolism, foregrounding).
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English 2: IB Senior English

List of Common Literary Terms

AllegoryA narrative or description having a second meaning beneath the
surface one. A story, fictional or nonfiction, in which characters, things, and
events represent qualities or concepts. The interaction of these characters,
things, events is meant to reveal an abstraction or a truth. These characters, etc.
may be symbolic of the ideas referred to.
AlliterationThe repetition at close intervals of initial identical consonant
sounds. Or, vowel sounds in successive words or syllables that repeat.
AllusionAn indirect reference to something (usually a literary text) with which
the reader is expected to be familiar. Allusions are usually literary, historical,
Biblical, or mythological.
AmbiguityAn event or situation that may be interpreted in more than one way.
Also, the manner of expression of such an event or situation may be ambiguous.
Artful language may be ambiguous. Unintentional ambiguity is usually vagueness.
AnachronismAssignment of something to a time when it was not in existence,
e.g. the watch Merlyn wore in The Once and Future King.
AnalogyAn analogy is a comparison to a directly parallel case. When a writer
uses an analogy, he or she argues that a claim reasonable for one case is
reasonable for the analogous case.
AnaphoraRepetition of a word, phrase, or clause at the beginning of two or
more sentences in a row. This device is a deliberate form of repetition and helps
make the writer's point more coherent.
AnecdoteA brief recounting of a relevant episode. Anecdotes are often inserted
into fictional or nonfiction texts as a way of developing a point or injecting humor.
AngstA term used in existential criticism to describe both the individual and
the collective anxiety-neurosis of the period following the Second World War. This
feeling of anxiety, dread, or anguish is notably present in the works of writers like
Jean Paul Sartre and Albert Camus.
AntithesisA balancing of two opposite or contrasting words, phrases, or
clauses.
ApostropheAn address to the dead as if living; to the inanimate as if animate;
to the absent as if present; to the unborn as if alive. Examples: "O Julius Caesar
thou are mighty yet; thy spirit walks abroad," or "Roll on, thou deep and dark blue
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English 2: IB Senior English
ocean, roll."
ArchetypeA term borrowed by psychologist Carl Jung who described
archetypes as "primordial images" formed by repeated experiences in the lives of
our ancestors, inherited in the "collective unconscious" of the human race and
expressed in myths, religion, dreams, fantasies, and literature. These "images" of
character, plot pattern, symbols recur in literature and evoke profound emotional
responses in the reader because they resonate with an image already existing in
our unconscious mind, e.g. death, rebirth.
AsideA dramatic convention by which an actor directly addresses the audience
but it is not supposed to be heard by the other actors on the stage.
AssonanceRepetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close
proximity. "Fake" and "lake" denote rhyme; "lake" and "fate" demonstrate
assonance.
AsyndetonA series of words separated by commas (with no conjunction), e.g. "I
came, I saw, I conquered." The parts of the sentence are emphasized equally; in
addition, the use of commas with no intervening conjunction speeds up the flow of
the sentence.
BalanceConstruction in which both halves of the sentence are about the same
length and importance, sometimes used to emphasize contrast.
CatharsisThe process by which an unhealthy emotional state produced by an
imbalance of feelings is corrected and emotional health is restored.
CharacterizationThe method an author uses to develop characters in a work.
In direct characterization, the author straightforwardly states the characters
traits. With indirect characterization, those traits are implied through what the
character says, does, how the character dresses, interacts with other characters,
etc.
ChiasmusArrangement of repeated thoughts in the pattern of X Y Y X.
Chiasmus is often short and summarizes a main idea, e.g., "ask not what your
country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."
Comedy of MannersDeals with the relations and intrigues of gentlemen and
ladies living in a polished and sophisticated society; it evokes laughter mainly at
the violations of social conventions and decorum and relies on the wit and humor
of the dialogue for its effect.
Comic reliefHumorous speeches and incidents in the course of the serious
action of a tragedy; frequently comic relief widens and enriches the tragic
significance of the work.
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Concrete LanguageLanguage that describes specific, observable things,
people or places, rather than ideas or qualities.
ConnotationRather than the dictionary definition, the associations associated
by a word. Implied meaning rather than literal meaning or denotation.
ConsonanceRepetition of a consonant sound within two or more words in close
proximity.
CumulativeSentence which begins with the main idea and then expands on
