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Chapter 6 explores how we select, organize, and David Myers at times uses idioms that are un
interpret our sensations into meaningful perceptions. familiar to some readers. If you do not know
The chapter introduces a wide range of terminology, the meaning of any of the following words,
especially in the Perceptual Organization section. phrases, or expressions in the context in which
Each of the two sections that follow deals with an they appear in the text, refer to page 175 for an
important issue. The first issue is the role of experi explanation: your attentional spotlight shifts; you
ence, as opposed to heredity, in perception. Make may draw a blank; sauntered; pop-out.
sure you understand the results of studies of recovery
from blindness, sensory deprivation, adaptation to
distorted environments, and perceptual set. Note also
Objective 1: Describe the interplay between attention
the role of psychologists in human factors design.
and perception.
The second issue considered in the chapter is the
possible existence of ESP, or perception without sen
1. Our tendency to focus at any moment on only a
sation. You should be able to discuss both the claims
made for ESP and the criticisms of these claims. limited aspect of all that we are capable of experi
encing is called
NOTE: Answer guidelines for all Chapter 6 questions . This is illustrated using a
begin on page 168.
figure called a cube.
First, skim each section, noting headings and boldface —the ability to attend
items. After you have read the section, review each
objective by answering the fill-in and essay-type selectively to only one voice among many.
questions that follow it. As you proceed, evaluate 3. One example of our lack of awareness of happen
your performance by consulting the answers begin
ings around us is / in
ning on page 168. Do not continue with the next sec
which—after a brief. inter
tion until you understand each answer. If you need
to, review or reread the section in the textbook before ruption—we fail to notice a change in the envi
continuing. ronment. Two forms of this phenomenon that
157
158 Chapter 6 Perception
Perceptual Illusions (pp. 240-242) tions. The distinction between sensation and per
ception in terms of these two types of information
If you do not know the meaning of any of the
processing is (clear
following words, phrases, or expressions in
the context in which they appear in the text, cut/fuzzy).
refer to page 175 for an explanation:
ventriloquist's dummy; more to touch than meets Objective 4: Explain the figure-ground relationship,
the skin. and identify principles of perceptual grouping in
form perception.
our sensations.
psychology, we tend to organize a cluster of sen uniform or attached items as a single unit is the
sations into a , or principle of
form.
Objective 5: Explain the importance of depth percep
2. Our tendency to perceive complete forms tion, and discuss the contribution of visual cliff
involves sensory analysis, or research to our understanding of this ability.
to test
15. As an object becomes increasingly distant, it
depth perception in infants. By appears progressively less distinct:
(what age?) infants
demonstrate they are using Gestalt perception
16. Objects lower in the visual field are seen as
principles.
nearer: ^
Summarize the results of Gibson and Walk's studies
17. As we move, objects at different distances appear
of depth perception.
to move at different rates:
phenomenon is called
10. The more our eyes focus inward when we view
an object, the nearer the object:
22. The illusion of movement that results when two
adjacent stationary spots of light blink on and off
Objective 7: Explain how monocular cues differ from
in quick succession is called the
binocular cues, and describe several monocular cues
for perceiving depth.
11. Any cue that requires either eye alone: Objective 9: Explain the importance of perceptual
constancy.
12. If two objects are presumed to be the same size, 23. Our tendency to see objects as unchanging while
the one that casts a smaller retinal image is per the stimuli from them change in size, shape, and
ceived as farther away: lightness is called
Objective 10: Describe the shape and size constan Perceptual Interpretation (pp. 254-264)
cies, and explain how our expectations about per
ceived size and distance contribute to some visual If you do not know the meaning of any of the
illusions. following words, phrases, or expressions in the
context in which they appear in the text, refer
25. Due to shape and size constancy, familiar objects to page 176 for an explanation: Ping-Pong ball;
(do/do not) appear to we mayfeel slightly disoriented, even dizzy; to see
is to believe.. .to believe is to see; a "monster" in
change shape or size despite changes in our
Scotland's Loch Ness;from what's behind our eyes
images of them.
and between our ears; in the eyes of their beholders.
