TOPICS Covered

1. Introduction

Dr. Arokiaswami Alphones

(Assoc. Prof)

2. Optical Principles

S2.2-B2-19 (Extn: 4486)

4. Light Sources and Detectors

3. Signal degradation in optical Fibers

Ealphones@ntu.edu.sg
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TEXT BOOKS:
1. Optical Fiber Communications by Gerd Keiser McGrawHill, 5th Edition, 2013
2. Optical Fiber Communications Principles and Practice by
John M Senior 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2009
REFERENCES
1. Essential Guide to Optical Networks by David Greenfiled,
Prentice Hall, 2001
2. Fiber Optic Communications by J C Palais Pearson, 5th
Edition, 2005
3. Optical Networks by R Ramswami & K N Sivarajan Morgan
Kaufmann 1998
4. Fiber Optic Test & Measurement by Dennis Derrickson
(Ed), HP Professional Books 1998
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Transmission Loss in Atmosphere

Increase in Bitrate-Distance product

1960

Laser

OH
x CO2

1970

Low-Loss
Optical Fiber

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Progress In Lightwave
Communication Technology

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Why fiber?

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3-dB OPTICAL BANDWIDTH

3-dB electrical/optical bandwidth points

As light propagates down a fiber at low

modulation frequencies, its loss remains
constant. At higher modulation frequencies the
signal power begins to decrease.
The 3-dB optical bandwidth is the frequency at
which the optical signal power is reduced by
one half. It is illustrated on the previous slide.
9

History of attenuation

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Greater bandwidth
At = 1m ( = 3x1014 Hz)
BW @1% of = 3000GHz (>million TV channels)
Small size and weight
- Twisted pair cable: = 7-10cm, 1000 wire pairs
- Fiber: one fiber, < 1cm can carry more data
Attenuation - low & frequency independent
Free from EMI and cross-talk
Safety & Electrical isolation (fiber is dielectric)
Security (non-invasive tapping impossible)
Ruggedness, chemical inertness
Low cost, abundant raw material (sand)
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WAVELENGTH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (WDM) SYSTEMS

Four generations of light wave systems

45Mb/s, (MM fiber)

2nd generation-1987 =1.3m,

1.7Gb/s (SM fiber)

1.5
Fiber loss (dB/km)

1st generation-1980 =0.8m,

Optical carrier BW >1THz

Limiting factors
- Dispersion, Fiber non-linearity, - Speed of electronic
circuits

3rd generation-1991 =1.55m, 2.5Gb/s (SM fiber)

4th generation

(with WDM & Optical Amplifiers)

1996 (TPC-5/FLAG)
2000 (TPC-6)

=1.55m,
=1.55m,

40Gb/s
100Gb/s

Carrier

1.0
Frequencies
12THz

0.5
15THz

0.9
0

Current trends

- Optical Raman amplifiers

- WDM/DWDM systems
- Soliton (5th Generation) systems

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DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division

Multiplexing) Systems for Very-High Capacity
Optical Communications

Fiber

Tx 1

W
D
M

W
D
M

Tx N

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Rx 1
Rx 2

Tx 2
Tx 3

Research started in 1986

System deployment in 1995

Fiber

Rx 3
Rx N
15

1.7

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High-Capacity Systems (TDM+DWDM )

Reference (SONET/SDH) standard: OC-1 ---- 51.84Mb/s

OC-Level
Rx

Multi-Wavelength DWDM System

1.1
1.3
1.5
Wavelength (m)

To utilize the high capacity of fibers, in WDM systems, multiple optical

carriers of different wave-lengths are Modulated by separate input signals
Multiplexed and sent through a single fiber De-multiplexed at the receiver
into channels

Single-Wavelength Conventional System

Tx

Channel spacing
1-10GHz

OC-3 (STM-1)
OC-12(STM-4)
OC-48(STM-16)
TDM
OC-192(STM-64)
OC-768(STM-256)
OC-48 x 4
OC-48 x 16
OC-192 x 8
DWDM OC-192 x 32
OC-768 x 40
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Line Rate
155 Mb/s (2016 Ch)
622 Mb/s (8064 Ch)
2.5 Gb/s (32256 Ch)
10 Gb/s (129,024 Ch)
40 Gb/s (516,096 Ch)
10 Gb/s (4 x 2.5 Gb/s)
40 Gb/s (16 x 2.5 Gb/s)
80 Gb/s (8 x 10 Gb/s)
320 Gb/s (32 x 10 Gb/s)
1.6 Tb/s (40 x 40 Gb/s)
16

Optical Fiber Attenuation and Fiber Amplifier Gain

1977

1st Commercial
Fiber Installation

Chicago 1977
Terrestrial Fiber
Communication
Link
90 Mb/s system
7 yrs after 1970

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Example of Optical Fiber on a DrumCorning Fiber

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TAT-8, the first transoceanic fiber optic

cable system
In-service since 1988 (280 Mb/s on each of two fiber pairs)
Designed and deployed by AT&T Submarine Systems
and Bell Labs
1988
< 25 years ago

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Global Undersea Optical Fiber

Networks
1988
UK-SPAIN 4
KOREA
OFFSHORE

NPC

TAT12
QCC
CHINA
JAPAN

TPC-4

APC

HON-TAI-2

K-J-G

AMERICAS-1N
FLORICO

H-P-G
TPC-5
NETWORK

H-J-K
MALAYSIA
THAILAND

APCN G-P-T

HICS
PACRIMWEST

SINGAPOREBRUNEI

21

TCS-1

ISRAELCYPRUS
CADMOS

FLAG
SEA-ME-WE2
AMERICAS-1

TAINOCARIB
ST.THOMASST.CROIX

SAT-2

PACRIMEAST

TASMAN-2

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MAT-2
EURAFRICA EMOS-1
PENCAN-4
OPTICAN-1

COLUMBUS IIB

TPC-3

JASAURUS

Laying undersea optical cable and a repeater for TAT-8

from the deck of the AT&T CS Long Lines, 1988

TAT-9 TAT-11

TAT13
CARAC

B-M-P

FLAG

RUSSIA

CELTIC DENMARKSEG D RUSSIA

PENBAL
TURMEOS-1

APOCS
CANUS-1

HAW-5
HAW-4

SWEDEN-FINLAND

TAT-10 RIOJA

PTAT

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280 Mbp/s REGENERATIVE

560 Mbp/s REGENERATIVE
OTHER REGENERATIVE
2.5 Gbp/s AMPLIFIER
5.0 Gbp/s AMPLIFIER
NON-REPEATERED

UNISUR

22

DIGITAL SIGNAL QUALITY

ANALOG SIGNAL QUALITY

The measure of quality for a digital system is

A measure of the quality of an analog signal is

the bit error rate (BER). The BER is the

the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). It is the signal

fraction of errors contained in a signal.

power divided by the noise power.

