A. Bakshi V. Bakshi 16s M. ~ : Technical Publications Pune™Table of Contents 1.2 Functions of Protective Relaying .. 12 19 eminlogas ved Proce Relaying. on Current Transformers (C.T.).1.12.2 Bat Type Current Transformer... wh ab ae eseeees tata eseee 424 1.13 Why Secondary of C.T. Should nat be p Open ?. 2. — 1-24 1.14 Potential Transformers (P.T.). ee oon nea 1-25 dT Consinucion Le 4.45 Comparison of C.T. and P.T.... 1.16.2 Phase Angie Error . 8 1.16.3 Reduction of Ratio and Phase Angie Errors. . 1.34 1.17 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformers.............1-33 Review Questions a - 4-33 21.1 Basic Trip Circuit Operation 2.1.2 Auviliary Switch . 22 Tapping ‘Schemes in Circuit Breaker .. fays with Make Type Contact 2.2.2 Relay with Break Type Contact 2.3 Electromagnetic Attraction Relay EST ANTaee Nimatre Type Say 2.3.2 Solenoid and Plunger Type Relay 2.3.3 Operating Principle of Electromagnetic ‘tection Relays. 2.3.4 Advantages of Electromagnetic Relays. . . ‘ 2.3.5 Disadvantages of Electromagnetic Relays 236 Lonitrect cine fue. 2.4.2 Shaded Pole Type Induction Relay 2.4.3 Watthour Meter Type induction Relay. 2.44 Induction Cup Type Relay... a 2.5 Nondirectionat Induction Type Overcurrent Relay o 2.5.2 Operation 2.6 Directional Power Relay 2.7 Directional induction Type Overurent Relay .. TT Operation. oe 1 ir ni 2.8 Thermal Relays. = - st tetearserseeroee 2-262.9 Universal Relay Torque Equation 34 Frame Leakage Pr Example 1.1: 4 250 : 5, current transformer is use? along with an ammeter. If ammeter reading is 2.7 A, estimate the line current. Solution : 1 = 135A So line current is 135 A. 1.42 Construction of Current Transformers There are two types of constructions used for the current transformers which are, 1. Wound type 2. Bar type 1.12.1 Wound Type Current Transformer In wound type construction, the primary is wound for more than ene full tum, on the core. The construction is shown in the Fig. 1.13Fig. 1.13 Wound type current transformer tn a low voltage wound type current transformer, the secondary winding is wound on a bakelite former. The heavy primary winding is directly wound on the top of the secondary winding with a suitable insulation in between the two. Otherwise the primary is wound completely separately and then taped with suitable insulating material and assembled with the secondary on the core, The current transformers can be ring type er window type. Some commonly used shapes for the stampings of window type current transformers are shown in the Fig. 1.14. TO 0 (a) Rectanguiar (b) Ring (¢) Stadium Fig. 1.14 Stampings for current transformers The core material for wound type is nickel-iron alloy or an oriented electrical steel. Before installing the secondary winding on core it is insulated with the help of end collars and circumferential wraps of pressboards. Such pressboards provide additional insulation and protection to the winding from damage due to the sharp cornersProtection and Switchgear 1628 Protective Relaying 4.12.2 Bar Type Current Transformer In this type of current transformer, the primary winding is nothing but a bar of suitable size. The constriction is shown in the Fig. 1.15. Seconds Bartype a primary Core Seconcary 4.15 Bar type current transformer The insulation om the bar type primary is bakelized paper tube or a resin directly moulded on the bar. Such bar type primary is the integral part of the current transformer. The core and the secondary windings are same in bar type transformer. The stampings used for the laminations in current transformers must have high cross-sectional area than the ordinary transformers. Due to this, the reluctance of the interleaved corners remains as low as possible. Hence the corresponding, magnetizing current is also small. The windings are placed very close to each other so as to reduce the leakage reactance. To avoid the corona effect, in bar type transformer, the extemal diameter of the tube is kept large. The windings are so designed that without damage, they can withstand short circuit forces which may be caused due to short circuit in the circuit in which the current transformer is inserted. For small line voltages, the tape and varnish are used for insulation. For line voltages above 7 kV the oil immersed or compound filled current transformers are used. 1.13 Why Secondary of C.T. Should not be Open 7 It is very important that the secandary of CT. should not be kept open. Either it