Running head: STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND

PERFORMANCE

The Influence of Study Skills Training on Test Anxiety and Performance

Alison Lessard
University of Calgary

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

Abstract
Test anxiety is a pervasive issue related to student success and can also negatively
influence physical and mental health. 105 University of Alberta undergraduate students were
provided with study and test taking skills over an 8-week period in order to reduce their anxiety
related to evaluative situations in order to improve their exam performance. Students rated their
anxiety levels using the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) before the intervention and prior to their
final exams. The results suggest significantly reduced anxiety and improved test performance
after the intervention. Future recommendations for further study are discussed.

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

The Influence of Study Skills Training on Test Anxiety and Performance

Whether we like it or not, testing is an essential and widely used method for evaluating
the achievement and ability of students from elementary to graduate school (Kassim, Hanafi, &
Hancock, 2009). Tests and exams are used for evaluative purposes and the results can have farreaching implications for individuals as they are often used to determine professional and/or
academic futures (Cohen, Ben-Zur & Rosenfeld, 2008). Therefore, it is not surprising along with
the pressure and strong personal desire to do well, choking under pressure or test anxiety often
interferes with success and can cause students to perform below their potential (Ramirez &
Beilock, 2011). Kassim, Hanafi and Hancock (2009) identified test anxiety as one of the most
disruptive and debilitating factors related to student underachievement in schools at all levels,
and also as one of the most powerful impediments to learning. Not only does test anxiety impact
achievement, but it has also been identified as being detrimental to student mental and physical
health (Damer & Melendres, 2011; Szafranski, Barrera & Norton, 2012). As a result of the
influence test anxiety has upon student populations at all levels, it has emerged as one of most
widely researched domains in education (Damer & Melendres, 2011).
The concept of test anxiety has been researched actively for almost 60 years (Damer &
Melendres, 2011). In most literature related test anxiety, it is considered to be a situation-specific
form of anxiety and comprised of two components: worry and emotionality (Cohen et al., 2008;
Damers & Melendres, 2011; Liebert & Morris, 1967; Szafranski et al., 2012). Liebert and
Morris (1967) identified worry as a cognitive aspect of test anxiety where a student has negative
thoughts about their results on a test or see themselves as a failure. Emotionality refers to the
physical or autonomic reactions in a testing situation such as hyperventilation, shaking hands, or
a faster pulse (Cohen et al., 2008; Liebert & Morris, 1967). Ergene (2003) suggested test anxiety

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

refers to a variety of responses (behavioral, emotional, physiological) that co-occur with

concerns surrounding thoughts of negative performance or failure of an exam or other similar
forms of evaluation.
Anxiety of any kind typically includes a heightened response to a perceived threat that
can be physical or psychological in nature (Kassim et al., 2009). Test anxiety develops during
situations where ones performance is being evaluated and may result in feelings of distress, fear,
hopelessness, certainty of failure, and lack of confidence in ones abilities. Szafranski et al.
(2012) suggested this increase in anxious thoughts and feelings is often paired with an intensified
overestimation of consequences related to failure, (e.g. If I fail this exam Im never going to
graduate). Ergene (2003) stated that test anxious students respond with threat reactions and
perceptions as well as reduced feelings of self-efficacy when placed in evaluative situations.
The following commonly referenced definition of test anxiety describes it as an unpleasant state
characterized by feelings of tension and apprehension, worrisome thoughts and the activation of
the autonomic nervous system when an individual faces evaluative achievement-demanding
situations (Spielberger, 1972 as cited by Ergene, 2003, p. 314).
Damer and Melendres (2011) stated healthy emotional functioning of students is trending
downwards as they are feeling increasingly overwhelmed and pressured to succeed. Research
indicates that test anxiety has a negative relationship on student performance as students with
higher levels of text anxiety score more poorly on exams than their low anxious counterparts
(Damer& Melendres, 2011; Kassim et al., 2009). Not only does test anxiety have an impact
upon a students academic performance, it also can affect overall physical and mental health
resulting in depression and higher rates of illnesses. Regarding college students, Damer and
Melendres (2011) reported that test anxiety was also related to increased alcohol consumption