BER

S/N = (Signal Power)/(Noise Power)

Number of bits in error

Total Number of bits transmitted

For analog television signals, SNR > 10,000 is

Example: A BER = 10-9 means that there is one

required for decent viewing of video signals.

bit error for every 109 bits.

23

Digital systems require good bit error rates.

24

DECIBEL SCALE

Computing Power Levels in Decibels

(Self Study Slides 25-32)

The decibel scale is used to compare the ratio of two

The decibel scale is useful for analysis and design of

power levels.

fiber components and systems.

Example: Suppose P2/P1 = 0.5. Then

Component
(System)

dB = 10 log (0.5) = -3 dB
Example: If P2/P1 = 1, then

P2

P1

dB = 10 log 1 = 0 dB
Example: If P2/P1 > 1, then dB is positive
Example: If P2/P1 < 1, then dB is negative
25

DECIBEL SCALE FOR CASCADED

ELEMENTS

DECIBEL SCALE FOR CASCADED

ELEMENTS

The dB scale is useful for analyzing a system of

Thus

cascaded elements.
Element 1 Element 2 Element 3
P1
P2

26

P4

P3

27

28

DECIBEL ABSOLUTE POWER

SCALE

DECIBEL ABSOLUTE POWER SCALE

The decibel scale can be used to denote absolute

The dB scale is defined as:

power if a reference power is specified. If the

dB = 10 log P

reference power is set to 1 mW, we have the dBm

where P is in microwatts. This is read as dB

scale defined by

relative to a microwatt.

dBm = 10 log P
where P is in milliwatts. This is read as dB relative to a
milliwatt.

29

Absolute Power in dBm

30

DECIBEL ABSOLUTE POWER

SCALE

The power of a light is measured in milliwatts

For convenience, we use the dBm units, where
-20 dBm
-10 dBm

= 0.01 milliwatt
= 0.1 milliwatt

0 dBm
10 dBm
20 dBm

= 1 milliwatt
= 10 milliwatts
= 100 milliwatts

P1

dBm1

dBx

dBm2

P2

dBm2 = dBm1 + dBx

Proof

32

Optical Fiber

IMPORTANT CONSTANTS
Description

Value

Velocity of light

3*108 m/s

Planck constant

6.626*10-34

Electron charge

1.6*10-19 C

Symbol
c
J*s

Boltzmann constant 1.38*10-23 J/K

Core
Glass or plastic with a higher index of
refraction than the cladding
Carries the signal

Cladding
Glass or plastic with a lower index of
refraction than the core

e or q

Buffer

Protects the fiber from damage and

moisture

Jacket
Holds one or more fibers in a cable
33

Refraction and reflection

Optical Fiber

Typical Dimension for Silica Fibers:

SMF (Single Mode Fiber): 8 m core, 125 m cladding
MMF (Multi Mode Fiber: 50, 62.5, 100 m core, 125 m
cladding
Index profile: Step vs. Graded vs. multi-step
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Total Internal Reflection

Basic Parameters
Velocity (free space)

Snells Law:
n1sin1 n2sin2
Reflection Condition
1 3
When n1 n2 and as 1 increases eventually 2
goes to 90 degrees and
n
n1sinc n2 or sinc 2
n1
c is called the Critical angle
For 1 c there is no propagating refracted ray

c= 3x108m/s

Frequency f (Hz) or Wavelength (m or nm)

c/ f
Velocity in the medium
With n1=1.5 (glass) &
n2=1.0 (air),
c = 41.80

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v c/n

n - refractive index of the medium

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Particle Nature of Light

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT

Light is made up particles called photons. Each

The electron volt (eV) is another useful unit for analysis

photon has energy:

of fiber optic systems. The electron volt is defined as

E p h h

the energy acquired by an electron accelerated across a

1 volt potential difference. The conversion between

electron volts and joules is:

- wavenumber or frequency

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J

h = 6.626 x 10-34 J s (Plancks constant)

The 0.8 m photon has an energy of:

Shorter wavelength (higher frequency) waves have

greater photon energy.
39

6.6261034 31014
0.81.61019

= 1.55 eV

40

Basic Step index Fiber Structure

Comparison of fiber structures

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Acceptance angle

Light Coupling Efficiency

Whole Acceptance angle 2

(Light here is guided in fiber)

Must match emitting area to core diameter

Numerical Aperture (NA)
Defines range of angles over which fiber collects
light
NA is 0.21 for ncore=1.50 and nclad=1.485
Typical core-cladding difference around 0.3-2%

NA
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2
core

2
cladding

Core

Cladding
Half Acceptance
angle m
43

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For Corning SMF-28 optical

fiber (8/125)

Numerical Aperture for meridional rays

It is related to the maximum acceptance angle

Core Dia

NA = n0sinm = n1cosc

Cladding Dia

n1=1.4504, n2=1.4447 at 1550 nm

NA = (n12-n22)1/2 = n1(2)

n n
n12 n22

Re lative refractive Index Difference 1 2

2
n1
2n1
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The Cutoff

2 a

n12 n22

Acceptance angle = 7.38 degrees

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Bessels function variation with order

For each mode, there is some value of V

(Normalized Frequency Parameter) below which it
will not be guided because the cladding part of the
solution does not go to zero with increasing r.
V

NA = 0.1285

Jl(r)
1

l0

0.8

l1

For SI fiber
0.4

Below V=2.405, only one mode (HE11) can be

guided; fiber is single-mode.

l2

0
2

Based on the definition of V, the number of modes

is reduced by decreasing the core radius and by
decreasing .
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10

0.4

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2.405

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SIGNAL DEGRADATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS

Two major causes

- Attenuation & Dispersion

Attenuation involves only change of amplitude

n2 k k2 k1 n1k ,
k 2 / 0

Input
Pulse

Attenuation

Output
Pulse

Output Power at dis tan ce L P0

e L
Input Power
PI

Attenuation is caused by

Attenuation dB
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Dispersion change in the pulse shape

Input
Pulse

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Output
Pulse

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Absorption
Coefficient

- Absorption
- Scattering

Input Power PI
10
log
L
Output Power Po

50

Wavelength

SMF28 (8/125)

MMF 62.5/125

850 nm

1.8 dB/km

2.72 dB/km

1300 nm

0.35 dB/km

0.52 dB/km

1380 nm

0.50 dB/km

0.92 dB/km

1550 nm

0.19 dB/km

0.29 dB/km

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Dispersion

Phase/Group Velocity

Different components of transmitted signal

travel at different velocities in the fiber and
arrive at different times at the receiver

Phase constant of Nth order mode

Modal dispersion: different modal components of a

pulse travel at different velocities
Chromatic dispersion: different spectral
components of a pulse travel at different velocities
Material dispersion: due to -dependence
Waveguide dispersion: due to waveguide design
Polarization dispersion: different polarization
components of a pulse travel at different velocities
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p,N / N

g , N d N / d 1

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Intermodal Dispersion

Definitions

A light pulse excites several modes in a SI fiber. Pulse broadens because these modes
travel in different path lengths, but have the same velocity

vg

Group velocity
Group delay

Dispersion
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Cladding n2

Core n1

c k
D

Inter Symbol
Interference

Cladding n2
0101

55

0101

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Core n1
0111?

