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ABSTRACT: Over fifty years, test anxiety has induced a rich literature that showes the causes, cognitive, emotional
and behavioral manifestations and the consequences of this specific-situation personality trait which is frequently
encountered among elementary and high school students, as well in undergraduate population. Objective: The
objective of the present study was to explore the difference between test anxiety levels among high school girls and
boys. Participants: The subjects were 798 high school students (391 girls and 407 boys) attending 9-12 grade
courses. Method: The Romanian version of Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI - Spielberger, 1980) was used as a measure
of students anxiety proneness to regular tests and semestral evaluations. Results: There were statistically significant
differences between Worry, Emotionality and test anxiety total scores of the girls and those of the boys, both for total
sample, and subsamples by grade. In total sample, the effect size (d-Cohen coefficient) was medium for Emotionality,
and test anxiety total score, respectively small for Worry score. Using a 24 MANOVA procedure, no statistically
significant interaction between sex and grade was found. Conclusion: The results were consistent with the previous
researches that show women tend to report higher levels of test anxiety than men. Gender differences can be explained
by differential exposure and learning experiences, as well as posssibility that women are more willing to recognize
that they are anxious.
Keywords: test anxiety, TAI, gender differences, effect size
Introducere
Anxietatea fa de testare este un construct al crui
coninut se refer l a prezena la unele persoane, care
urmeaz s susin un examen sau se confrunt cu
situaia de examinare, a unui cortegiu de rspunsuri
fiziologice, cognitive, emoionale i comportamentale,
care acompaniaz teama persoanelor respective cu
privire la posibilele consecine negative ale unui eec
(Sieber, ONeil & Tobias, 1977; apud Zeidner, 1998, p.
17). Anxietatea fa de testare a suscitat o bogat
literatur, din care reies cauzele, manifestrilor
cognitive, emoionale i comportamentale caracteristice,
precum i efectele acestei trsturi care se manifest n
cadrul situaiilor evaluative i care este ntlnit adesea
n rndul elevilor i al studenilor.
Elevii sau studenii care prezint un nivel ridicat al
anxietii fa de testare sunt persoane foarte sensibile i
puin rezistente n faa stimulilor anxiogeni reprezentai
de situaiile de evaluare, pe care tind s-i vad ca fiind
amenintori (Zeidner, 1998, p. 18). Astfel de elevi sau
studeni tind s reacioneze prin percepii legate de
ameninarea reprezentat de situaia evaluativ, prin
scderea ncrederii n propria eficien, prin cogniii
negative de tipul celor auto-depreciative, prin cogniii
anticipatorii legate de eec, precum i prin reacii
emoionale intense i creterea vigilenei la primul indiciu
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Scale
Masculin
(N = 245)
Feminin
(N = 283)
d
(Cohen)
TAI
38.7 10.2
41.8
9.9
- 2.87 **
0.31
Emotivitate
17.3
4.9
19.5
5.1
- 5.11 ***
0.43
ngrijorare
13.6
4.0
13.7
4.0
- 0.29
0.02
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Tabelul 2. Diferene n funcie de variabila <<sex>>, n ceea ce privete nivelul anxietii fa de testare (scoruri totale la Test Anxiety Inventory)
Masculin
Feminin
Naiune
Eantion
Studiu
Cehoslovacia
73
37.6
8.9
China
candidai pre-colegiu
100
37.9
Coreea
367
Germania
India
elevi liceu
India
Iordania
elevi liceu
Ahlawat (1989)
Iran
Italia
elevi liceu
Comunian (1985)
Olanda
SUA
elevi liceu
Turcia
Ungaria
a
b
tb
d (Cohen)
81
41.9
9.8
- 2.85 **
0.46
8.8
105
38.6
8.1
- 0.59
0.08
49.2
13.3
389
51.1
13.7
- 1.93
0.14
426
37.0
9.3
473
40.6
11.3
- 5.23 **
0.35
359
39.7
10.4
465
42.1
10.8
- 3.23 **
0.22
40
36.9
6.7
40
50.1
8.7
- 7.60 ***
1.68
1014
48.5
11.1
839
50.4
11.2
- 3.65 **
0.17
40
46.2
10.7
40
51.8
8.2
- 2.63 **
0.58
500
38.1
9.6
500
42.4
10.9
- 6.62 ***
0.42
57
32.7
10.5
97
37.4
11.2
- 2.62 **
0.43
Spielberger (1980)
527
40.9
12.8
591
45.7
13.6
- 6.08 ***
0.36
elevi liceu
197
39.2
9.8
134
44.6
10.2
- 4.80 **
0.54
332
38.8
8.4
368
41.2
8.9
- 3.67 **
0.28
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Inventarul TAI
Descriere
Inventarul pentru Evaluarea Anxietii fa de Testare
(Test Anxiety Inventory/TAI - Spielberger, 1980) a fost
construit i dezvoltat cu scopul de a msura diferenele
individuale n ceea ce privete reaciile specifice
anxietii fa de testare, vazut ca trstur de
personalitate care se manifest n situaiile de evaluare.