26. Several illusions, including the
. , , and
_- illu Objective 12: Describe the contribution of restored-
vision and sensory deprivation research in our under
sions, are explained by the interplay between per
standing of the nature-nurture interplay in our per
ceived and perceived ceptions.
. When distance cues are
1. The idea that knowledge comes from inborn
removed, these illusions are
ways of organizing sensory experiences was pro
(diminished/strengthened).
posed by the philosopher .
Explain how the size-distance relationship accounts
2. On the other side were philosophers who main
for the Moon illusion.
tained that we learn to perceive the world by
experiencing it. One philosopher of this school
was ■
7. When distorting goggles are first removed, most 16. Another example of failure to consider the
people experience a brief perceptual human factor in design is the
, as their perceptual systems
continue to compensate for the shifted visual
technology that provides embarrassing headsets
input.
that amplify sound for people with hearing loss.
8. A mental predisposition that influences percep If you do not know the meaning of any of the
following words, phrases, or expressions in the
tion is called a
context in which they appear in the text, refer
to page 176 for an explanation: uncanny; mind-
9. Through experience, people acquire perceptual blowing performance; unsatisfied hunger.. .an
, as reflected in children's itch.
12. Adults who are born blind but later have their 20. Researchers who investigated telepathy found
vision restored: that:
a. are almost immediately able to recognize a. when external distractions are reduced, both
familiar objects. the "sender" and the "receiver" become much
b. typically fail to recognize familiar objects. more accurate in demonstrating ESP.
c. are unable to follow moving objects with their b. only "senders" become much more accurate.
eyes. c. only "receivers" become much more accurate.
d. have excellent eye-hand coordination. d. over many studies, none of the above occur.
17. The study of perception is primarily concerned cal factors such as set and expectation as
with how we: well as by physiological events.
10. John Locke argued that perception is
a. detect sights, sounds, and other stimuli.
inborn.
b. sense environmental stimuli.
c. develop sensitivity to illusions.
d. interpret sensory stimuli. PROGRESS TEST 2
3. Which of the following statements is consistent c. It has more damaging effects when experi
with the Gestalt theory of perception? enced during infancy.
a. Perception develops largely through learning. d. It has greater effects on adults than on chil
b. Perception is the product of heredity. dren.
c. The mind organizes sensations into meaning
11. Psychologists who study ESP are called:
ful perceptions.
d. Perception results directly from sensation. a. clairvoyants. c. parapsychologists.
b. telepaths. d. levitators.
4. Experiments with distorted visual environments
demonstrate that: 12. The depth cue that occurs when we watch stable
a. adaptation rarely takes place. objects at different distances as we are moving is:
b. animals adapt readily, but humans do not. a. convergence. c. relative clarity.
c. humans adapt readily, while lower animals b. interposition. d. relative motion.
typically do not.
13. Which of the following statements concerning
d. adaptation is possible during a critical period
ESP is true?
in infancy but not thereafter.
a. Most ESP researchers are quacks.
5. The phenomenon that refers to the ways in which b. There have been a large number of reliable
an individual's expectations influence perception demonstrations of ESP.
is called: c. Most research psychologists are skeptical of
a. perceptual set. c. convergence. the claims of defenders of ESP.
b. retinal disparity. d. visual capture. d. There have been reliable laboratory demon
strations of ESP, but the results are no differ
6. Thanks to ., TiVo and DVR have solved ent from those that would occur by chance.
the TV recording problem caused by the com
plexity of VCRs. 14. Each time you see your car, it projects a different
image on the retinas of your eyes, yet you do not
a. parapsychologists
perceive it as changing. This is because of:
b. human factors psychologists
c. psychokineticists a. perceptual set.
d. Gestalt psychologists b. retinal disparity.
c. perceptual constancy.
7. According to the philosopher. we learn d. convergence.
to perceive the world.
Locke c. Gibson 15. The term gestalt means:
Kant d. Walk a. grouping. c. perception.
b. sensation. d. whole.
8. The tendency to perceive hazy objects as being at
a distance is known as . This is a 16. The perceptual error in which we fail to see an
depth cue. object when our attention is directed elsewhere is:
a. linear perspective; binocular a. visual capture.
b. linear perspective; monocular b. inattentional blindness.
c. relative clarity; binocular c. perceptual adaptation.
d. relative clarity; monocular d. divergence.