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Cladding n2

Modal Dispersion

1c

Core n1

Travel time for (longest path shortest path) (ns or ps/km)

max min

1 L / sinc
1
L n1 / n2

L c / n1
c / n1 c / n1 c / n1

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n
1
L
c

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103

Mode Dispersion (ns/km)

Without
Mode Coupling

With
Mode Coupling

100

Lc = Characteristic
Fiber Length

10-1

0.01

0.1

V2
2

V (Normalized
Dispersion with mode coupling

101

10

n
1 LLc
c

For V 2 . 405
Frequency )

a core radius ,
For V 2.405

2 a

n1 n2

wavelength

2.405
2

2 n1 n 2

Cladding n2
Single mode (SM) fiber
Zero modal dispersion

100

Fiber Length (km)

Lc After this fiber length(100 to 550m) mode coupling tends to

average out the propagation delays among the modes and reducing
modal dispersion
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Number of modes (N) in SI fiber

Mode Coupling reduces dispersion

102

n n
n n
1 2 1 2
n1
n2

59

Core n1
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Dispersion Limitation in MMF

Measuring Bandwidth

Dominated by modal dispersion for unit length

The bandwidth-distance product in units of

MHzkm shows how fast data can be sent
through a cable
A common multimode fiber with bandwidthdistance product of 500 MHzkm could carry
A 500 MHz signal for 1 km, or
A 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km

BL

1
2

For step-index MMF, the bitrate-distance

product would dictate the transmission capacity

Typical step-index MMF BL<10 Mb/s-km

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Increasing the # of Refractive Layers (Same n & )

GRADED INDEX FIBER CONCEPT

Light Propagation In a Hypothetical Multi-layer Fiber

A. 4-Layers

n4

n3
n2
n1

n1> n2> n3> n4

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B. 8-Layers

C. Infinite Layers
Practical GI Fiber

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General refractive profile for GI fibers: n(r) as function

of radial distance, is the index profile

Special cases

ra

For

r
n(r ) n1 1 2
a

1/ 2

0r a

for

n(r ) n1(1 2 )1 / 2 n1(1 ) n2

2

for

ra

65

n1

n2

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Number of modes in a GI fibers

=2

Linear Profile

r
n (r ) n 1 1
a

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=1

Case-I:

n n
n n2
1 22 1
n1
2n1

Case-II:

r
n(r ) n1 1
a

Parabolic Profile

66

NGI

2
a 2 k 2n1
NSI
2
2

NSI = No. of modes in equivalent SI fiber

r
n ( r ) n 1 1
a

n1

Inter-modal dispersion in GI fibers

n2

Minumum dispersion occurs when

Case-III:

n 2

1
L min 10c 10 L SI

Step-Index Profile

n(r) = n1

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2(1 ) 2

L SI
67

= Modal Dispersion for equivalent SI fiber

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Dispersion Comparison

Intra-modal dispersion or Chromatic Dispersion

pulse spreading within a single mode due to
dependence of vg on

Graded-index fiber has

substantially less
modal dispersion

Intra-modal (chromatic) dispersion

Material Dispersion
Due to variation of n with

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SPECTRUM OF AN OPTICAL SOURCE

f
f

f2

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SPECTRUM OF AN OPTICAL SOURCE

Alternatively, we can plot the wavelength

Example Emission Spectrum of an Optical

Source
Normalized 1
Power
.5
f1

Waveguide Dispersion
Due to variation of with a/

emission spectrum as follows:

Normalized1
Power
.5

Frequency

Wavelength

f = source bandwidth (range of frequencies

= linewidth or spectral width

emitted by the source).

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72

SPECTRUM OF AN OPTICAL SOURCE

SPECTRUM OF AN OPTICAL SOURCE

Spectral Widths for Typical Light Sources

Example: If = 0.82 m, = 30 nm
so we have 3.7% bandwidth.

Spectral Width (nm)

Source

The conversion between wavelength and

LED

20-100

frequency is:

Laser Diode

1-5

Nd:YAG-Laser

0.1

HeNe Laser

0.002

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74

Refractive index, group delay, and dispersion

Variation of Refractive index of Silica

using Sellmeirs equation

Inflection point

n()

1.454

a) Refractive index vs.

1.447

1.452

Wavelength
0

n ( )

1.45

dn/d

1.448

Delay changes
faster here

Zero slope point

b)Group delay vs..

delay changes little at peak (inflection point)

1.446

1.444

68.4

Wavelength

0.69617
+

1.442
800

1000

1200

(nm)

1400

1600

116.2

0.40794

9896.2

0.89748

d2n/d

Zero dispersion wavelength

0
-

Wavelength
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c)Dispersion vs..

MATERIAL OR SPECTRAL DISPERSION

Travel time

Light sources emit

- A band of wavelengths
- Have a finite spectral
width

(Group Delay due to

Material dispersion)

L
L
d / d L
dn

L
n
vg d / d
d / d c
d

d g
d 2n
g m
L
LDm
2
d
c d

Pulse
Broadening

Material dispersion : Pulse broadening due to

n being a function of
Different s traveling with different speeds

m LDm

For an optical signal through a fiber of length L

and a source spectral width of
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m /m can be reduced by source with small

Material dispersion

m L Dm

Fiber
length
(km)

Dm Mat. Disp. Coeff

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Mat. Disp.
Coeff.
ns/km/nm

Source
spectral
width nm

For LED

20- 40 nm

For FP laser diode

2-4 nm

For DFB laser diode

< 1 nm

Another factor to reduce Material dispersion is the

selection of operating wavelength

dn
ns.km1.nm1
2
c d
2

For pure SiO2, Zero dispersion occurs at

79

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= 0 = 1.276m

80

For pure SiO2, Zero dispersion occurs at

Addition of impurities to SiO2 can result in shifting of zero dispersion

wavelength 0 to another value

0 = 1.276 m

40

DM (ns/km/nm)

(d2n/d2) 10-10 m-2

6
4

0 = 1.276 m

= 0 = 1.276m

Quenched
SiO2

- 40

13.5% GeO2
86.5% SiO2

- 80

2
0

-120

-2

0.8
0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

1.6

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WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION

82

d2 Vb
dV 2

wg Dwg L

n2 d2 Vb
V
Waveguide Disp. Coeff.
c
dV 2

dVb
dV

0.8

b
0.4

Mode-field diameter =2w0

In a SM fiber,

1.6

1.2

waveguide dispersion)

D wg

1.4

(m)

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Assumption: n independent of (For independent analysis of

Waveguide
Dispersion

1.2

However, addition of impurities can also cause increase of attenuation

1.8

(m)

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1.0

E(r) E0 exp(r2 / w02 )

1.0

V= kaNA

At r = wo,

d2 Vb
Maximum at V 1.2
dV 2
0.2 to 0.1 for V 2 2.4

E(Wo)=Eo/e

Typ. Wo > a
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For MM fibers: Waveguide Disp.<Material Disp.

