Biology Class Xii Cbse Investigatory Project On Antibiotics

AIMAntibiotics-good or bad for us?
Certificate of Authenticity
This is to certify that Parvez Hassan Ansari a student of class
lly completed the research product on the topic antibiotics-good
der the guidance of Mrs. Neena Dhawan. This project is absolutely
es not indulge in plagiarism of any kind. This reference taken in
oject has been declared at the end of this project.
Signature {subject teacher}
Signature {examiner}
2
12th has successfu

or bad for us? un
genuine and do
making this pr
Acknowledge ment
I feel proud to present my investigatory project in Biology on the antibiotics-go
od or bad for us? This project would not have been feasible without the proper ri
gorous guidance of biology teacher Mrs.Neena Dhawan. Who guided me throughout th
is project in every possible way? An investigatory project involves various diff
icult lab experiments, which have to obtain the observations and conclude the re
ports on a meaningful note. Thereby, I would like to thanks Mrs.Neena Dhawan for
guiding me on a systematic basis and ensuring that in completed all my research
with ease. Rigorous hard work has put in this project to ensure that it proves
to be the best. I hope that it proves to be the best. I hope that this project w
ill prove to be a breeding ground for the next generation of students and will g
uide them in every possible way.
Introduction
In common usage, an antibiotic (from the Ancient Greek: a i , "agai s", a d
life") is a susa ce r cmpu d ha kills aceria r i hiis heir grwh.[
1] A iacerial is a aler aive ame. A iiics el g he rader grup
f a imicrial cmpu ds, used rea i feci s caused y micrrga isms,
i cludi g fu gi a d prza. The erm "a iiic" was ci ed y Selma Waksma
i 1942 descrie a y susa ce prduced y a micrrga ism ha is a ag is
ic he grwh f her micrrga isms i high dilui .[2] This rigi al def
i ii excluded aurally ccurri g susa ces ha kill aceria u are p
rduced y micrrga isms (such as gasric juice a d hydrge perxide) a d als
excluded sy heic a iacerial cmpu ds such as he sulf amides . Ma y a i
iics are relaively small mlecules wih a mlecular weigh less ha 2000 a
mic mass u is.
A iiic resisa ce is a ype f drug resisa ce where a micrrga ism is ale
survive expsure a a iiic. Ge es ca e ra sferred ewee aceria
i a hriz al fashi y c jugai , ra sduci , r ra sfrmai . Thus
a ge e fr a iiic resisa ce which had evlved via aural seleci may e
shared. Evlui ary sress such as expsure a iiics he selecs fr he
a iiic resisa rai. Ma y a iiic resisa ce ge es reside plasmids
, faciliai g heir ra sfer. If a acerium carries several resisa ce ge es,
i is called muliresisa r, i frmally, a superug r super aceria. The pr
imary cause f a iiic resisa ce is a iiic use h wihi medici e a d
veeri ary medici e. The greaer he durai f expsure he greaer he risk
f he develpme f resisa ce irrespecive f he severiy f he eed fr a
iiics.
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Firs we have sudy a iiicsA iiic

cmm usage, a a iiic (frm he A cie Greek: a i, "agai s", a d i
e") is a susa ce r cmpu d ha kills aceria r i hiis heir grwh. A
iacerial is a aler aive ame. A iiics el g he rader grup f a
imicrial cmpu ds, used rea i feci s caused y micrrga isms, i clud
i g fu gi a d prza. The erm "a iiic" was ci ed y Selma Waksma i 19
42 descrie a y susa ce prduced y a micrrga ism ha is a ag isic
he grwh f her micrrga isms i high dilui . This rigi al defi ii e
xcluded aurally ccurri g susa ces ha kill aceria u are prduced
y micrrga isms (such as gasric juice a d hydrge perxide) a d als excluded
sy heic a iacerial cmpu ds such as he sulf amides. Ma y a iiics ar
e relaively small mlecules wih a mlecular weigh less ha 2000 amic mass
u is. Wih adva ces i medici al chemisry, ms a iiics are w semi sy h
eic mdified chemically frm rigi al cmpu ds fu d i aure, as is he case
wih ealacase (which i clude he pe icilli s, prduced y fu gi i he ge us P
e icillium, he cephalspri s, a d he carape ems). Sme a iiics are sill
prduced a d islaed frm livi g rga isms, such as he ami glycsides, a d
hers have ee creaed hrugh purely sy heic mea s: he sulf amides, he qu
i l es, a d he xazlidi es. I addii his rigi -ased classificai
i aural, semi sy heic, a d sy heic, a iiics may e divided i
w rad grups accrdi g heir effec micrrga isms: Thse ha kill ac
eria are acericidal age s, whereas hse ha ly impair acerial grwh a
re k w as acerisaic age s.