9. The phenomenon of size constancy is based upon 17. Studies of the visual cliff have provided evidence
the close connection between an object's per that much of depth perception is:
ceived and its perceived . a. innate.
a. size; shape c. size; brightness b. learned.
b. size; distance d. shape; distance c. innate in lower animals, learned in humans.
d. innate in humans, learned in lower animals.
10. Which of the following statements best describes
the effects of sensory restriction? 18. All of the following are laws of perceptual orga
nization except:
a. It produces functional blindness when experi
enced for any length of time at any age. a. proximity. c. continuity.
b. It has greater effects on humans than on ani b. closure. d. convergence.
mals.
Psychology Applied 165
b. interposition d. convergence
19. You probably perceive the diagram above as 6. Concluding her presentation on sensation and
three separate objects due to the principle of: perception, Kelly notes that:
a. proximity. c. closure. a. sensation is bottom-up processing.
b. continuity. d. connectedness. b. perception is top-down processing.
c. a. and b. are both true.
20. . processing refers to how our knowledge d. sensation and perception blend into one con
and expectations influence perception. tinuous process.
a. Top-down c. Parapsychological
b. Bottom-up d. Human factors 7. As her friend Milo walks toward her, Noriko per
ceives his size as remaining constant because his
perceived distance at the same time that
PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED her retinal image of him
a. increases; decreases
Answer these questions the day before an exam as a b. increases; increases
final check on your understanding of the chapter's c. decreases; decreases
terms and concepts. d. decreases; increases
2. Because the flowers in the foreground appeared 9. The illusion that the St. Louis Gateway arch
coarse and grainy, the photographer decided that appears taller than it is wide (even though its
the picture was taken too near the subject. This height and width are equal) is based on our sensi
conclusion was based on which depth cue? tivity to which monocular depth cue?
a. relative size c. retinal disparity a. relative size c. relative height
b. interposition d. texture gradient b. interposition d. retinal disparity
3. The fact that a white object under dim illumina 10. How do we perceive a pole that partially covers a
tion appears lighter than a gray object under wall?
bright illumination is called: a. as farther away
a. relative luminance. b. as nearer
b. perceptual adaptation. c. as larger
c. color contrast. d. There is not enough information to determine
d. lightness constancy. the object's size or distance.
4. When two familiar objects of equal size cast 11. An artist paints a tree orchard so that the parallel
unequal retinal images, the object that casts the rows of trees converge at the top of the canvas.
smaller retinal image will be perceived as being: Which cue has the artist used to convey distance?
a. closer than the other object. a. interposition c. linear perspective
b. more distant than the other object. b. relative clarity d. texture gradient
c. larger than the other object.
d. smaller than the other object. 12. Objects higher in our field of vision are perceived
as due to the principle of .
5. If you slowly bring your finger toward your face a. nearer; relative height
until it eventually touches your nose, eye-muscle b. nearer; linear perspective
cues called convey depth information to c. farther away; relative height
your brain. d. farther away; linear perspective
a. retinal disparity c. continuity
166 Chapter 6 Perception
14. Your friend tosses you a frisbee. You know that it In many movies from the 1930s, dancers performed
is getting closer instead of larger because of: seemingly meaningless movements which, when
a. shape constancy. c. size constancy. viewed from above, were transformed into intricate
b. relative motion. d. all of the above. patterns and designs. Similarly, the formations of
marching bands often create pictures and spell
15. Which explanation of the Miiller-Lyer illusion is words. Identify and describe at least four Gestalt
offered by the text? principles of grouping that explain the audience's
a. The corners in our carpentered world teach us perception of the images created by these types of forr
to interpret outward- or inward-pointing mations. (Use the space below to list the points you
arrowheads at the end of a line as a cue to the want to make, and organize them. Then write the
line's distance from us and so to its length. essay on a separate piece of paper.)
b. The drawing's violation of linear perspective
makes one line seem longer.
c. Top-down processing of the illusion is pre
vented because of the stimuli's ambiguity.
d. All of the above were offered as explanations.
