LU2: Theoretical

Foundation and Principles

of Interpersonal
Persuasion
COSC6212
Danille Janse van Vuuren

LO1: Discuss the link between persuasion and motivation in

regard to Packards eight hidden needs, using advertising
examples to illustrate your answer
LO2: Critically discuss how Maslows hierarchy of needs can
be a useful tool for persuasive communication

13

LU
Objectives

LO3: Describe how dissonance and consonance can be used

in persuasive messages
LO4: Differentiate between the different types of evidence
that persuaders use as proof to support their messages
LO5: Apply various types of reasoning to persuasive
arguments and scenarios
LO6: Discuss the components of credibility that ensure the
success of a persuader
LO7: Identify and discuss how various nonverbal messages
can affect the outcome of a persuasive message
LO8: Describe the characteristics of an effective persuader
and persuasive message

13

LU
Objectives

LO9: Indicate how primacy/ recency aspects should be taken

into account when compiling a persuasive message
LO10: Discuss the correlation between personality type and
persuability
LO11: Critically discuss the function and significance of the
following learning theories in regard to their role in
successful persuasion:
Classical conditioning;
Skinnerian behaviourism;
Social learning theory;
Balance theory;
Congruence theory;
Cognitive dissonance theory;
Belief-hierarchy theory;
Social judgement-involvement theory;
Elaboration likelihood theory
LO12: Critically discuss how McGuires Inoculation theory
can be used to make people more resistant to persuasive
messages

Material
used for
this LU

YOUR module guide, pp.29-38

YOUR prescribed book: pp. 3967
Additional ONLINE reading: Compton & Pfau,
2009, pp.1114
CASE STUDY 2
CASE STUDY 3

 This LU focuses on the theoretical foundations and principles of

Interpersonal Persuasion
We will look at the dynamics of persuasion and how it is used

Learning
Unit Intro

Changing someones mind is never easy though in fact,

sometimes it is impossible. Your success will depend on what
you are requesting, who you are trying to persuade and how
entrenched those people are in their own views
(persuadability)
The learning unit further focuses on the link between needs
and persuasion. More specifically, the role of attitudes, why
verbal and nonverbal aspects form part of a persuasive
message, and the various variables relating to the persuader,
the message and the recipients
We will also explore theories central to interpersonal
persuasion
Finally, we will apply our knowledge of interpersonal
persuasion by looking at 2 case studies

LU2
Learning
Objective

Discuss the link between persuasion and

motivation in regard to Packards eight
hidden needs, using advertising
examples to illustrate your answer (Text
book, pp.40-41)

I
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Motivation can be understood as any action that leads to a

voluntary attitude or behavioural change
In interpersonal communication the persuader will use both verbal
and non-verbal messages to motivate an audience
In order to successfully motivate an audience a persuader needs
to identify their various needs
According to Vance Packard (1950) eight hidden needs can be
utilised by persuaders (especially advertisers) to persuade
audiences (pp.40-41):
1. Emotional security
2. Affirmation of value
3. Ego satisfaction
4. Creative outlets
5. Love objects
6. Sense of power
7. Need for roots

LU2
Learning
Objective

Critically discuss how Maslows

hierarchy of needs can be a useful tool
for persuasive communication (Text
book, pp.41-42)

Abraham Maslow argues that we have

different needs that we try and fulfil on
a daily basis throughout our lives
These needs keep resurfacing until we
have satisfied them
Once primary needs are satisfied we
move one to more secondary needs
According to Maslow we have 5
major need levels (pp.41-42):
1. Basic needs
2. Security needs
3. Need for belonging
4. Need for love or esteem
5. Self-actualisation needs

LU2
Learning
Objective

Describe how dissonance and consonance

can be used in persuasive messages (Text
book, pp.43-44)

Dissonance (p.43) refers to the

lack of agreement or
harmony between things
There are a number of sources of
dissonance which can lead to
recipients becoming vulnerable
to persuasion:
1. Loss of group prestige
2. Economic loss
3. Loss of personal prestige
4. Uncertainty of prediction of
behaviour and the course of
events

Consonance (p.44)
refers to the
agreement or
harmony between
things
The sources of
consonance which a
persuader can rely on
to keep a recipient:
1. Reassurance of
security