Inventarul conine o pagin pe care sunt incluse
indicaiile necesare completrii, 20 de itemi cu
rspunsuri nchise (mai multe variante de rspuns, dintre
care subiectul trebuie s o aleag pe cea care i se
potrivete) i un spaiu pentru nregistrarea
rspunsurilor. Subiecii sunt rugai s indice ct de
frecvent manifest anumite simptome specifice anxietii
naintea, n timpul i dup o situaie de testare.
Pe lng msurarea diferenelor individuale privind
predispoziia spre anxietate n situaii de testare, scalele
inventarului permit evaluarea celor dou componente ale
anxietii fa de testare, descrise de Liebert i Morris
(1967), i-anume: preocuprile cognitive de ngrijorare,
respectiv reaciile emoionale specifice.
Dei, iniial, inventarul a fost conceput pentru a msura
anxietatea fa de testare n rndul studenilor, ulterior a
fost utilizat cu succes i n licee. TAI poate fi aplicat att
individual, ct i colectiv. Observaiile celor care l-au
utilizat n cercetare sau n practica curent au artat c
majoritatea liceenilor i studenilor reuesc s-l
completeze n 8-10 minute.
Atunci cnd l administreaza, cercettorul sau
practicianul trebuie s se refere la inventar cu apelativul
<<inventarul pentru evaluarea atitudinii fa de testare>>,
pentru a evita, astfel, termenul <<anxietate>>, care ar
putea genera reacii de disimulare din partea
repondenilor.
Toi cei 20 de itemi intr n calculul scorului total, care
este considerat, msur a nivelului anxietii fa de
testare a unui subiect. Deoarece fiecare rspuns poate fi
notat de la 1 la 4, scorul total minim pe care l poate
obine un subiect este egal cu 20, iar cel maxim cu 80.
Fiecare dintre scalele prin care sunt evaluate cele dou
componente ale anxietii fa de testare conine opt
itemi, scorurile la scale putnd, deci, varia ntre 8 i 32.
Traducere i adaptare
Demersul de traducere i de adaptare a inventarului TAI
pentru limba romn a implicat mai multe etape. ntr-o
prim etap, doi traductori 2 au tradus independent
inventarul IAT, rezultnd dou versiuni pe care le-am
comparat, apoi, sub aspectul conservrii semnificaiei
unor termeni cheie din coninutul itemilor i din
instruciuni, precum i sub aspectul fluidizrii topicii
itemilor n limba romn.
n stabilirea unei prime versiuni de lucru, am inut cont
de urmtoarele criterii: 1. traducerea instruciunilor, cu
pstrarea tuturor elementelor eseniale pentru nelegerea
modalitii de completare a inventarului; am acordat o
atenie special adecvrii pentru limba romn a celor
patru variante de rspuns (1 = almost never, 2 =
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0
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
factori extrasi
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0.34 **
0.21 **
0.27 **
0.13 **
0.08 *
0.24 **
0.21 **
0.27 **
0.26 **
0.34 **
0.27**
0.21 **
0.28 **
0.34 **
0.28 **
0.25 **
0.28 **
0.25 **
0.29 **
0.31 **
0.31 **
0.13 **
0.16 **
0.33 **
0.35 **
0.38 **
0.40 **
0.41 **
0.37 **
0.26 **
0.28 **
0.43 **
0.37 **
0.29 **
0.36 **
0.28 **
0.35 **
0.36 **
0.28 **
0.24 **
0.50 **
0.19 **
0.28 **
0.35 **
0.29 **
0.25 **
0.16 **
0.27 **
0.35 **
0.25 **
0.33 **
0.24 **
0.26 **
0.38 **
0.20 **
0.25 **
0.38 **
0.30 **
0.36 **
0.38 **
0.35 **
0.23 **
0.25 **
0.32 **
0.39 **
0.29 **
0.33 **
0.34 **
0.25 **
0.43 **
0.23 **
0.29 **
0.19 **
0.21 **
0.24 **
0.20 **
0.13 **
0.18 **
0.39 **
0.24 **
0.13 **
0.31 **
0.20 **
0.16 **
0.26 **
0.26 **
0.16 **
0.18 **
0.25 **
0.23 **
0.16 **
0.13 **
0.20 **
0.19 **
0.11 *
0.19 **
0.19 **
0.15 **
0.25 **
0.24 **
0.34 **
0.35 **
0.33 **
0.25 **