16. When the traffic light changed from red to green,
the drivers on both sides of Leon's vehicle pulled
quickly forward, giving Leon the disorienting
feeling that his car was rolling backward. Which
principle explains Leon's misperception?
a. relative motion c. visual capture
b. continuity d. proximity
17. Regina claims that she can bend spoons, levitate KEY TERMS
furniture, and perform many other "mind over
matter" feats. Regina apparently believes she has Writing Definitions
the power of:
Using your own words, on a separate piece of paper
a. telepathy. c. precognition. write a brief definition or explanation of each of the
b. clairvoyance. d. psychokinesis. following terms.
6. grouping
19. Studying the road map before her trip, Colleen
had no trouble following the route of the high 7. depth perception
way she planned to travel. Colleen's ability illus
trates the principle of: 8. visual cliff
Cross-Check 1 2 3 4
5 6 7
As you learned in the Prologue,
reviewing and overlearning of
material are important to the 10
8 9 11
learning process. After you have
written the definitions of the key
terms in this chapter, you should 12
complete the crossword puzzle
to ensure that you can reverse
the process—recognize the term, 13 14
ACROSS
10. c. is the answer. There appears to be a critical 18. d. is the answer, (p. 244)
period for perceptual development, in that senso 19. d. is the answer, (p. 244)
ry restriction has severe, even permanently, dis
a. Proximity is the tendency to group objects near
ruptive effects when it occurs in infancy but not to one another. The diagram is perceived as three
when it occurs later in life. (p. 256) distinct units, even though the points are evenly
a. & d. Sensory restriction does not have the same spaced.
effects at all ages, and it is more damaging to chil
b. Continuity is the tendency to group stimuli
dren than to adults. This is because there is a criti into smooth, uninterrupted patterns. There is no
cal period for perceptual development; whether such continuity in the diagram.
functional blindness will result depends in part c. Closure is the perceptual tendency to fill in
on the nature of the sensory restriction. gaps in a form. In the diagram, three disconnect
b. Research studies have not indicated that senso ed units are perceived rather than a single whole.
ry restriction is more damaging to humans than
20. a. is the answer, (p. 237)
to animals.
b. Bottom-up processing refers to the physical
11. c. is the answer, (p. 264) characteristics of stimuli rather than their percep
a., b., & d. These psychics claim to exhibit the tual interpretation.
phenomena studied by parapsychologists. c. Parapsychology is the study of perception out
12. d. is the answer. When we move, stable objects side normal sensory input.
we see also appear to move, and the distance and d. Human factors psychology is concerned with
speed of the apparent motion cue us to the how best to design machines and work settings to
objects' relative distances, (p. 248) take into account human perception.
a., b., & c. These depth cues are unrelated to
movement and thus work even when we are sta
Psychology Applied
tionary.
example, only the frisbee is moving. the members of each group wear a distinctive
15. a. is the answer, (p. 251) costume or uniform.
16. c. is the answer. Although Leon's other senses 3. Continuity. Because we perceive smooth, continu
would have told him his car was not moving, the ous patterns rather than discontinuous ones,
visual images of the other cars moving forward dancers or marching musicians moving together
"captured" his awareness and created the percep (as in a column, for example) are perceived as a
tion that he was rolling backward, (p. 242) separate unit.
a. Relative motion is a distance cue that occurs 4. Closure. If a figure has gaps, we complete it, fill
when stationary objects appear to move as we ing in the gaps to create a whole image. Thus, we
move. Just the opposite is happening to Leon. perceptually fill in the relatively wide spacing
b. & d. Continuity and proximity are Gestalt between dancers or marching musicians in order
principles of grouping, rather than cues to to perceive the complete words or forms they are
distance. creating.