LU2
Learning
Objective

Differentiate between the different types

of evidence that persuaders use as proof
to support their messages (Text book,
pp.44-45)

Evidence can be classified in terms

of direct or indirect evidence:
1. Direct evidence: is evidence
that shows the existence of a fact
in question without the
intervention of the proof of any
other fact, for example: being
caught stealing in the act
2. Indirect evidence: also known
as circumstantial evidence is
evidence that tends to show the
existence of a fact in question by
proof of another fact from which
the fact in question may be
inferred, for example, a video of
something going missing and you

 There are 6 different types of

evidence that may be used in the
process of persuasion (pp.44-45):
1. Primary or secondary evidence
2. Written or unwritten evidence
3. Real or personal evidence
4. Lay or expert evidence
5. Prearranged or casual evidence
6. Dramatic or rational evidence

Primary or secondary evidence:

(1) Primary/original/first-hand evidence is the best evidence as
it provides the greatest certainty of the matter (i.e. eye
witness account)
(2) Secondary evidence falls short of the above standard. Thus,
there is better evidence out there (i.e. friend tells the story
of the eye witness account)
Written or unwritten evidence:
(1) Written evidence is any written evidence such as
information found in books, magazines, newspapers
(2) Unwritten evidence includes both oral testimony and
objects offered for personal inspection
Real or personal evidence:
(1) Real evidence is provided by objects placed on view or
under inspection (i.e. fingerprints or weapons)
(2) Personal evidence is evidence provided (furnished) by
people and can be in the form of written or oral testimony

Lay or expert evidence:

(1) Lay evidence is provided by persons with no special
training, knowledge or experience (i.e. citizen)
(2) Expert evidence is provided by experts or specialists within
a specific field (i.e. professors or phycologists)
Prearranged or casual evidence:
(1) Prearranged evidence is created for the specific purpose of
recording certain information for possible future reference
(ID or passport docs)
(2) Casual evidence is created without intentional effort and is
therefore not designed for possible future use (i.e. an air
flight ticket to prove your alibi)
Dramatic or rational evidence:
(1) Dramatic evidence appeals to our emotions and may take
the form of a narrative story or even testament
(2) Rational evidence appeals to our reasoning and often relies
on statistics and facts

LU2
Learning
Objective

Apply various types of reasoning to

persuasive arguments and scenarios
(Text book, pp.46-47)

Reasoning
Reasoning can be defined as a cognitive
process whereby judgements and
conclusions are formed
Reasoning can be classified into induction and
deduction
Inductive reasoning: proceeds from the
particular to the general
Deductive reasoning: proceeds from the
general to the particular
There are 5 types of reasoning that can be
employed in the process of persuasion:

3.

1.

Reasoning from cause to effect

2.

Reasoning from effect to cause

Reasoning from criteria to application

4.
5.

Reasoning from comparison

Reasoning from example

Reasoning from cause to

effect:
Reasoning from effect to
cause:
from criteria to
-13 Reasoning
application:
Reasoning from comparison:

Reasoning from example:

LU2
Learning
Objective

Discuss the components of credibility that

ensure the success of a persuader (Text
book, p.50)

Expertness
Is dependent on HOW much
knowledge a persuader has on a
subject
And HOW the persuader uses
that knowledge
Trustworthiness
Is attributed to a
communicator whom the
audience views as
knowing more or simply
embodying trustworthy
characteristics
Goodwill
Is attributed to a
communicator whom the
audience feels a developing
relationship with

LU2
Learning
Objective

Identify and discuss how various

nonverbal messages can affect the
outcome of a persuasive message
(Text book, pp.12-13)

accentuate or complement verbal messages

For this reason NVM dramatically affect the outcome of the process of
persuasion
The following meanings of NVM should be kept in mind when persuading:
1. NVM frequently have an iconic relationship with their meanings (=NVM
looks exactly like what they mean), for example, a raised-fist or a person
laughing
2. NVM tend to be more implicit or subtle in meaning, for example, when
someone asks you to do them a favour and you say yes but your features
actually say no
3. NVM depends on social contexts for their meaning, for example going
to church on a Sunday in your birthday suit
4. Individual mannerisms must be taken into account when interpreting
NVM, for example, if someone twitches it might be that they are nervous
or have a condition
5. NVM are often culture-related, for example, African cultures tend to