Hisry f a iiics
Ma y reame s fr i feci s prir he egi i g f he we ieh ce ury w
ere ased medici al flklre. Treame s fr i feci i ma y a cie culur
es usi g c cci s wih a imicrial prperies were descried ver 2000 year
s ag. Ma y a cie culures, i cludi g he a cie Egypia s a d a cie Greeks
used mlds a d pla s rea i feci s. The discvery f he aural a ii
ics prduced y micrrga isms semmed frm earlier wrk he servai f
a iisis ewee micr-rga isms. Luis Paseur served ha, "if we culd i
erve e i he a ag ism
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serve d ewee sme aceria, i wuld ff er perhap s he grea es hpes fr
herapeu ics". Sy heic a i iic chemherapy a s a scie ce a d he s ry
f a i iic develpme ega i Germa y wih Pa ul Ehrlich, a Germa medica
l scie is i h e lae wha 1880s. Scie ific e deavur s u der sa d he s
cie ce ehi d caused hese f diseases, he develpme f sy heic a iiic
chemherapy, he islai he aural a iiics marked miles es i a ii
ic develpme . as a iisis, a iiics were dr ugs which aced agai s ac
eria. Origi ally k w The erm a iisis, wh ich mea s "agai s life," was i
rduced y he Fre ch acerilgis uillemi as a des cripive a me f he
phe me
exhiied y hese drugs.(A i isis was firs descried i 1877 i
aceria whe Luis Paseur a d Rer Kch se rved ha a airr e acil
lus culd i hii he grwh f Bacillus a hracis.). These d rugs were laer re
amed a iiics y Sel ma Waks ma , a America micrilgis i 1942.
Bacerial a ag ism f Pe icillium spp. were firs descried i
E gla d y Jh
Ty dall i 1875.The sig ifica ce a iiic discvery was realize d u
il he wrk f Eh rlich sy h eic a ii ic chemherapy, wh ich marked h
e irh f he a iiic revlu i . Ehrlich ed ha cerai dye s wuld i
d a d c lr huma , a imal, r acerial cells, while hers did . He
he exe ded he idea ha i migh e pssile make ce rai dyes r chemic
als ha wuld ac as a m agic ulle r seleciv e drug ha wuld i d a d
kill aceria while harmi g he huma hs. Af er much experime a i , s
cree i g hu dreds f dyes agai s vari us rga ism s, he disc vered a me dici
ally useful drug, he ma -made a ii ic, Salva rsa . I 1928 Flem i g made a
imp ra serva i c cer i g he a iisis y pe icilli . Flemi g psu
laed h a he effec was mediaed y a ye-u ide ified a iiic-like cmpu
d ha culd e expl ied. Alhugh he i iially characerized sme f is a
i iic prpe ries, he did purs ue is develpme . I h e mea im e, a
her sy heic a iaceri al a iii c Pr sil was develped a d ma ufacu
red fr cmme rcial use y Dmagk i
1932. Pr sil, he firs cmmercially av
ailale a iacerial a iiic, was develped y a research eam le d y Gerha
rd Dmagk (wh received he 193 9 Nel Pri ze fr Med ici e fr his effrs) a
he Bayer Lararies f he IG Fare c glmerae i Germa y . Pr sil ha
d a relaively rad e ffec agai s Gram-p siive ccc i u a gai s e
eraceria. The disc very a d develpme f his firs sulf amide drug p
e ed he era f a iiics. I 1 939, discver y y Re e Dus f he firs
a
urally der ived a ii ic-like s usa ce amed gramici di frm B. revis.
I was e f he firs c mmercially ma ufacured a iiics i use d uri g W
rld War II prve highly effecive i r eai g wu ds a d ulcers.
Flrey a d Chai succeeded i purifyi g pe icilli . The purified a iiic disp

layed a iacerial aciviy agai s a wide ra ge f aceria. I als had lw
xiciy a d culd e ake wihu causi g adverse effecs. Furhermre, is ac
iviy was i hiied y ilgical c siue s such as pus, u like he sy h
eic a iiic class availale a he ime, he sulf amides. The discvery f
such a pwerful a iiic was u precede ed. The develpme f pe icilli led
re ewed i eres i he search fr a iiic cmpu ds wih similar capaili
ies.Because f heir discvery f pe icilli Er s Chai , Hward Flrey a d Ale
xa der Flemi g shared he 1945 Nel Prize i Medici e. Flrey credied Dus wi
h pi eeri g he apprach f delieraely, sysemaically searchi g fr a iac
erial cmpu ds. Such a mehdlgy had led he discvery f gramicidi , whi
ch revived Flreys research i pe icilli .