17. d. is the answer, (p. 265)
a. Telepathy is the claimed ability to "read" Key Terms
minds.
b. Clairvoyance refers to the claimed ability to Writing Definitions
perceive remote events.
c. Precognition refers to the claimed ability to 1. Selective attention is the focusing of conscious
perceive future events. awareness on a particular stimulus out of all of
those that we are capable of experiencing, (p. 237)
18. d. is the answer, (pp. 265-266)
2. Inattentional blindness is a perceptual error in
19. c. is the answer. She perceives the line for the
which we fail to see a visible object when our
road as continuous, even though it is interrupted
attention is directed elsewhere, (p. 238)
by lines indicating other roads, (p. 244)
a. Closure refers to the perceptual filling in of 3. Visual capture is the tendency for vision to domi
gaps in a stimulus to create a complete, whole nate the other senses, (p. 242)
object. 4. Gestalt means "organized whole." The Gestalt
b. Similarity is the tendency to perceive similar psychologists emphasized our tendency to inte
objects as belonging together. On a road map, all grate pieces of information into meaningful
the lines representing roads appear similar. Thus, wholes, (p. 242)
this cue could not be the basis for Colleen's abili
5. Figure-ground refers to the organization of the
ty to trace the route of a particular road.
visual field into two parts: the figure, which
d. Proximity is the tendency to group objects near
stands out from its surroundings, and the sur
to one another as a single unit.
roundings, or background, (p. 243)
20. c. is the answer, (p. 251)
a. If perception were entirely based on the physi 6. Grouping is the perceptual tendency to organize
cal characteristics of a stimulus ("bottom-up"), stimuli into coherent groups. Gestalt psycholo
lack of experience with a carpentered environ gists identified various principles of grouping, (p.
b. Principles of grouping, depth perception, and 7. Depth perception is the ability to see objects in
sensitivity to illusions all demonstrate that per three dimensions although the images that strike
ception often is predictable. the retina are two-dimensional; it allows us to
judge distance, (p. 245)
Essay Question
8. The visual cliff is a laboratory device for testing
1. Proximity. We tend to perceive items that are near depth perception, especially in infants and young
each other as belonging together. Thus, a small animals. In their experiments with the visual cliff,
section of dancers or members of a marching Gibson and Walk found strong evidence that
band may separate themselves from the larger depth perception is at least in part innate, (p. 245)
group in order to form part of a particular image.
9. Binocular cues are depth cues that depend on
2. Similarity. Because we perceive similar figures as information from both eyes. (p. 245)
belonging together, choreographers and band
Memory aid: Bi- indicates "two"; ocular means
directors often create distinct visual groupings
something pertaining to the eye. Binocular cues
within the larger band or dance troupe by having
are cues for the "two eyes."
174 Chapter 6 Perception
10. Retinal disparity refers to' the differences 18. Extrasensory perception (ESP) refers to the con
between the images received by the left eye and troversial claim that perception can occur without
the right eye as a result of viewing the world sensory input. Supposed ESP powers include
from slightly different angles. It is a binocular telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition. (p. 264)
depth cue, since the greater the difference Memory aid: Extra- means "beyond" or "in addi
between the two images, the nearer the object, (p. tion to"; extrasensory perception is perception
246) outside or beyond the normal senses.
11. Convergence is a neuromuscular binocular depth
19. Parapsychology is the study of ESP, psychokine
cue based on the extent to which the eyes con
sis, and other paranormal forms of interaction
verge, or turn inward, when looking at near or
between the individual and the environment,
distant objects. The more the eyes converge, the
(p. 264)
nearer the objects, (p. 246)
Memory aid: Para-, like extra-, indicates "beyond";
12. Monocular cues are depth cues that depend on
thus, paranormal is beyond the normal and para
information from either eye alone, (p. 246)
psychology is the study of phenomena beyond
Memory aid: Mono- means one; a monocle is an the realm of psychology and known natural laws.
eyeglass for one eye. A monocular cue is one that
is available to either the left or the right eye.
13. The phi phenomenon is an illusion of movement Cross-Check
created when two or more adjacent lights blink ACROSS DOWN
on and off in succession, (p. 250) 1. ground 2. reversible
14. Perceptual constancy is the perception that 8. linear 3. depth
objects have consistent lightness, color, shape, 13. binocular 4. cocktail party
and size, even as illumination and retinal images 15. proximity 5. selective
change, (p. 250) 16. figure 6. phi phenomenon
FOCUS ON VOCABULARY AND LANGUAGE creating' the illusion of receiving more than a single
touch (thus, there is more to touch than meets the skin).