For SM fibers, waveguide dispersion is important

84

A better approach is to combine the material and waveguide dispersions

in the fiber to obtain i.e Dm + DW

Dispersion Management Technique

Dispersion-compensating fiber

DISPERSION SHIFTED FIBER

20

10

TX

RX

Dm + DW
a = 2.5 m

Transmission fiber
Total accumulated
dispersion, ps/nm

DM (ns/km/nm)

Dm

100

DW (a = 4 m)

- 10

0
50

DW (a = 2.5 m)

1.0
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1.2

(m)

1.4

150

200

Accumulated dispersion at the

receiver is close to zero

DW (a = 2 m)

- 20

100

Distance, km

1.6
85

ofcshortcourse.ts.degradation_effects.12

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Eye diagram of a signal measured using sampling

oscilloscope

Eye Diagram/Eye Pattern

The eye diagram is an intuitive graphical
representation
of
electrical
and
optical
communication signals. The quality of these signals
(the amount of inter-symbol interference, noise, and
jitter) can be judged from the appearance of the eye.
The waveform of a communication signal, such as
(NRZ) or (RZ) signal, can be turned into an eye
diagram or eye pattern by folding the time axis
modulo a whole number of bit (or symbol) intervals.
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40 Gb/s Chromatic Dispersion Compensation

DISPERSIONS IN SINGLE-MODE FIBERS

Pulse broadening due to source spectral width
Zero Dispersion @
0 = 1276 nm

Eye
Diagram

without
compensation

Dispersion @1550nm
Dm 18 ps/km/nm

2nd order dispersion causes pulse broadening near 1276 nm in standard

SMF and 1550 nm in DSF
2nd-order dispersion is dispersion slope
Dispersion at wavelength,

with
compensation

S( )

Dm()

dD m ( )
d

4
S
1
4

For small chromatic dispersion, polarization mode dispersion (PMD)

becomes significant

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PMD = DPMD (ps/km) x L1/2

90

Polarization mode dispersion

Polarizations of fundamental mode

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Overall Pulse Broadening in Fibers

40 Gb/s System PMD Dispersion Compensation

without
compensation

Dispersion due to
modal dispersion
with
compensation

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Dispersion due to
Waveguide dispersion
Dispersion due to
material dispersion

Dispersion due to
Polarization mode
dispersion

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Total System Rise Time

94

Analog/Digital transmission systems

1) Examine the components that are available for a particular application
and see how these components relate to the system performance

Source
rise time

criteria (such as dispersion and bit-error rate).

Intermodal
dispersion
pulse spread
over link length

Intramodal or
chromatic
dispersion
pulse spread
over link length

Receiver
rise time

2) For a given set of components and a given set of system requirements,

we then carry out a power budget analysis to determine whether the
fiber optic link meets the attenuation requirements or if amplifiers are
needed to boost the power level.
3) The final step is to perform a system rise-time-analysis to verify that
the overall system performance requirements are met.

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95

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96

Fiber Attenuation Characteristics

Summary on Dispersion
Modal dispersion: different modes
propagate at different group velocities
Material dispersion: the index of
refraction of the medium changes with
wavelength
Waveguide dispersion: index change
across waveguide means that different
wavelengths have different delays
Polarization mode dispersion: if
waveguide is birefringent
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1.3 m
window
850 nm
window

Occurs even in perfect material due to Electron excitations in the UVband and Photon-phonon interaction (IR band)
Sets lower limit for attenuation

dB/km (for 1 ppb)

1.6
0.1
1.1
0.68
0.15
0.10
0.20
2.70

Leaves a transmission window near

IR absorption peaks

Transition metal absorption occurs due to

(i) Electron transitions within the same ion
(ii) Charge transfer from one ion to another

= 0.8-1.7 m

Tails of UV/IR peaks can

extend in the window

Si- O

9.2 m

P-O

8.0 m

Ge-O

11.0 m

attenuation in the 1.21.5 m range

-Determined by Inherent IR absorption and OH ion concentration
@ 1.3 m
-0.5dB/km
-0.2dB/km @ 1.55 m

OH ions in glass give significant absorption

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98

INTRINSIC ABSORPTION

Current metal impurity levels 0.1ppb

1-10ppb metal concentration
1-10 dB/km
Peak (nm)
625
685
850
1100
400
650
460
725

Infrared
Absorption
Of silica

98

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ABSORPTION -- EXTRINSIC

Metal
Cr++
C++
Cu++
Fe++
Fe+++
Ni++
Mn+++
V++++

Main OH
absorption

Rayleigh
Scattering
minimum
97

1.55 m
window

99

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100

MIE SCATTERING

LINEAR SCATTERING LOSSES

(No change of upon scattering)

It is a forward process, caused by Inhomogeneities ,

Irregularities at the core/cladding interface, Non-cylindrical fiber
structure and Strains/bubbles within the core or cladding.

RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
Linear and dominant scattering loss mechanism in the low absorption
window between UV/IR tails
Caused by refractive index variations (within distances ) that occurs due to
- Microscopic density variations
- Random molecular structure of glass
- Inhomogeneous Structure and defects
- Oxide contents in glass
Raleigh scattering loss
(Single component glass)

Thus

r 1

Fiber diameter variations or interface scattering due to surface

irregularities
Flaw

This can be
reduced
significantly by

2
83

n 2 1 kT f T
4
3

k = Boltzmann constant, T = isothermal

compressibility Tf = Fictive temperature,

-Improved
fabrication
process

CLADDING
D1

CORE
CLADDING

in m

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101

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NON-LINEAR SCATTERING

- Fiber end
polishing

102

Power loss in a curved fiber

Stimulated Brillouin and Raman scattering effects occur above

threshold power densities
PB (watts) = 0.0176(a)2dB
PR (watts) = 0.236(a2)dB

D2

a = Fiber radius (m)

= Wavelength (m)
= Source bandwidth (GHz)
dB=Attenuation (dB/km)

Incident
Photon

Brillouin Scattering
Backward Process
Acoustic
Freq.
Phonon

Photon of
Different

Raman Scattering
Forward Process
Photon of
Different

High Freq.
Phonon

These effects are not easily observed in MM fibers due to large radius a (making PB/PR very high)
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103

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104

MACROBENDING LOSS
Microbending losses
At a bend, a mode is required to travel faster in the cladding
(than in the core), and lost by radiation
Bending loss
(Effective absorption coeff.)