should be shorted or must be connected in series with a low resistance coil such as current coils of wattmeter, coil of ammeter etc. If it is left open, then current through secondary becomes zero hence the ampere tums produced by secondary whichProtection and Switchgear 1-28 Protective Relaying generally oppose primary ampere tums becomes zero, As there is no counter mm, unopposed primary m.mf. (ampere tums) produce high flux in the core. This produces excessive core losses, heating the core beyond limits. Similarly heavy e.mfs will be induced on the primary and secondary side. This may damage the insulation of the winding. This is danger from the operator point of view as well. It is usual to ground the C.T. on the secondary side to avoid a danger of shock to the operator. Hence never open the secondary winding circuit of a current transformer while its primary winding is energised. Thus most of the current transformers have a short circuit link or a switch at secondary terminals. When the primary is to be energised, the short circuit link must be closed so that there is no danger of open circuit secondary 1.14 Potential Transformers (P.T.) The basic principle of these transformers is same as current transformers. The high alternating voltage are reduced in a fixed proportion for the measurement purpose with the help of potential transformers. The construction of these transformers is similar to the normal transformer, These are extremely accurate ratio step down transformers. The lings are low power rating windings. Primacy winding con of large number of turns while secondary has less number of tums and usually rated for 110 V, irrespective of the primary voltage rating. The primary is connected across the high voltage line while secondary is connected to the low range voltmeter coil. One end of the secondary is always grounded for safety Primary of PT. purpose. The connections are shown in Fig, 1.16 Potential transformer the Fig, 1.16. As a normal transformer, its ratio can be specified as, Ny So if voltage ratio of P-T. is known and the voltmeter reading is known then the high voltage to be measured, can be determined, mp Example 1.2: A 11000 : 110, potential transformer is used along with a vattmeter reading 87.5V. Estimate the value of line voltageProtection and Switchg Protective Relaying Solution 11000 T10- = &75V 11000 110 and = 8750 ¥ This is the value of high voltage to be measured. 1.14.1 Construction The potential transformer use larger core and conductor sizes compared to conventional power transformer. In potential transformer, economy of material is not time of design. The an important consid actu consideration acy is an important The shell type or core type construction is preferred for potential transformer. The shell type is used for low voltage while core type for high voltage transformers. At the time of assembly special core is required to reduce the effect of air gap at the joints The coaxial primary and secondary windings are used, to reduce the leakage reactance. The secondary winding which is a low voltage winding is always next ta the core, The primary winding is a single coil in low voltage transformers. For high voltages, insulation i the main problem. Hence in high voltage potential transformers, primary is divided into number of small sections of short coils to reduce the need of insulation between coil layers. The cotton tape and varnished cambric are used as the insu Hard fiber separators are used in between the cc transformers are used for the voltage levels above 7 kV. tions for windings. js. The oil immersed potential For oil filled potential transformers, oil filled bushings are used. Two bushings are required when no side of the line is at earth potential. The overall construction of single phase, two winding potential transformer is shown, in the Fig. 1.17.Protection and Switchgear Protective Relaying Secondary low voltage winding Primary High vottage bushings, neuiaton high woitage ‘winging 1.15 Comparison of C.T. and P.T. The comparison of C.T. and PT. is given in the following table, Fig. 1.17 Single phase potential transtormer Sr. Current Transformer Potentiat Transformer No. 1. | it can be treated as series transtormer under| it can be weated at parallel transtormer viflval short circu conditions, under open cirewt secondary. 