Selective Attention and Perceptual Illusions
Perceptual Organization
Page 238: Now, suddenly, your attentional spotlight
shifts. Your feet feel encased, your nose stubbornly Page 243:. .. yen .. . This means to have a desire or
intrudes on the page before you. Selective attention deep need (yen) to do something. Myers notes that
refers to our tendency to focus on only a small part our brain's desire (yen) to put together bits and
of what is possible for us to experience. If you do pieces of sensory input into coherent units involves
attend to more aspects of your experience {your both "bottom-up" and "top-down" processing. We
attentional spotlight shifts), you will be surprised at actively impose structure and infer meaning (top-
the amount of stimulation you process without down) and are not simply registering sensory stimu
awareness, such as the feel of the shoes on your feet lation (bottom-up) in a passive manner. Thus, there
{your feet feel encased) and the fact that your nose is no sharply denned line (the boundary is fuzzy)
actually blocks your line of vision (your nose stub between sensory and perceptual processes.
bornly intrudes on the page). Page 244: Usually, these grouping principles help us
Page 238: . . . you may draw a blank . . . This means construct reality. Sometimes, however, they lead us
that you do not achieve the result you want; you astray. Although we put together elements of sensa
don't succeed. When you attend to only one voice tion through active organization (the Gestalt group
among many (the cocktail party effect), you may be ing principles) and end up with a unitary experi
ence, we sometimes make mistakes in the process
unable to say what someone else, who was clearly
within your hearing range, was saying (you draw a (we are led astray).
blank). Interestingly, you would very likely hear Page 245: Their mothers then coaxed them to crawl
your own name if it were spoken by this person. out onto the glass. In the experiment with the visual
Page 238: ... a young woman carrying an umbrella cliff, 6- to 14-month-old children were gently en
sauntered across the screen. In this experiment, sub couraged (coaxed) by their mothers to move, on their
jects had to watch a video of basketball players and hands and knees (crawl), onto the invisible glass top
signal when the ball was passed. Because of their in on the "deep" side of the apparatus. Most could not
tense selective attention, they generally failed to be persuaded to do so, leading to the conclusion that
notice a female walking slowly (sauntering) through depth perception may be innate (inborn). The idea
for this famous experiment came to Gibson when
the players.
she was at the Grand Canyon and wondered if a
Page 239:... we experience pop-out, when a striking young child (toddler) looking (peering) over the edge
ly distinct stimulus, such as the only smiling face in of the canyon would recognize the steep, unsafe,
Figure 6.4, draws our eye. A very unique object or incline (dangerous drop-off) and retreat (draw back).
event (a strikingly distinct stimulus) will automatical
ly attract our attention {it draws our eye). This experi Page 246: The floating finger sausage (Figure 6.9). Try
ence is called the pop-out phenomenon. the demonstration and you will experience the effect
of retinal disparity and see a tubular shape (finger
Page 242:. . . (much as we perceive a voice from the sausage) made by your brain from the two different
ventriloquist's dummy). A ventriloquist is an enter
images of your fingers.
tainer who makes the audience believe his voice is
coming from a silent doll (dummy). Due to the phe Page 248: As we move, objects that are actually stable
nomenon of visual capture we assume that because may appear to move. Things that are stationary and
the doll's mouth is moving and the ventriloquist's is do not move (stable objects) seem to move relative to
not, the voice is coming from the dummy. us when we move.
Page 242: There is more to touch than meets the skin. As Page 250: A motion picture creates this illusion by
noted earlier, "there is more to this than meets the flashing 24 still pictures each second. When we view
eye" is a common expression meaning something is a film, we do not experience a rapid series of non-
going on beyond the obvious or the apparent. In this moving images (still pictures); rather, our brain con
variation of the expression, Myers is noting that structs the perceived motion. This is called strobo-
there is a hearing phenomenon similar to visual cap scopic movement.
ture (which is the tendency for vision to dominate Page 251: Take away these distance cues—-by look
the other senses). Experimental participants' sense ing at the horizon Moon (or each monster or each
of hearing tended to dominate their sense of touch, bar) through a paper tube—and the object immediate-
cnaptero Perception