B Ce

R (NA ) 2
a

R = Radius of curvature if the bend, a = Fiber radius, C= Constant

Critical Bend radius Rc

Bending losses high when R Rc

3n1

4 n1

n2

3
2

Micro-bends which are bends with R a, cause significant losses

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105

Bending-induced attenuation

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106

Example: 10mW of power is launched into an optical fiber that has

an attenuation of =0.6 dB/km. What is the received power after
traveling a distance of 100 km?
Initial power is: Pin = 10 dBm
Received power is: Pout= Pin L=10 dBm (0.6)(100) = -50
dBm
Pout 1050 10 1 mW 10 nW

Example: 8mW of power is launched into an optical fiber that has

an attenuation of =0.6 dB/km. The received power needs to be 22dBm. What is the maximum transmission distance?
Initial power is: Pin = 10log10(8) = 9 dBm
Received power is: Pout = 1mW 10-2.2 = 6.3 W
Pout - Pin = 9dBm - (-22dBm) = 31dB = 0.6 L
L=51.7 km
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107

Source-to-fiber coupling

Diameter Mismatch Loss

Large Area Source

When

Small Area Source

Source area As Target Area At

Diameter Mismatch Loss = 0 dB

When

Source area As Target Area At

Diameter Mismatch Loss (dB) = 10 Log

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109

Numerical Aperture (NA) Mismatch Loss

Large NA Source
NAs NAt

Small NA Source
NAs

When

As
At

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110

Mechanical misalignments between fibers

Cladding
Core

Cladding
Core

NAt

Source NA Target NA

(NAs NAt)

NA Mismatch Loss = 0 dB
When

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Source NA Target NA
NA Mismatch Loss (dB) =

20 Log

(NAs NAt)
NA s
NA t

111

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112

Transmission Loss due to Fresnel Reflection :

n1

Gap loss with

n1

n0

Target

Fresnel Loss (dB) = 10 Log 1 n1 n0

n1 n0

4.0

NA=0.8
Reflection coefficient
At fiber-air interface

For air (n0 = 1.0) to glass (n1 = 1.5) interface:

Fresnel Loss (air/glass) = 0.18dB 0.2dB
Gap Loss :

Insertion Loss (dB)

Source

Source/Target gap = z
Source diameter = 2a
Source NA
= NA

NA=0.7

3.0

NA=0.5

2.0
1.0

NA=0.15

0.0
0.0
2a
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Gap Loss

= 10 Log

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113

0.1

Pc
PI

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

z/a
Pc = Coupled power, PI = Incident Power

114

Gap loss for source/target gapof z

Pc
z 2
1
sin 1 NA 1 NA 2
PI
a NA 2
1

4 z
NA
3 a

Axial offset condition

For NA 1

Axial Misalignment Loss :

2a

Core irregularities & off-center cores can also cause this problem

Axial misalignment loss with

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Source/Target axial offset

Source diameter

=d
= 2a

115

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116

Angular Misalignment Loss : Occurs if the surfaces of the source

and target are not parallel

Insertion Loss (dB)

4.0
3.0
2.0

1.0

Angular misalignment loss with Source/Target angle of and

Source NA

0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

Misalignment Loss =

EE4110

10 Log

Pc
PI

Pc 2
d d
d
cos 1
1
PI
a a

4d
1
For d a
Alphones
a

Insertion Loss (dB)

d/a
Pc = Coupled power
PI = Incident Power
2

117

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Comparison of misalignment effects

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1.5
NA=0.5
1.0
0.5

NA=0.15

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

Angle

0.4

0.5

118

Fiber cleaving

119

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120

Fusion splicing

Fiber end defects

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121

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123

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122

Fitel_S121_Hand_Held_Splicer.wmv

Link Power/loss Analysis

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124

Link Power Budget Example

Power Budget Diagram

To illustrate how a link loss budget is set up, let us carry out a specific design
example.
We shall begin by specifying a data rate of 20 Mb/s and a BER of 10-9 (i.e. at
most one error can occur for every 109 bits sent).
For the receiver, we shall choose a silicon pin photodiode operating at 850 nm.
We know that the required receiver input signal is -42 dBm (refer the sensitivity
slide).
We next select a GaAlAs LED that can couple a 50 W (-13 dBm) average
optical power into a fiber flylead with a 50 m core diameter. We thus have a
29 dB allowable power loss.
Assume further that a 1 dB loss occurs when the fiber flylead is connected to
the cable and another 1 dB loss occurs at the cable-photodetector interface.
Including a 6 dB system margin, the possible transmission distance for a cable
with an attenuation of f=3.5 dB/km, then a 6.0 km transmission path is
possible.
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125

FIBER MATERIALS & MANUFACTURING

TECHNIQUES

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126

1.50

TiO2

ZrO2

PLASTIC FIBERS are cheap & easy to

manufacture but have high attenuation

1.48

Al2O3

GLASS FIBERS are made from low melting

glasses
SILICA FIBERS are made from pure SiO2
- Refractive index n = 1.45 @ = 1 m
- Wavelength range: 0.2 - 4.0 m
- Addition of B2O3 lowers n (for SiO2)
- Addition of GeO2 increases n
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GeO2

n
P2O5

1.46

1.44

B2O3

10

15

MOL %
127

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128

FIBER MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

FIBER DRAWING AND COATING

Precision Feed
Mechanism

Direct Melt
Techniques

Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

Techniques
Preform

Starting Materials: Pure

Silica (SiO2) Powder or
Rods

PREFORM - FABRICATION

Furnace
Diameter
Monitor

Starting Materials; SiCl4, SiF4, GeCl4, POCl3,

BCl3, O2 ETC.