2 Secondary must be always shorted ‘Secondary is nearly under open circuit conditions a A small vonage exists across its terminals as) Full line vollage appears cross Ite terminals connected in series 4 |The winding caries ful ine current ‘Tho winding bs impcessad with ful line voltage. 6. The primary current and excitation vanes. ‘The line voltage is simost constant hence over a wie range. exciting current and flux density varies over a limited range. 8. | The primary convent is independent of the | The primary current depends on the secondary oxcut conditons, secondary circus conditions Needs only one bushing as the Iwo ence of primary winding are Brought out through the same insulator Hence there Is saving in cost, Twa bus cot the i ings are required when neither sie if at ground potenti Table 12Protection and Switchgear 1-28 Protective Relaying 1.16 Errors in the Instrument Transformer For an instrument transformers, it is necessary that the transformation ratio must be exactly equal to turns ratio and phase of the secondary terms (voltage and current) must be displaced by exactly 180° from that of the primary tenns (voltage and current). Two types of errors affect these characteristics of an instrument transformer which are, 1. Ratio error 2. Phase angle error 1.16.1 Ratio Error In practice it is said that current transformation ratio 1, / 1, is equal to the tums ratio N, / Nz. But actually it is not 90. The current ratio is not equal to turns ratio because of magnetizing and core loss components of the exciting current. It also gets affected due to the secondary current and its power factor. The load current is not a constant fraction of the primary current. Similarly in case ef potential transformers, the voltage ratio V, /V, is also not exactly equal to N,/N, due to the factors mentioned above. Thus the transformation ratio is not constant but depends on the load current, power factor of load and exciting current of the transformer. Due to this fact, large error is introduced in the measurements done by the instrument transformers, Such an error ix called ratio error. The ratio error is defined as, nominal ratio — actual ratio % Ratio error = : 100 ‘actual ratio = Styx 100 where K, = feed ier corre . for ©. T. rated secondary current ted pri volta _ _fated primary voltage for PT rated secondary voltage and Re actual primary current bee CT. corresponding secondary current actual primary voltage for Pt corresponding secondary voltage uo The approximate formula to calculate R is given by,Protection and Switchgear 1-20 Protective Relaying Re where n = turns ratio I, = less component of exciting current 1, = secondary current Now here 1, = primary currer while precisely the formula to calculate R is, 1,, sin8 +1, cosé R= ne n 7 where 1,, = magnetising component of exciting current 5 = angle between secondary winding induced voltage and. secondary winding current 3 is positive for lagging p.f. and negative for leading pf 1.16.2 Phase Angle Error In the power measurements, it is must that the phase of secondary current is to be displaced by exactly 180° from that of primary current for C-T. While the phase of secondary voltage is to be displaced by exactly 180" from that of primary voltage, for PT. But actually it is mot so. The error introduced due to this fact és called phase angle error. It denoted by angle @ by which the phase difference between primary and secondary is different from 180°. ‘The precise expression to calculate the angle @ is, ind o-= degreeProtection and Switchgear 1-30 Protective Relaying 1 alz tn] cern Lh Similar to ratio error, this error also depends on the components of exciting current (1), load current ie, secondary current and power factor. This error does not affect the measurements of only current or veltage but do affect at the time of power and energy measurements. The phase angle error for P-T. is defined as, [X, cos6-R,, sind]+icX, -1,R; rad a= nv; i 1X =p ®.= Ve, Pe 008 B — Ray sin 8] “We where & = secondary pl. angle equivalent resistance of transformer referred to R secondary = R; +R; =R) + at Xa. = equivalent reactance of transformer referred to . xX secondary = X; +X} =X; + 22 nt? X, = reactance of primary winding R, = resistance of primary winding V, © primary voltage Vy = secondary voltage 1 = f,e0s¢, and In = hy sind, where 4 = no load power factor angle Xe = equivalent reactance of transformer referred to primary = Xp +X aX entX Rj, = equivalent resistance of transformer referred to primary = R,+R)=R +n R Vi Ny = jy for potential transformer 2 and: n=