A iiic resisa ce
SEM depici g mehicilli resisa Saphylcccus aureus aceria.
The emerge ce f a iiic resisa ce is a evlui ary prcess ha is ased
seleci fr rga isms ha have e ha ced ailiy survive dses f a ii
ics ha wuld have previusly ee lehal. A iiics like Pe icilli a d Er
yhrmyci , which used e e-ime miracle cures are w less effecive ecau
se aceria have ecme mre resisa . A iiics hemselves ac as a seleciv
e pressure ha allws he grwh f resisa aceria wihi a ppulai a d
i hiis suscepile aceria. A iiic seleci f pre-exisi g a iiic r
esisa mua s wihi acerial ppulai s was dem sraed i 1943 y he ex
perime . Survival f aceria fe resuls frm a i heriale resisa ce. A y
a iiic resisa ce may impse a ilgical cs. Spread f a iiic-resis
a aceria may e hampered y reduced fi ess assciaed wih he resisa ce,
which is disadva ageus fr survival f he aceria whe a iiic is pre
se . Addii al muai s, hwever, may cmpe sae fr his fi ess cs a d ai
ds he survival f hese aceria. The u derlyi g mlecular mecha isms leadi g
a iiic resisa ce ca vary. I ri sic resisa ce may aurally ccur as a
resul f he acerias ge eic makeup. The acerial chrmsme may fail e
cde a prei ha he a iiic arges. Acquired resisa ce resuls frm a m
uai i he acerial chrmsme r he acquisii f exrachrmsmal DNA.
A iiic-prduci g aceria have evlved resisa ce mecha isms
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ha have ee shw e similar , a d may have ee ra sferred , a ii
icresisa srai s. The spread f a iiic resisa ce mecha isms ccurs hr
ugh verical ra smissi f i heried muai s frm previus ge erai s a d g
e eic recmi ai f DNA y hriz al ge eic excha ge. A iiic resisa c
e is excha ged ewee differe aceria y plasmids ha carry ge es ha e c
de a iiic resisa ce ha may resul i c-resisa ce muliple a iiic
s. These plasmids ca carry differe ge es
wih diverse resisa ce mecha isms u relaed a iiics u ecause hey are
lcaed he same plasmid muliple a iiic resisa ces mre ha e a
iiic is ra sferred. O he her ha d, crss-resisa ce her a iiic
s wihi he aceria resuls whe he same resisa ce mecha ism is resp sile
fr resisa ce mre ha e a iiic is seleced fr. A iiic-resisa
micrrga isms, smeimes referred as "superugs", may c riue he reemerge ce f diseases which are curre ly well-c rlled. Fr example, cases f
uerculsis (TB) ha are resisa radii ally effecive reame s rema
i a cause f grea c cer healh prfessi als. Every year, early half a m
illi ew cases f mulidrug-resisa uerculsis (MDR-TB) are esimaed
ccur wrldwide. NDM-1 is a ewly-ide ified e zyme ha makes aceria resisa
a rad ra ge f ea-lacam a iiics. U ied Ki gdm Healh Preci A
ge cy has saed ha "ms islaes wih NDM-1 e zyme are resisa all sa
dard i rave us a iiics fr reame f severe i feci s."
A iiic resisa ce
is a ype f drug resisa ce where a
micrrga ism is ale survive expsure a a iiic. Ge es ca e ra sfe
rred ewee aceria i a hriz al fashi y c jugai , ra sduci , r
ra sfrmai . Thus a ge e fr a iiic resisa ce which had evlved via aur
al seleci may e shared. Evlui ary sress such as expsure a iiics
he selecs fr he a iiic resisa rai. Ma y a iiic resisa ce ge e
s reside plasmids, faciliai g heir ra sfer. If a acerium carries severa
l resisa ce ge es, i is called muliresisa r, i frmally, a superug r su
per aceria. The primary cause f a iiic resisa ce is a iiic use h
wihi medici e a d veeri ary medici e. The greaer he durai f expsure h
e greaer he risk f he develpme f resisa ce irrespecive f he severiy
f he eed fr a iiics.