Coating
Applicator
VAD
NTT

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OVPO
CORNING

MCVD
BELL LABS

FIBER DRAWING

Curing
Oven

PCVD
PHILIPS

129

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130

Winding
Drum

LIGHT SOURCES AND DETECTORS

LIGHT SOURCES & DETECTORS IN OPTICAL FIBER SYSTEMS

SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTION DEVICES

DETECTORS

LIGHT SOURCES
- Forward biased PN junctions made of III-V
compound semiconductors
- Light emission by radiative
recombination of electrons & holes

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Corning Cables
Fiber Fabrication Video

131

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LED

Laser Diode

- Reverse biased PN junctions made from variety

of semiconductors
- Light absorption creates electron/ hole pairs
(electric current)

PIN

Photodiode

Avalanche 132
Photodiode

Semiconductor Light Sources

A PN junction (that consists of direct band gap
semiconductor materials) acts as the active or
recombination region
When the PN junction is forward biased, electrons
and holes recombine either radiatively (emitting
photons) or non-radiatively (emitting heat). This is
simple LED operation.
In an LASER, the photon is further processed in a
resonance cavity to achieve a coherent, highly
directional optical beam with a narrow linewidth
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133

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

ROOM TEMPERATURE SEMICONDUCTORS

Group IV III-V Compound
Elements Semiconductors
Si
Ge
Se
Te

II-VI Compound OTHERS

Semiconductors

GaAs, GaP, InP

Ga1-xAlxAs
In1-xGaxAs1-yPx

Wavlength
Source
Material
Detector
Material

ZnS
ZnSe
CdS
CdSe

0.8m
GaAlAs/GaAs
Si

SiC
Diamond

1-1.7m
InGaAsP/InP
Ge
InGaAs/InP

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134

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Suppose Eg is given in eV. Compute the

Common Characteristics

output wavelength.

Material
GaAs

In practice

(m)

Eg (eV)

0.9

1.4

AlGaAs

0.8 - 0.9

1.4 - 1.55

InGaAs

1.0 - 1.3

0.95 - 1.24

InGaAsP

0.9 - 1.7

0.73 - 1.35

GaInP

0.64 - 0.68

1.82 - 1.94

with Eg in eV and in m.
135

136

Forward bias condition

Reverse bias condition

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137

THE pn JUNCTION
Electron-Hole
Recombination

LED OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

eV
I I0 exp
1
kT

n- region
Cathode
Forward
Current IF

p- region
Anode

Dark Current I = I0

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138

Basic equation:

Reverse
Voltage

Light generated
current I=I0 +IL

The relationship between electrical

bandwidth and rise time is (approximately),
90%
10%
Output
tr
This relationship can be shown to be exact for
i

eV
I I0 exp

kT

Reverse
Current

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VF

an RC low-pass filter (next slide). We will use it

Forward
Voltage

for determining the frequency response of light

sources, light detectors, and the fiber.
139

140

LED OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS

Low-Pass RC Filter
R
Input

Output

141

Modulation bandwidth/speed, Spectral width , - Beam divergence 2m

SPECTRAL WIDTHS

ILD
p

~20nm

Semiconductor Injection Laser Diode (ILD) has

- High power output
- Coherent and narrow beam
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- Higher coupling efficiency

142

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Selection criteria - Output power , Peak wavelength p,

- PN junctions
- Convert electrical input to light
- Operated with forward biased
- Made from III-V compound semiconductors (GaAs,
GaAsP, InxGa1-xAsyP1-y etc)
Light Emitting Diode (LED) has
- Light by spontaneous emission
- Optical power LED current
- Small bandwidth, long life, low cost
- Spectral width of 30 to 60nm
- Large beam divergence
- Operation over wide temp range

Typical values of tr for LEDs are a few ns to 250 ns.

LED

LIGHT SOURCES - LED & laser diodes (LD)

Light emission from Radiative recombination of carriers injected in forward

biased pn junction
I

Electron-Hole Recombination

n- region
Cathode

p- region
Anode

~4nm

The wavelength & spectral width of LED are dependent on the bandgap Eg

BEAM DIVERGENCE
Photon Wavelength is
given by

LED400
Source

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Conduction Bands

Donor Level

hc
hc
1.24

m
Eg kT Eg Eg (eV )

ILD50
143

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Current
Acceptor Level

Valence Bands
144

CARRIER
RECOMBINATION

Radiative
Photon Emission

External quantum efficiency

ext

Non-Radiative
Phonon Emission

ext < int Because of losses

Recombination mechanisms depend on radiative recombination Lifetime

(rr) and non-radiative recombination Lifetime (nr)
Internal Quantum Efficiency of an LED
Nph = Rate of photon generation Nc
Optical Flux
(For current I)
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int

Nph
Nc

nr
nr rr

Transmitted Beam
Semiconductor

3- Fresnel
Reflection loss

= Rate of carrier injection across the junction

2- Total reflection 1 1 n0

loss

2 ns

1- Back emission loss

145

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Double-heterostructure configuration

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n0 ns

n0 ns

4-Absorption

I
NphEph intNCEph int Eph
e
I hc
int

Number of photons finally emitted

Number of carriers cros sin g the junction

146

Surface-emitting LED

147

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148

LED spectral patterns

Edge-emitting LED

1.6kT (eV ) p ( m)

- Spectral width
p - Peak wavelength

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149

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IDEAL LASER RADIATION

LED CHARACTERISTIC CURVES

Optical Power vs
Forward Current

I-V Plot

50

100
Optical Power (%) Po

IF (mA)

40 I I exp eV
0
kT
30
20
10
0

0.5

1.0
1.5
VF (Volts)

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2.0

80

150

Perfectly monochromatic (All waves have same )

Perfectly collimated (All waves are parallel)

Perfectly coherent (All waves have the same phase)

1.24int I
Po ( W )
(m)

60
40

0
0,
0

20
0
10

20 30
IF (mA)

40

50

151

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152

LIGHT ABSORPTION AND EMISSION

A

Absorption

h E2E1

Light Absorption - results

in jumping of electrons to

E2

Fully Reflecting
Mirror

Spontaneous Emission

E2

h E2E1

Stimulated Emission

E2
h

h E2E1

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E1

Spontaneous Emission Electrons

jump
randomly to lower
energy states
Photons are emitted with
random phase
Stimulated Emission External
photon
stimulates
electrons
jumps to lower energy
states emitted photons
have same phase

153

Febry-Perot laser
Active
Layer

Cleaved facet

Power
Source

Partially
Reflecting Mirror

Standing waves are formed

when the cavity length L
equals integer multiple of
half wavelength

Active Medium

q
n2

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Laser
Output

qc
2nL

n- refractive index
q - integer

154

Fabry-Perot Laser
Spectrum

Current
Metal
Contact

Power Source
Active Device/Medium
Feedback
Amplification

higher energy levels

E1

E1

A Laser is like an electronic oscillator

-

100m
p-type

Laser

n-type

200m

~6nm

300m

Good polishing provides more than 30% internal reflection that is

necessary get the laser output

Lasing occurs when: Light Amplification>Losses

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Due to Radiation &

Absorption

155

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156

Under steady state:

LASER DIODE

Optical Gain = Total Loss in the cavity

The cavity also affects the output spectrum.