LU2
Learning
Objectiv
e

Describe the characteristics of an effective

persuader and persuasive message (Text
book, pp.52-54)

There are 6 NV characteristics that a persuader will need to

incorporate to divulge an effective persuasive message:
1. Objects
2. Proxemics
3. Chronemics
4. Haptics
5. Kinesics
6. Paralinguistic
Objects (p.52):
Concerns the use of objects in the process
of persuasion
Objects contributes to symbolism
For instance a police officers uniform
symbolises authority
Or having a lot of books in your office
symbolises intelligence

 Concerns the use of space or distance

This is how a persuader uses space in his
message to come across as more persuasive
There are 4 general distances used by
persuaders in Western cultures:
1. Public distance: found in public speaking
situations speaker is on a stage or at least a
few meters away
2. Social Distance: speaker is closer to
participants for example in meetings or social
gatherings
3. Personal/Informal distance: used for discussion
between friends of close colleagues
4. Intimate distance: the distance between two
people who are usually in a relationship or
known each other very well
. The use of environment also falls under
proxemics and adds value to a persuasive
message
. For example a cosy restaurant or convention

Chronemics (pp.52-53):
Concerns the use of time
Time can communicate a lot of things
Potential persuaders must observe how time
works in their culture and other cultures in
order to be persuasive
In Western cultures, time is money
Whereas in African and Middle Eastern
cultures time is treated differently more as
a symbol of respect
Haptics (p.53)
Concerns the use of touch
Haptics is culture related
Touch conveys a certain attitude
In Western cultures touching is restricted to
loved ones
Whereas in African and Middle Eastern
cultures haptics is seen as a sign of respect

Kinesics (pp. 53-54):

Concerns the use of body language such as facial expression,
gestures and postures
Facial expressions and facial blends are key to persuasion
Human gestures such as the use of your hands or feet (also referred to
as gesticulation) are also important as it complements the meaning of a
persuaders words, for example, a speaker that confidently uses his hands
to illustrate his point . In addition, gestures that have a direct verbal
translation (referred to as emblems) such as a head-nod which is used
for agreeing or an illustration (referred to as batons ) of your anger by
saying your are angry and shaking your fists
Human posture is also a key tool used for persuasion think of
someone with their hands on their hips or someone slouching
Paralinguistic (p.54)
Refers to how things are said
So it involves oral but NV aspects
For example, the pitch of your voice, your accent or your
pronunciation
As a persuader you need to be aware of your and others

As a persuader how would you use the 6 NV

characteristics in a persuasive message?

LU2
Learning
Objectiv
e

Indicate how primacy/recency aspects

should be taken into account when
compiling a persuasive message (Module
Guide, pp.35-36)

Primacy effect:
Putting the most
important/persuasiv
e information at the
beginning of a
message

Recency effect:
Putting the most
important/ persuasive
information at the end of
a message this is used
when a time gap is
applied to a message

A Primacy effect example:

The dog is intelligent, healthy, undisciplined
and stubborn
The dog is stubborn, undisciplined, healthy
and intelligent
You would rate the dog more positively if
the sentence begins with intelligent than if it
started with stubborn

A Recency effect example:

Week 1: Message A (less important info)
Week 2: Message B (most important info)
If people have to respond to the
message at the end of week 2 Message B
would be more persuasive

LU2
Learning
Objective

10

Discuss the correlation between personality

type and persuability (Module Guide, p.33)

 The term persuadability refers to ta

recipients susceptibility to persuasion
Personality type and persuadability are
closely linked
Some personality types are easier to
persuade than others
Research shows that women are often easier
swayed than men
Some personalities are resistant to changing
their minds whereas others go along with
almost everything that they hear
Persuadable people tend to have low selfesteem and value the opinions of others
more than their own
Personalities that are generally independent
and have a strong self-image are able to
resists persuasion

LU2
Learning
Objective

11

Critically discuss the function and

significance of the key learning theories in
regard to their role in successful
persuasion (Text book, pp.60-66)