that idea with a series of details or other particulars.
DictionWord choice, particularly as an element of style. Different types and
arrangements of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in
academic diction, for example, would be much less colorful, but perhaps more
precise, than street slang.
DidacticA term used to describe fiction or nonfiction that teaches a specific
lesson or moral or provides a model or correct behavior or thinking.
DigressionA temporary departure from the main subject in speaking or
writing.
Dramatic IronyWhen the reader is aware of an inconsistency between a
fictional or nonfiction character's perception of a situation and the truth of that
situation.
ElegyA formal sustained poem lamenting the death of a particular person.
EnnuiA persistent feeling of tiredness or weariness which often afflicts
existential man, often manifesting as boredom.
EpigraphA quotation or aphorism at the beginning of a literary work
suggestive of a theme. One found at the beginning of John Kennedy Toole's
Confederacy of Dunces: "When a true genius appears in the world, you may know
him by this sign; that all the dunces are in a confederacy against him." Jonathan
Swift.
EpiphanyA major character's moment of realization or awareness.
Epitheta term used to characterize a person or thing, such as rosy-fingered in
rosy-fingered dawn or the Great in Catherine the Great. Also a term used as a
descriptive substitute for the name or title or a person, such as The Great
Emancipator for Abraham Lincoln.
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English 2: IB Senior English
EuphemismThe use of a word or phrase that is less direct, but is also considered less
distasteful or less offensive than another. E.g. "He is at rest" instead of "He is dead."
Also consider "Technicolor yawn" for "vomiting."
ExplicationThe act of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. Explication
usually involves close reading and special attention to figurative language.
ExpositionBackground information provided by a writer to enhance a reader's
understanding of the context of a fictional or nonfictional story.
FarceA type of comedy in which one-dimensional characters are put into ludicrous
situations; ordinary standards of probability and motivation are freely violated in order
to evoke laughter.
Figurative LanguageA word or words that are inaccurate literally, but describe by
calling to mind sensations or responses that the thing described evokes. Figurative
language may be in the form of metaphors or similes, both non-literal comparison.
Shakespeare's "All the world's a stage" is an example of non-literal figurative language
(metaphor specifically).
Figure of SpeechA form of expression in which words are used out of the usual
sense in order to make the meaning more specific
Flat CharacterA character constructed around a single idea or quality; a flat
character is immediately recognizable.
FoilA character whose traits are the opposite of another and who thus points up the
strengths and weaknesses of the other character.
GenreFrench, a literary form or type; classification. e.g. tragedy, comedy, novel,
essay, poetry.
HubrisOverwhelming pride or insolence that results in the misfortune of the
protagonist of a tragedy. It is the particular form of tragic flaw that results from
excessive pride, ambition, or overconfidence. The excessive pride of Macbeth is a
standard example of hubris in English drama. Also spelled hybris
HyperboleConscious exaggeration used to heighten effect. Not intended literally,
hyperbole is often humorous. Example: "And fired the shot heard round the world."
ImageA word or group of words, either figurative or literal, used to describe a
sensory experience or an object perceived by the senses. An image is always a concrete
representation.
ImageryThe use of images, especially in a pattern of related images, often figurative,
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to create a strong unified sensory impression.
InversionVariation of the normal word order (subject first, then verb, then
complement) which puts a modifier or the verb as first in the sentence. The element
that appears first is emphasized more than the subject.
IronyWhen a reader is aware of a reality that differs from a character's perception of
reality (dramatic irony)/ The literal meaning of a writer's words may be verbal irony.
Generally speaking, a discrepancy between expectation and reality.
LitotesOpposite of hyperbole; litotes intensifies an idea understatement by stating
through the opposite. E.g. saying "It wasn't my best day" instead of "It was my worst
day."
MetaphorA comparison of two things, often unrelated. A figurative verbal equation
results where both "parts" illuminate one another. Metaphors may occur: in a single
sentence "Talent is a cistern; genius is a fountain;" as a controlling image of an entire
work "Pilgrim at Sea by Par F. Lagerkvist; as obvious ("His fist was a knotty
hammer.") or implied (But O beware the middle mind that purrs and never shows a
tooth.").
Dead MetaphorSo overused that its original impact has been lost.
Extended MetaphorOne developed at length and involves several points
of comparison.