For each round trip in the cavity

The fractional loss
The fractional gain

Example: The cavity resonant wavelength spacing is

e2L

= Loss coefficient
g = gain coefficient

e2gL

c
c
fc
2Ln

r1r2

Gain due to mirror reflections

o2

Mirror reflection
coefficients

Thus
2

Under steady state

gth

o c
o
c

c 2Ln 2Ln

r1r2 e2Le2gL 1

Threshold gain

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fc

1
1
ln
2L r1r2

157

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LASER DIODE

158

LASER DIODE

Assume:

In this example:

0 = 0.82 m, L = 300 m, n = 3.6

Nm

= 2 nm (laser linewidth)
Then

(0.82) 2
c
3.11 104 m 0.311nm
2(300)3.6

2 nm
6 .4 6
0.311 nm

We conclude that there are six longitudinal modes.

h
t
d
i
w
e
n
i
l

The number of longitudinal modes is approximately

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g
n
i
c
a
p
s
e
c
n
a
n
o
s
e
r

Nm

c
159

160

Semiconductor Laser diodes

LASER DIODE
For the laser diode, we have:

- pn junctions made from III-V semiconductors

Gain

- operate above a threshold current

821 (nm)
Cavity
Resonances
(nm)

819
820
0.311 nm
c

- emit light by stimulated emission

- Optical power LD current, large BW(>10GHz)
- small spectral width, narrow beam

Output
Spectrum
(nm)

161

Laser diode power vs Current curve

Population inversion is achieved by

(i)Intense doping and
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Alphones
(ii)
High
current density

162

LASER DIODE

100

Consider the following heterojunction laser diode:

Optical Power PO (%)

80

Jth

60

1
1
1 gth
ln

2L r1r2

Lasing
40
20

Threshold
Current

Non-Lasing

10

20

30
IF (mA)

40

50

Jth Threshold current

density
- Gain factor depends
on design specifications

60

Practical ILD characteristics posses kinks due to

- Mode coupling/conversion
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- Crystal defects

163

Electron
Barrier
AlxGa1-x As AlyGa1-y As AlxGa1-x As
Injected - - - - - - - - - - - - - Electrons
- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.8
- eV
1.55 eV
1.8 eV
Electron
+ + + + + + + + +Injected
+
Holes
Energy
n
n
p
Hole
Barrier
x- mole fraction of Aluminium

164

LASER DIODE

In the ternary alloy Ga1-x AlxAs the bandgap energy Eg

it interfaces the materials GaAs (Eg =1.43eV) and
Al As (Eg =2.16eV).

Energy Level Diagram

-------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - 1.8
- eV
1.55 eV
1.8 eV
Electron
++++++++++
Energy
n
n
p
Refractive
Index

The energy gap in electron volts for values of x

between zero and 0.37 can be found from the
empirical equation
E g 1 . 424 1 . 266 x 0 . 266 x 2
x mole fraction

of Al

Given the value of Wg or Eg in (eV), the peak emission

Wavelength (m) can be estimated.
165

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Temperature dependence

ILD External Quantum Efficiency

ext

dP h
e dP

dI e
Eg dI

Ith is temperature dependent

ext 0.8065 ( m)
Also,

ext int1

dP
dI

Ith(T)I0exp(T/T0)
Device
Temperature

gth

So the external quantum efficiency can be estimated either from

graphical characteristic results or analytically by the above expression
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166

167

Constants

Ith changes with aging also

Feedback mechanisms are necessary to obtain constant optical power

output
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168

LASER DIODE OPERATING

CHARACTERISTICS

DFB and DBR lasers

Example: Wavelength Shift = 0.1 nm/oC

Gain
Cavity Resonance

T1 = 27 C

Output
Distributed Feedback
DFB

Distributed Bragg Reflector

DBR

T2 = 30 C

Cavity Resonance

Grating order: multiples of o/2nr of the grating

1st order InP grating at 1.55m wavelength: ~0.25m period

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Output
169

LASER DIODE OPERATING

CHARACTERISTICS

170

Distributed Feedback Laser Diode

The DFB was developed to obtain a single-

Laser Diode Bandwidth

longitudinal-mode laser diode .

Laser diodes respond faster than LEDs

because the carrier lifetime (which

Different
Materials

determines LED speed) is much longer

than the recombination delay due to

Cleaved
Facet

stimulated emission (which determines LD

Metallization
Grating

p
n

Active
Layer

The grating acts as a filter, permitting only one of

speed) .
Typical laser diode rise times: 0.1 - 1ns

6.5

the cavitys modes to propagate.

171

172

DISTRIBUTED-FEEDBACK LD

DISTRIBUTED-FEEDBACK LD
The grating resonances, according to Braggs

Laser Gain

law, are those wavelengths for which the grating

period (illustrated on a preceding slide) is an

Cavity Resonances

integral number of half-wavelengths. That is:

Grating Resonances

m
2

is the wavelength in the diode, m is an integer

Laser Output
0

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174

DISTRIBUTED-FEEDBACK LD

DISTRIBUTED-FEEDBACK LD
The grating period then satisfies

Example: Consider an InGaAsP DFB LD

0
m
2n

0 = 1.55 m, n = 3.5, let m = 1 (first order)

Determine the grating period.

and the resonant wavelengths, as measured in

free space, are given by:

2n
m

m 0
1.55

0.22 m
2n
2(3.5)

Let m = 2 (second order)

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0 is the free-space wavelength

173

175

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m 0 2(1.55)

0.44 m
2n
2(3.5)
176

DETECTORS
DETECTORS

PHOTODETECTION MECHANISMS

- Some form of PN junctions

- Convert light into electrical output operated with
reverse biased
- Have large bandwidth (GHz)

Important Detector Properties

1. Responsivity:

Most Detectors have

- An insulating base
- A casing
- Electrodes for connections
- Transparent glass window

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Optical Power

177

PHOTODETECTION MECHANISMS

Electrical Current
Photodetector

i
A /W
P

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178

PHOTODETECTION MECHANISMS
Silicon Photodiode Response

2. Spectral Response:
Range of optical wavelengths over which the

0.5

detector is useful. It is often displayed as a

( A /W )

curve of responsivity versus wavelength. An

example appears on the next slide.

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Output Current
Input Optical Power

Detector types - PIN & Avalanche photodiode (APD)

made from
- Si (800nm band)
- InGaAsP (1300nm band)
- InGaAs (1550nm band)
Alphones

179

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0.5

0.7

0.9
(m)

1.1

180

PHOTODETECTION MECHANISMS
3. Speed of Response:
Range of modulation frequencies over which

Noise degrades signals. Without noise, it

would not matter how little optical power
arrived at the receiver.

the detector is useful. As before, if tr is the

Signal quality is measured in several ways.

rise time, the bandwidth is (approximately)

0.35
f3 dB
tr

Analog systems:
The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is the measure.