 We will need to look at the following 9 theories in order to

make sense of persuasion in interpersonal communication
context:
1. Classical Conditioning Theory
2. Skinnerian Behaviourism
3. The Social Learning Theory
4. Balance Theory
5. Congruency Theory
6. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
7. Belief-Hierarchy Theory
8. Social Judgment-Involvement Theory
9. The Elaboration Likelihood Theory

1. Classical Conditioning Theory (pp.60-61)

Forms part of Learning Theories (sees persuasion as a specialised kind of
learning)

Postulated by Ivan Pavlov

Behavioural change and persuasion can only be explained through a
stimulus-response relationship
The recipient (or audience) is seen as a robot that responds to external stimuli
This is how it works: when a particular response follows a given stimulus a
particular condition will appear (i.e. Pavlov and his dog)
Ultimately, this theory believes that with the proper positive or negative
association (conditioning) behavioural patterns can be established or even
learnt
Generally propaganda perspectives were underpinned by the notions of
Pavlovs theory Nazi domestic Germany, for example, used classic
conditioning to instil in German society the virtues of courage, loyalty and
patriotism
Disadvantage: human beings are much more complicated than a mere robot
and conditioning only accounts for a limited part of human behaviour

2. Skinnerian Behaviourism (p.61)

Also a Learning Theory

Skinnerian Behaviourism revolves around the prediction that
behavioural change is a response to ones environment
Thus, behaviour is related to external factors
Here, the recipient is also seen as a robot responding to external stimuli
(his/her environment)
The theory holds that if proper administration of positive or
negative reinforces are instilled than patterns of behaviour can
be established or even learnt
Here, behaviour is determined by its consequence (reward or punishment)
Thus, the relationship between the response and its consequence is of
utmost importance to this theory
Take for example, a traditional Afrikaans husband comes home and
decides for the first time to make dinner for his family. His behaviour is
reinforced by praise from his wife. Thus, the chance of him repeating this
behaviour is increased

3. The Social Learning Theory (pp.61-62)

Also a Learning Theory

Postulated by Albert Bandura

This theory views human beings as active participants in the process of
persuasion

The theory holds that (de Wet, 2013):

1. People establish goals that entail rewards or positive consequences if achieved
2. People choose to behave in ways that have the potential for achieving their
goals
3. People interpret the consequences of behaviour as rewards or punishment
4. Choices are affected by perceived success and failures of the past and
anticipated consequences in the future (in other words, behaviour is shaped by
interaction between external conditions and internal cognitive processes)
According to Bandura, it is through (1) observation, (2) experience and (3)
self-regulation that we learn to behave in our social interactions
Take for example a younger brother seeing his older brother being scolded for
doing something wrong. The younger brother will then learn through (1), (2) and
(3) above to not do the same

4. Balance Theory (p. 62)

Forms part of Consistency Theories (holds that humans do not like
inconsistency)
Postulated by Fritz Heider (and adapted by Theodore Newcomb)
This theory involves 2 persons and a single topic = if the topic
(usually believes or perspectives) is different to the recipients
understanding (causing an unstable state) the recipient would have
to choose to change his attitude/behaviour to the topic or the
communicator (resetting the balance)
Take for example, a bf and gf disagree about Christianity they can
either decide to never talk about the subject again or end the
relationship

5. Congruency Theory (pp.62-63)

Also forms part of Consistency Theories
Postulated by Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum
This theory involves 2 persons, 2 concepts (or sets of information)
on which a judgement needs to be made
If both sets of information are congruent (similar) there is no
problem
However, if they are different the recipient will experience pressure
to change his/her judgement on one of them
Take for example an artist that you truly idolise think of all the
good they do! Now, imagine you found out really horrible things
about them (that are true). You will probably start changing your
view of that person

6. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (pp. 63-64)

Also forms part of Consistency Theories

Postulated by Leon Festinger

One of the most important theories in the history of Social Psychology
Cognitive dissonance refers to the feeling of discomfort caused by
conflicts or inconsistencies between a persons attitude and
behaviour
This theory holds that when 2 things to do not follow from one another a
person will experience psychological tension the person will than attempt
to reduce the tension in some way
The idea of tension reduction has a quantitative dimension and a
qualitative dimension
What this means is that we can change our attitudes, judgements
or evaluations a little, moderate or a lot
Take for example, a husband who firmly believes in family time but often
spends his free time with friends. He may decide to cut down time with his
friends (quantitative dimension) to spend more time with his family
(qualitative dimension)