Mixed MetaphorWhen two metaphors are jumbled together, often

illogically.

MetonymyDesignation of one thing with something closely associated with it.

E.g. calling the head of a committee a CHAIR, the king the CROWN, a newspaper
the PRESS, or old people the GRAY HAIRS.
MoodAn atmosphere created by a writer's word choice (diction) and the details
selected. Syntax is also a determiner of mood because sentence strength, length,
and complexity affect pacing.
MoralThe lesson drawn from a fictional or nonfictional story. A heavily didactic
story.
MotifA frequently recurrent character, incident, or concept in literature.
Non-sequiterLatin for "it does not follow." When one comment isn't logically
related to another.
OnomatopoeiaThe use of a word whose pronunciation suggests its meaning.
"Buzz," "hiss," "slam," and "pop" are commonly used examples.
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OxymoronA rhetorical antithesis. Juxtaposing two contradictory terms, like
"wise fool" or "deafening silence."
ParableA short story from which a lesson may be drawn.
ParadoxA seemingly contradictory statement or situation which is actually true.
This rhetorical device is often used for emphasis or simply to attract attention.
ParallelismSentence construction which places in close proximity two or more
equal grammatical constructions. Parallel structure may be as simple as listing
two or three modifiers in a row to describe the same noun or verb; it may take the
form of two or more of the same type of phrases (prepositional, participial,
gerund, appositive) that modify the same noun or verb; it may also take the form
of two or more subordinate clauses that modify the same noun or verb. Or,
parallel structure may be a complex blend of single-word, phrase, and clause
parallelism all in the same sentence.
ParodyAn exaggerated imitation of a usually more serious work for humorous
purposes. The writer of a parody uses the quirks of style of the imitated piece in
extreme or ridiculous ways.
PathosQualities of a fictional or nonfictional work that evoke sorrow or pity.
Over-emotionalism can be the result of an excess of pathos.
PeripetyReversal in the hero's fortunes.
PersonaA writer often adopts a fictional voice to tell a story. Persona or voice is
usually determined by a combination of subject matter and audience.
PersonificationFigurative Language in which inanimate objects, animals,
ideas, or abstractions are endowed with human traits or human forme.g. "When
Duty whispers
PlotSystem of actions represented in a dramatic or narrative work.
Point of ViewThe perspective from which a fictional or nonfictional story is told.
First-person, third-person, or third-person omniscient points of view are commonly
used.
PolysyndetonSentence which uses and or another conjunction, with no commas,
to separate the items in a series, usually appearing in the form X and Y and Z,
stressing equally each member of the series. It makes the sentence slower and the
items more emphatic than in the asyndeton.
ProtagonistChief character in a dramatic or narrative work, usually trying to
accomplish some objective or working toward some goal.
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PunA play on words that are identical or similar in sound but have sharply
diverse meanings.
Red HerringDevice through which a writer raises an irrelevant issue to draw
attention away from the real issue.
RepetitionWord or phrase used two or more times in close proximity.
RhetoricThe art of effective communication, especially persuasive discourse.
Rhetoric focuses on the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style in
order to create felicitous and appropriate discourse.
Rhetorical CriticismEmphasizes communication between the author and
reader. Analyzes the elements employed in a literary work to impose on the reader
the author's view of the meaning, both denotative and connotative, of the work.
Rhetorical QuestionA question asked for rhetorical effect to emphasize a point;
no answer is expected.
Round CharacterA character drawn with sufficient complexity to be able to
surprise the reader without losing credibility.
SatireA work that reveals a critical attitude toward some element of human
behavior by portraying it in an extreme way. Satire doesn't simply abuse (as with
invective) or get personal (as with sarcasm). Satire usually targets groups or large
concepts rather than individuals; its purpose is customarily to inspire change.