P
Input

90%
10%

Digital systems:
The bit-error-rate (BER) is the measure.

Output

tr
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181

Photo Diode

Light Absorption in a semiconductor creates

A light sensitive device that uses

PN junction

Electron-Hole Pairs (EHP)

I

Conduction Band

hEg A

Eg
Valence Band

Ev

PN Junction Current

For absorption, the photon energy should be greater then the band-gap
of the material

hEg

nregion
Cathode

Incident light generates excess minority carriers

Forward Current

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Electron-Hole
Generation

pregion
Anode

Ec

183

Reverse Current
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In Dark
Large
Small

Under Light
Unchanged
Significant
Increase
184

Forward
Current IF

Photo Detection Principles

Bias voltage usually
needed
to
fully
deplete the intrinsic
I region for high
speed operation

Device Layer Structure

1st Quadrant
Rectification
Light Emission

eV
I I0 exp

kT
Reverse Voltage

Carriers absorbed here

must diffuse to the
intrinsic layer before
they recombine if they
are to contribute to the
photocurrent.
Slow
diffusion can lead to
slow tails in the
temporal response.

Light intensity as a
function of distance below
the surface

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I I0

Is =I0 + IL

External
Quantum efficiency

Responsivity

3rd
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Quadrant
Photoconductive
mode

i ph

Light input

i /q
Number of Collected electrons
ph
1 Rp 1 e W
Number of Photons *Incident* on detector Po / h

Metal
Contact
SiO2
p-Si
Intrinsic Si layer
n-Si

q
e
h

Incident Photon Flux

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Practical devices have P+NN+ or similar structure

P
q o 1 Rp 1 e W RPo
h

Fraction absorbed in
detection region of distance W and
Absorption coefficient of

186

Structure

Fraction Transmitted
into Detector with reflectivity Rp

Photocurrent

4th
Quadrant
Photo-voltaic
mode

PIN Photodiode

Number of Collected electrons

1 e W
Number of Photons *Entering* detector

i
q
Photo Current (Amps)
ph
R
1 Rp 1 eW
Incident Optical Power (Watts) Po h

PN Junction
Characteristics

Light generated current IL

Characteristics of Photodetectors
Internal
Quantum Efficiency

Forward
Voltage

Reverse
Current

Band Diagram
showing carrier
movement in E-field

187

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PIN photodiodes have

Wide depletion region
Low internal capacitance
Wide frequency response
Alphones Fast and linear response

188

The Avalanche Photodiode

APD features
- Structure similar to PIN diode
- High voltage operation
- High internal gain
- Large BW
- Temperature sensitive
- High cost
Under high reverse voltage 100V, carriers in the depletion region
gain high energy to cause Avalanche Breakdown
Current gain 100 is achieved
Absorption coefficient vs.
Wavelength for several
materials

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Photodiode Responsivity vs.

Wavelength
for various materials

189

Gain is dependent on
- Bias voltage
- Temperature
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Reach-Through APD Structure

Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs)

High resistivity p-doped layer

increases electric field across
absorbing region

The depletion layer widens with

bias and reaches thru the -layer
near the avalanche region

High-energy electron-hole pairs

ionize other sites to multiply the
current

Leads to greater sensitivity

A high E-field in the depletion

region causes carriers to have
enough kinetic energy to kick
new electrons from valence
band up to conduction band
Avalanche Multiplication
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APD
Responsivity
R APD

191

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e Im e

M R 0M
h Ip h

M Multiplication factor
IM Multiplied current
Ip Un-multiplied current
R0 Unity gain responsivity

192

Combination of the sources and fibers for

different link capacity and distance

PIN and APD Sensitivity

1-10m

10m.1km

.1-1km 1-3km

3-10km 1050km

SLED
PIN

50100km
LD

>100k
m

MM

APD

10k

MM
LD

GI

LED
PIN

An APD typically has 10 dB better sensitivity

than a PIN.
-36 dBm sensitivity at 2.5 Gb/s is possible. 193
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LD

MM

GI

10-50M
LD
SM

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APD

50500M
500M1G
>1G
194

Design Approach

Key system requirements

Link power budget

Rise-time budget

The desired transmission distance

1. In the link power budget analysis one first determines

the power margin between the optical transmitter output
and the minimum receiver sensitivity needed to
establish a specified BER.
2. Once the link power budget has been established, the
designer can perform a system rise-time analysis to
ensure that the desired overall system performance has
been met.

The data rate or channel bandwidth

The bit-error rate (BER)
The cost and complexity
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LD

GI

10100K
100K1M
1-10M

195

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Selection of components
1) Multimode or single-mode optical fiber
core size, core refractive index profile, bandwidth or dispersion,
attenuation, numerical aperture or mode-field diameter

2) LED or laser diode optical source

Emission wavelength, spectral line width, output power, effective
radiating area, emission pattern, number of emitting modes
3) pin or avalanche photodiode
Responsivity, operating wavelength, speed or bandwidth,
sensitivity
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Transmitters

197

WDM system

Receivers

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LASER BEAM INJURIES

Multiplexer

Add/drop
Multiplexer

Demultiplexer

High power lasers can cause skin

burns.

Drop

Add

Lasers can cause severe eye injuries

resulting in permanent vision loss.

Local
receiver
199

Local
transmitter

200

Some common unsafe practices:

preventable laser accidents
Not wearing protective eyewear during
alignment procedures
Not wearing protective eyewear in the laser
control area
Misaligned optics and upwardly directed beams
Equipment malfunction
Improper methods of handling high voltage
Available eye protection not used
Intentional exposure of unprotected personnel
Lack of protection from non-beam hazards

Some common unsafe practices or

preventable laser accidents
Failure to follow (Laser) Safety Instructions
Bypassing of interlocks, door and laser housing
Insertion of reflective materials into beam paths
Lack of pre-planning
Turning on power supply accidentally
Operating unfamiliar equipment
Wearing the wrong eyewear

201

202

Guidelines to help prevent accidents during

alignment

End of Part I

The lowest possible/practical power must be used during

alignments.
Have beam paths that differ from the eye level when
standing or sitting. Do not use paths that tempts one to
bend down and look into the beam.
All laser users must receive an introduction to the laser
area by an authorised laser user of that area

Optical Transmission Systems have made

significant advances and are operational
both in land and under sea.

203

But much can be gained by improving

optical integration and exploring optical
technologies to coexist with wireless
transmission systems!!
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