7. Belief-Hierarchy Theory (p. 64)

Also forms part of Consistency theories

Postulated by Milton Rokeach

This theory suggests that attitudes, beliefs and values are interwoven and
ranked in various hierarchies or layers into a single belief system
The most important element of this theory is values and how they lead our
actions
There are 2 types of values: (1) terminal values (life goals such as success and
happiness) and (2) instrumental values (the behaviour that gets us to our
goals)
Values combined with attitudes and beliefs results in our self-concept
We all want to be satisfied with our self-concept and will work hard to achieve
this
It is believed that if we incur enough inconsistencies, incongruence or
dissonance that we question our self-concept
Thus, for persuasion to work a recipients self-concept needs to be confronted
with some kind of inconsistency
Take for example, an elderly woman who would like to complete her studies as
she feels she will achieve a sense of wellbeing or self-conceptualisation

8. Social Judgement-Involvement Theory (pp. 64-65)

Postulated by Muzafer Sherif and colleagues
This theory involves 2 important concepts: (1) anchor points
(internal reference points, which are used to make judgements
with) and (2) ego-involvement (also referred to as social
affiliation which a recipient feels strongly about and which they
incorporate as part of themselves)
This theory sees persuasion as the result of individuals comparing
persuasive messages with their internal reference points and
perceptions which are strengthened by (1) and (2)
The greater the balance between these variables the more
susceptible the recipient is to persuasion

9. The Elaboration Likelihood Theory (ELT) (pp. 65-66)

Postulated by psychologists Richard Petty, John Cacioppo and associates
Of utmost importance here is the term elaboration (which refers to the
concentrated thinking that receivers engage in about a message)
The theory assumes the following:
1. People are motivated to hold correct attitudes (rational)
2. Although people want to hold correct attitudes, the amount and nature of
issue-relevant elaboration in which they are willing to engage to
evaluate a message varies according to an individual and their environment
For this theory there are 2 routes to persuasion: (1) central route
(consists of thoughtful consideration of the arguments in the message) and
(2) peripheral route (does not involve thoughtful consideration of the
ideas/arguments)
Other variables of the theory on persuasion include: (1) receivers ability to
scrutinise a message, (2) receivers biases, (3) receivers need for cognition, (4)
receivers moods or states of mind and (5) prior knowledge of a topic
Finally, this theory holds that attitude changes brought about by processing
arguments will show greater longevity to counter-persuasion

LU2
Learning
Objective

12

Critically discuss how McGuires Inoculation

theory can be used to make people more
resistant to persuasive messages (Compton
& Pfau, 2009, pp.1114)

According to McGuire (1964) just as a

biological vaccination provides resistance to
viruses by injecting a weakened version into
the body, triggering the production of
antibodies that later protect against
stronger viral attacks
An attitudinal inoculation message (or
treatment) subjects people to a counterattitudinal message with refutations,
motivating attitude bolstering prior to
a stronger persuasive attack, thereby
providing resistance
An inoculation message contains 3
components:
1. Threat
2. Counterarguments, and

 (1) Threat is the motivating force in inoculation

Threat brings to our attention the vulnerability in an existing attitude
It motivates people to read and process the inoculation message
content (which is made up of (2) counterarguments and (3)
refutations)
And during the interval between inoculation and exposure to a
subsequent attack, threat continues to motivate people to generate
counterarguments and refutations
(2) The counterargument and (3) refutation elements of an inoculation
message contain specific content that may be used in defence of
attitudes and provide an illustration of attitude defence
Inoculation messages have been shown to increase perceived issue
involvement, enhance attitude accessibility, increase perceived vested
interest, and facilitate communication about issues
Thus, these 3 components provide resistance to persuasive

LU1
Learning
Objective

13

Apply relevant persuasive communication

theory covered in LU2 to the provided LU2
case studies (MG, pp.19-20)

 HOME STUDY:
LU3

For our next

lecture

In addition,
complete
revision
exercises
Do not forget to
engage with
your additional
reading
material
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