SarcasmA type of verbal irony in which, under the guise of praise, a caustic and
bitter expression of strong and personal disapproval is given. Sarcasm is personal,
jeering, and intended to hurt.
SettingLocale and period in which the action takes place.
SimileA figurative comparison of two things, often dissimilar, using the
connecting words: "like," "as," or "then." E.g. "More rapid than eagles his coursers
they came."
Situational IronyApplies to works which contain elaborate expressions of the
ironic spirit. Also, irony applies to both Hamlet's situation and to his famous
soliloquy, "To be or nor to be."
SoliloquyWhen a character in a play speaks his thoughts aloud usually by him
or herself.
Stock CharacterConventional character types that recur repeatedly in various
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literary genres. E.g. the wicked stepmother or Prince Charming or the rascal.
Stream of ConsciousnessTechnique of writing that undertakes to reproduce the
raw flow of consciousness, with the perceptions, thoughts, judgments, feelings,
associations, and memories presented just as they occur without being tidied into
grammatical sentences or given logical and narrative order.
StyleThe choices in diction, tone, and syntax that a writer makes. In combination
they create a work's manner of expression. Style is thought to be conscious and
unconscious and may be altered to suit specific occasions. Style is often habitual
and evolves over time.
SymbolA thing, event, or person that represents or stands for some idea or
event. Symbols also simultaneously retain their own literal meanings. A figure of
speech in which a concrete object is used to stand for an abstract idea e.g. the
cross for Christianity.
SynecdochePart of something is used to stand for the whole e.g. "threads" for
clothes; "wheels" for cars.
SyntaxIn grammar, the arrangement of words as elements in a sentence to show
their relationship.
ThemeA central idea of a work of fiction or nonfiction, revealed and developed in
the course of a story or explored through argument.
ToneA writer's attitude toward his or her subject matter revealed through
diction, figurative language, and organization of the sentence and global levels.
TragedyRepresentations of serious actions which turn out disastrously.
Tragic FlawTragic error in judgment; a mistaken act which changes the fortune
of the tragic hero from happiness to misery; also known as hamartia.
Understatement-Deliberately representing something as much less than it really
is e.g. "Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it
altered her appearance." Jonathan Swift
UnityA work of fiction or nonfiction is said to be unified is all the parts are
related to one central idea or organizing principle. Thus, unity is dependent upon
coherence.
Verbal IronyWhen the reader is aware of a discrepancy between the real
meaning of a situation and the literal meaning of the writer's words.

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ZeugmaThe writer uses one word to govern several successive words are clauses
e.g. She discovered New York and her world.

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Preparing to Write a Commentary

Consider the following as you prepare to write a literary criticism. Remember,

providing textual evidence for your findings is imperative in supporting your point.
1. Read the passage once for a quick overview, a second time to get a feel for
the language and a third time after having planned your paper to see if it still
works.
2. Plan your paper. How are you going to structure your ideas? What key lines
must you talk about? How does the beginning of the passage connect to the
ending?
3. Find a focus. It should fit the passage rather than making the passage fit it.
4. Introductions and conclusions frame your paper. Try for swift incisive entries
and thoughtful exits.
5. Avoid narration. Remember analysis rather than summary. Show how
meaning is created. The reader needs to be led to see the hand of the
writer.
6. Assess effects of literary features. Be sensitive to the effect created by the
authors choice of words (diction).
7. Use language appropriate to the discussion. Be conscious of the difference
between prose and poetry.
8. Adopt a neutral objective voice without losing your own personal flair.
9. Use specific references (textual evidence) and integrate them seamlessly.
10.

Edit and revise as much as time allows.

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