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

within this population. Awareness of the effects of test anxiety upon student performance has
significant implications for counseling services in schools and post secondary institutions.
Estimates regarding the prevalence rates of test anxiety in school and post secondary
students suggest that the problem is extensive. Ergene (2003) reported a study of 1,648
Canadian elementary and high school students that suggested 22 percent were significantly
worried about their school performance. Among college students, the prevalence rates of test
anxiety were considered to range between 15-20 percent (Ergene, 2003). According to Chapell
et al. (2005) two thirds of students who experienced lower levels of test anxiety typically
outscored high test-anxious students.
The neurological basis of test anxiety has also been a focus of recent research. Owens,
Stevenson, Hadwin and Norgate (2012) reported that anxiety disrupts working memory leading
to poorer academic performance. Anxiety associated with complex tasks such as exam situations
has been found to reduce overall task efficiency and effectiveness (Owens et al., 2012). In other
words, test anxiety appears to reduce available working memory for cognitive tasks.
Preoccupation with worrying and other irrelevant thoughts associated with test anxiety
essentially interferes with and/or occupies available working memory ability that could
otherwise be directed toward evaluative tasks (Tse & Pu, 2012).
Reducing test anxiety is an important consideration for test anxiety research. Cohen et al.
(2008) stated early approaches to supporting test anxiety were focused upon the physiological
and emotional components using behavioral methods. Various treatments have been developed to
combat test anxiety including: a) behavioral approaches (relaxation training and biofeedback); b)
cognitive approaches; c) cognitive-behavioral approaches; and d) skill-deficit approaches
including study and test-taking training (Ergene, 2003). However, Damers and Melendres (2011)

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

indicated interventions that focus on test taking skills as opposed to reducing anxiety, have
proven to be more effective in improving academic results.
This study was designed in response to the question whether the influence of focused
test-taking instruction or test-wiseness, would reduce anxiety and increase test performance.
Specifically, we would expect students who receive instructional hours related to test-taking
skills, would experience lower levels of test anxiety, which in turn would also result in improved
overall exam scores.
Method
Participants
Participants included 105 undergraduate student volunteers (75 females and 30 males)
who were enrolled in introductory sociology or psychology courses at the University of Alberta.
Students were recruited by means of posters advertising the study that were hung in highly
visible locations. Those who had an existing diagnosis of generalized or specific anxiety
disorders were excluded from the study. The mean self-reported GPA of participants was 3.15.
The measure used in this study was the Test Anxiety Inventory or TAI (Spielberger et al.,
1980), which is a self-report measure of test anxiety used with high school and college students.
Respondents are asked to identify how often they feel anxiety symptoms before, during, and after
an exam. The TAI consists of 20 items or statements on one page, using a 4-point Likert scale
ranging from 1(almost never) to 4 (almost always). The TAI includes two subscales: 1) worry,
which assesses the cognitive component related to test anxiety and 2) emotionality, which
evaluates anatomic or physiological responses. (Chapell et al., 2005; Szafranski et al., 2012).
The TAI is a widely used assessment of test anxiety and has good reliability and validity
(Szafranski et al., 2012). Test-retest reliabilities are in the range of .80 to .81 for two week to

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

one-month periods (Damers & Melendres, 2011). The TAI was administered prior to the
intervention of study skills training and again after their final exam. The participants final exam
grade in introductory sociology or psychology was used for the exam performance score in this
study.
The study skills training consisted of eight 90 minute weekly sessions. Each session was
conducted by four school psychologists/counselors who had an average of 20 years experience
supporting post secondary students. The main objective was to provide students with the basic
principles of studying in order to be more successful completing tests. Students were provided
with information regarding how to schedule their time and develop an awareness of their own
learning styles. In addition, memory strategies such as semantic mapping, mnemonic devices,
and keyword strategies were also presented. Time management, enhancement of reading and
summarizing skills, metacognitive strategies, as well as test question analysis were also provided
(Motevalli, 2013).
Results
Table 1
Participant Characteristics
Exam Performance
Exam Anxiety
Time Spent Study Skills

Table 2
Correlations

Mean
56.92
74.12
19.81

Standard Deviation
25.90
17.18
18.07

N
105
105
105

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

Exam Performance
Exam Anxiety

Exam Performance
1

Exam Anxiety
-.45***
[-.564, -.322]

Study Skills Training

.40***
[.266, .512]

103

-.71***
[-.867, -.464]

Study Skills Training

103
103
***p < .001. BCa bootstrap 95% Cls reported in brackets.