0.22 **
0.39 **
0.41 **
0.35 **
0.41 **
0.29 **
0.34 **
0.42 **
0.41 **
0.31 **
0.41 **
0.28 **
0.31 **
0.26 **
0.40 **
0.31 **
0.22 **
0.33 **
0.28 **
0.28 **
0.47 **
0.46 **
0.36 **
0.30 **
0.31 **
0.45 **
0.45 **
0.30 **
0.41 **
0.38 **
0.38 **
0.46 **
0.34 **
0.24 **
0.33 **
0.45 **
0.39 **
0.35 **
0.38 **
0.38 **
0.42 **
0.40 **
0.34 **
0.34 **
0.53 **
0.46 **
0.31 **
0.46 **
0.39 **
0.43 **
0.23 **
0.23 **
0.34 **
0.39 **
0.27 **
0.36 **
0.33 **
0.31 **
0.28 **
0.36 **
0.20 **
0.19 **
0.32 **
0.26 **
0.28 **
0.46 **
0.29 **
0.49 **
0.31 **
0.32 **
0.39 **
0.53 **
0.41 **
0.48 **
0.38 **
0.43 **
0.38 **
0.49 **
0.41 **
0.37 **
0.31 **
0.30 **
0.38 **
0.43 **
0.40 **
0.41 **
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
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Itemi
Skewness
Kurtosis
2.75
0.83
- 0.54
2.22
0.87
1.83
1.80
5
6
Factori
Comunaliti
II
- 0.18
0.50 a
0.01
0.26
0.39
- 0.47
0.63
0.01
0.41
0.94
0.96
- 0.04
0.06
0.63
0.44
0.85
0.92
0.23
0.29
0.41
0.38
1.52
0.87
1.66
1.76
- 0.16
0.74
0.44
1.79
0.84
0.88
0.15
- 0.06
0.55
0.27
1.79
0.87
0.95
0.18
0.14
0.63
0.52
1.82
0.90
0.97
0.18
0.60
- 0.03
0.34
2.03
0.96
0.61
- 0.59
0.68
0.02
0.48
10
1.94
0.95
0.75
- 0.39
0.52
0.22
0.44
11
2.08
0.93
0.59
- 0.47
0.73
0.01
0.54
12
2.56
1.13
0.01
- 1.42
0.66
- 0.09
0.38
13
1.41
0.79
1.95
2.90
0.48
0.02
0.24
14
1.53
0.78
1.45
1.56
0.16
0.58
0.46
15
1.77
0.88
0.99
0.19
0.64
0.17
0.56
16
2.40
0.97
0.24
- 0.91
0.75
- 0.07
0.51
17
1.93
0.95
0.73
- 0.44
0.17
0.56
0.45
18
2.24
1.02
0.41
- 0.93
0.71
- 0.02
0.49
19
2.18
1.00
0.42
- 0.89
0.59
0.05
0.38
20
2.00
0.98
0.71
- 0.49
0.39
0.39
0.47
Valorile scrise cu cifre ngroate reprezint saturaiile corespunztoare itemilor care au fost reinui pentru fiecare factor n parte
Fidelitate
Tabelul 5 prezint valorile consistenei interne
(coeficientul -Cronbach), calculate att pentru ntregul
lot de elevi, ct i pentru subloturile de biei, respectiv
de fete de la care provin datele prezentate n acest studiu.
Tabelul 5. Fidelitatea inventarului TAI
Biei
(N = 407)
Fete
(N = 391)
Total
(N = 798)
TAI
(n = 20 itemi)
0.88
0.91
0.90
Emotivitate
(n = 8 itemi)
0.81
0.86
0.85
ngrijorare
(n = 8 itemi)
0.76
0.82
0.80
Scale
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Nivel
anxietate fa
de testare
sczut
moderat
ridicat
Biei
(N = 407)
Fete
(N = 391)
d
b
(Cohen)
Biei
(N = 407)
Fete
(N = 391)
Total
(N = 798)
Scale
TAI
36.50
9.53
42.11
11.45
- 7.50
0.53
90
22.1
41
10.5
131
16.4
Emotivitate
15.07
4.58
18.08
5.53
- 8.35
0.59
284
69.8
254
65.0
538
67.4
ngrijorare
13.52
4.14
14.95
4.92
- 4.43
0.32
33
8.1
96
24.6
129
16.1
a
b
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(fric
Biei
Clase
Scale
38.03
9.62
15.63
4.61
ngrijorare
14.11
TAI
35.92
TAI
a IX-a
a X-a
Emotivitate
Emotivitate
105
a XII-a
11.79
- 2.88 **
0.39
17.98
5.57
- 3.38 ***
0.46
4.35
15.59
4.95
- 2.33 *
0.32
9.69
43.93
11.13
- 5.25 ***
0.78
4.72
37.87
9.64
15.29
4.34
ngrijorare
14.17
TAI
Emotivitate
82
116
ngrijorare
a
42.24
3.80
Emotivitate
d (Cohen)
14.83
TAI
a XI-a
13.28
104
ngrijorare
Fete
115
18.60
5.32
- 5.11 ***
0.76
15.55
4.94
- 3.44 ***
0.53
41.02
11.48
- 1.96
0.30
17.70
5.79
- 3.12 **
0.47
4.68
14.35
4.79
- 0.26
0.04
34.68
8.96
41.47
11.26
- 4.86 ***
0.68
14.61
4.59
18.11
5.46
- 5.07 ***
0.70
12.74
3.72
14.27
4.88
- 2.57 **
0.36
83
92
101
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m1 m 2
( N 1 1) s 1 2 + ( N 2 1) s 2 2
( N 1 1) + ( N 2 1)
(1)
V Cramer =
(2),
[ ( ) ]
N min l ; c 1
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