2.

3 Carbohydrates and Lipids

Essential Idea: Compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are
used to supply and store energy.

Carbohydrates
-General formula is (CH2O)n
-Can be short term energy storage (eg: sugar)
-Can be intermediate energy storage (eg: starch in plants, glycogen in
animals)
-Sugars (saccharides) are structurally the simplest carbohydrates
-makes up other types of carbohydrates
-There are 3 main types:

Monosaccharides
-Single sugars (monomers) one of the most common sugars
-eg: glucose (hexose or six carbon sugars)
-end product of photosynthesis
-broken down during cell respiration
-forms larger molecules like starch or glycogen
-2 common types: -D-glucose and -D-glucose

-D-glucose 1

-D-glucose

-main difference is the OH group on carbon 1

-on the bottom for -D-glucose
-on the top for -D-glucose

Other sugars include:

-Fructose: found in plant sugars

-Galactose: found in milk

-Ribose: a pentose (5 carbon sugar) that is found in DNA and RNA

-Ribose in RNA:

-Ribose in DNA

-in ribose there is an OH group on carbon 2

-in deoxyribose there is an H on carbon 2

Disaccharides
-Formed when 2 monosaccharides are chemically bonded
-sucrose = glucose + fructose
-lactose = glucose + galactose
-maltose = glucose +glucose
-When monomers of any organic compounds join together, the process is
called dehydration synthesis or condensation (loss of H2O when bond is
formed)
-When macromolecules are broken down, the process is called hydrolysis
-H2O is inserted to break bond between 2 monomers

Dehydration Synthesis (Condensation)

Polysaccharides
-Made up of many monomers
-eg: starch and cellulose in plants, glycogen in animals
-all of these are made up of forms of glucose bonded in 1-4 or 1-6
linkages (referring to
carbon number)

Cellulose:
-Unbranched chain of -D-glucose molecules

-bond between carbon 1 of 1 glucose and carbon 4 of another

-Because the OH group for carbon 1 on one glucose points up and the OH
group on carbon 4 points down, in order for a bond to form between the 2
glucose molecules the molecules alternate their orientation in the chain (1
up, 1 down, etc.)
-this results in straight chain for cellulose
-Cellulose molecules can live parallel to each other
-this allows H bonds to form within cellulose molecules and between
adjacent cellulose molecules
-this forms a network of H bonds, resulting in a strong structure (cellulose
microfibrils) and gives plant walls their strength

Starch:
-Formed using -D-glucose
-bonded between carbon 1 and carbon 4 of 2 glucose molecules
-All OH groups are pointing down, all glucose molecules are oriented (facing)
the same direction
-this causes molecules to curve

-Amylase: chain is unbranched, so it forms a helix

-Amylopectin: has 1-4 linkages but also some carbon 1 to carbon 6 linkages

-1-6 linkages results in branches forming, resulting in a globular shape

(glycosidic bonds)
-Starch is used as energy storage in plants
-Starch is hydrophilic, but they are too large to dissolve in water
-this is useful because it doesnt affect the osmotic pressure in the plant
cells

Glycogen:
-Similar to amylopectin, but more 1-6 linkages

-this means more branches, more globular

-Used as energy storage in animals (some fungi as well)
-In humans, it is used in liver and muscle cells
-Large molecule means it is insoluble in water
-useful way to store glucose, avoid osmotic affects
-Glucose molecules can be easily removed from glycogen and starch when
energy is needed, or easily attached when energy is excess

Lipids
-Includes fats (solid at room temperature) and oils (liquid at room
temperature)
-Generally insoluble in polar substances like water
-There are 3 types of lipids:

Triglycerides
-These are fats and oils
-Made up of glycerol (a 3 carbon compound) and 3 fatty acids

Glycerol

Fatty Acid Chain

Triglyceride

-Fatty acids are made up of 2 parts

-acid (hydrophilic end): COOH
-unbranched hydrocarbon (hydrophobic): -CH2-(CH2)n-CH3
-Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated

Saturated:
-NO double bonds in hydrocarbon chain
-Carbons are bonded to the maximum number of Hs
-Forms fats that are solid at room temperature
-Animal fats, eg: butter, cheese, meat

Unsaturated:
-One/more double bonds between the carbons

-Forms oils that are liquid at room temperature

-Plant products

-Monosaturated means only one double bond

-eg: olive oil
-Polysaturated means 2 or more double bonds
-eg: soybean oil
-Locations of the double bond is counted from the CH3 end of the fatty acid
-eg: omega 3 fatty acids have a double bond at the third carbon from the
CH3 end

-Orientation of Hs around double bonds is also important

1. Cis unsaturated fatty acid (Hs are on the same side)

-Causes fatty acid molecules to bend at double bond

-Molecules cannot pack together, stays liquid at room temperature
-eg: canola oil

2. Trans unsaturated fatty acid (Hs are on opposite sides)

-Uncommon in nature, can be created artificially

-Made by adding Hs to oils to get margarine from canola oil

Phospholipids
-Formed when phosphate group replaces one of the fatty acids bonded to
glycerol
-Structural component of cell membranes

-Polar head and non-polar tails allows for phospholipids to arrange

themselves and form a phospholipid bilayer in water

Steroids
-Very different from triglycerides
-Have 4 rings in their structure, 3 with 6 carbons and 1 with 5 carbons
-Have an important role in body

Cholesterol:
-Used in cell membranes
-Coating of some neurons

Steroids:
-Important hormones in body
-Regulatory function in our body

Uses of Lipids
-Used for long term energy storage

In Animals:
-Excess sugar (beyond glycogen) is stored as fat
-found in adipose tissue, which is just below skin and around organs like
kidneys
-protects organs, cushions organs that are prone to bumps and shocks
(absorbs shocks)
-Better storage than carbohydrates
-fat yields 9.3 kcal/g vs. 3.8 kcal/g for carbohydrates

-Lighter form of storage

-unlike glycogen it isnt associated with water when stored
-about six times more energy stored in fat that glycogen
-Stored lipids provide insulation
-helps animals in the winter reduce heat loss
-However, glycogen is broken down faster, so it is better form of short term
storage
-Fats need more oxygen to break down, better used when body is not
stressed for oxygen
-glucose needs less oxygen for breakdown, easier and quicker to break
down

In Plants:
-Oils secreted onto surfaces provides water proofing, also in some animals

Health Risks Associated with Trans Fats and Saturated Fatty Acids
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD):
-Main risk associated with diets high in trans and saturated fats
-Occurs when coronary arteries become partially blocked with fat deposits or
plaque forming on the inner walls
-can lead to heart attack where blood is blocked from reaching heart
muscle tissue
-Studies have shown correlation between CHD and amount of trans and
saturated fats consumed
-however, we cant yet claim causation because in some areas people have
a high saturated fats diet yet dont have high incidence of CHD
-eg: Maasai tribe in Kenya; diets are rich in meat, fat, dairy, but low
incidence of CHD
-eg: Mediterranean diet; uses lots of olive oil, high in unsaturated fats,
but low rates of CHD
-is this genetics? Oil used? Tomatoes?

-In order to prove causation, you need more evidence and multiple studies
with a large number of subjects
-However, casual link between CHD and trans fats is strengthened by the
fact that fatty deposits in people who have died from CHD show high levels
of trans fats
-related to high fat diets and the rise of obesity in Western Countries

-To determine if a person is healthy, we cant just use weight

-Body Mass Index (BMI) = mass (kg)/height2(m)
-greater than 18.5 = underweight
-between 18.5-24.9 = normal
-between 25.0-29.9 = overweight
-greater than 30 = obese
-Draw straight line matching mass and height and see where it crosses the
BMI scale (nomogram)