We predicted time spent learning and applying study skills would decrease test anxiety
and increase exam performance. A Pearsons correlation coefficient (Pearsons r) was used to
determine the significance of the relationship between the three variables; exam performance,
exam anxiety, and time spent on study skills. Table 1 provides a matrix of the results. The
significance values are all less than .001 (as indicated by the asterisks after the coefficient). This
significance value indicates a statistically significant relationship. The Pearsons r, or correlation
between exam performance and exam anxiety is -.45, suggesting a moderate, negative
correlation. In other words, the more anxiety a person experiences about a test, their
performance decreases. These two variables are inversely related as illustrated in Figure 1. In
contrast, there was a strong, positive correlation between exam anxiety and time spent learning
and implementing study skills. The correlation coefficient between these two variables was -.71.
The results suggest these two variables are positively correlated as seen in Figure 2. In addition,
the more time an individual spent focusing upon study skills, the less anxiety they experienced in
a testing situation as illustrated in Figure 3. The correlation coefficient between these two
variables was .40 suggesting a moderate relationship.
In order to determine a measure of the relationship between exam anxiety and
performance, we need to examine the influence of time spent using study skills. Since we could
not assume a direct relationship from the correlation, the coefficient of determination or R2 was

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

used to determine the extent of the relationship between variables. The results suggest that exam
anxiety accounts for 20% of the variance in exam performance and study skills training accounts
for 16%. We also know that study skills training and exam anxiety share 50% of their variation
suggesting that it is likely that a portion of the variation in exam performance shared by exam
anxiety is also shared by study skills training.
Figure 1

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

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R2= .20

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

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Figure 2
R2= .16

Figure 3

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

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R2= .50

Discussion

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

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The purpose of this study was to determine whether study skills training would lessen test
anxiety and as a result increase test performance. We predicted increased study skill strategies
would decrease test anxiety and increase test performance. Consistent with our hypothesis, our
correlational study results suggest that test anxiety is related to decreased exam scores. We also
found that study skills training resulted in decreased anxiety. Study skills training also resulted
in higher exam scores. These results suggest a partial correlation between study skills training,
exam performance, and test anxiety.
Test anxiety theory research has clearly indicated that test anxiety develops from multiple
pathways, resulting in a variety of text anxious students with various treatment needs (Damer &
Melendres, 2011). Ergenes (2003) meta-analysis study found that combined approaches that
included skill focused and cognitive-behavioral, were most effective in reducing test anxiety.
While this study only focused upon study skills training, the results of one intervention were still
encouraging. While the outcome of this study suggests a relationship between test anxiety, study
skills training, and exam performance, it does not explain all of the variation.
Future direction in the area of test anxiety is necessary. As Ergene (2003) suggested the
question to be answered is how can we determine which reduction programs would be most
effective and for whom. The results of our study isolated the impact of study skills and provided
valuable insight into the effects one specific intervention. However, it remains clear that test
anxiety is a complex issue. In addition more data is required about individuals who struggle with
test anxiety. Owens et al. (2012) suggested individual differences in working memory is another
important factor that should be considered in conjunction with test anxiety intervention.
In conclusion, providing test anxious university students with study skills training
resulted in reduced test anxiety and improved test performance. This is pertinent information

STUDY SKILLS TRAINING, TEST ANXIETY AND PERFORMANCE

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given the widespread impact test anxiety has upon the academic and future aspirations of
students. It is our position test-taking skills alone do not account for all of the variables related
to this issue. It would be appropriate to extend this study by pairing test-wiseness skills with
other evidence-based practices. The prevalence of test anxiety and the consequences related to
the academic and personal lives of students, suggest it is a significant health issue and worthy of
further study.

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