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Causes
The widespread use f a iiics h i side a d uside f medici e is playi g
a sig ifica rle i he emerge ce f resisa aceria. A iiics are fe
used i reari g a imals fr fd a d his use am g hers leads he creai
f resisa srai s f aceria. I sme cu ries a iiics are sld ver
he cu er wihu a prescripi which als leads he creai f resisa
srai s. I suppsedly wellregulaed huma medici e he majr prlem f he e
merge ce f resisa aceria is due misuse a d veruse f a iiics y d
crs as well as paie s. Oher pracices c riui g wards resisa ce i clu
de he addii f a iiics he feed f livesck. Husehld use f a ia
cerials i saps a d her prducs, alhugh clearly c riui g resis
a ce, is als discuraged (as ei g effecive a i feci c rl). Als u
su d pracices i he pharmaceuical ma ufacuri g i dusry ca c riue w
ards he likelihd f creai g a iiic resisa srai s. Cerai a iiic
classes are highly assciaed wih cl isai wih superugs cmpared he
r a iiic classes. The risk fr cl isai i creases if here is a lack f
se siiviy (resisa ce) f he superugs he a iiic used a d high issue
pe erai as well as rad specrum aciviy agai s "gd aceria". I he
case f MRSA, i creased raes f MRSA i feci s are see wih glycpepides, ce
phalspri s a d especially qui l es. I he case f cl isai wih C diffi
cile he high risk a iiics i clude cephalspri s a d i paricular qui l
es a d cli damyci .
I medici e
The vlume f a iiic prescried is he majr facr i i creasi g raes f
acerial resisa ce raher ha cmplia ce wih a iiics. A si gle dse f a
iiics leads a greaer risk f resisa rga isms ha a iiic i
he pers fr up a year. I apprpriae prescrii g f a iiics has ee a
riued a umer f causes i cludi g: peple wh i sis a iiics, phys
icia s simply prescrie hem as hey feel hey d have ime explai why
hey are ecessary, physicia s wh d k w whe prescrie a iiics
r else are verly cauius fr medical legal reas s. A hird f peple fr exa
mple elieve ha a iiics are effecive fr he cmm cld a d 22% f pepl
e d fi ish a curse f a iiics primarily due ha fac ha hey fee
l eer (varyi g frm 10% 44% depe di g he cu ry). Cmplia ce wih c
e daily a iiics is eer ha wih wice daily a iiics. Su pimum a
iiic c ce rai s i criically ill peple i crease he freque cy f a ii
ic resisa ce rga isms While aki g a iiics dses less ha hse recmme
ded may i crease raes f resisa ce, shre i g he curse f a iiics may
acually decrease raes f resisa ce.
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Pr ha d hygie e y hspial saff has ee assciaed wih he spread f resis
a rga ismsa d a i crease i ha d washi g cmplia ce resuls i decreased ra
es f hese rga isms.
Rle f her a imals
Drugs are used i a imals ha are used as huma fd, such as cws, pigs, chick
e s, fish, ec., a d hese drugs ca affec he safey f he mea, milk, a d eg
gs prduced frm hse a imals a d ca e he surce f superugs. Fr example,
farm a imals, paricularly pigs, are elieved e ale i fec peple wih M
RSA. The resisa aceria i a imals due a iiic expsure ca e ra smi
ed huma s via hree pahways, hse ei g hrugh he c sumpi f mea,
frm clse r direc c ac wih a imals, r hrugh he e vir me . The Wrld
Healh Orga izai c cluded ha a iiics as grwh prmers i a imal fe
eds shuld e prhiied (i he ase ce f risk assessme s). I 1998, Eurpea
U i healh mi isers ved a fur a iiics widely used prme a i
mal grwh (despie heir scie ific pa els recmme dai s). Regulai a i
g he use f a iiics i Eurpea feed, wih he excepi f w a iiics
i pulry feeds, ecame effecive i 2006. I Sca di avia, here is evide ce
ha he a has led a lwer prevale ce f a imicrial resisa ce i ( -ha
zardus) a imal acerial ppulai s. I he USA federal age cies d cllec
daa a iiic use i a imals u a imal huma spread f drug resisa
rga isms has ee dem sraed i research sudies. A iiics are sill used
i U.S. a imal feedal g wih her i gredie s which have safey c cer s. Grw
i g U.S. c sumer c cer au usi g a iiics i a imal feed has led a i
che marke f "a iiic-free" a imal prducs, u his small marke is u like
ly cha ge e re ched i dusry-wide pracices. I 2001, he U i f C cer ed
Scie iss esimaed ha greaer ha 70% f he a iiics used i he US ar
e give fd a imals (e.g. chicke s, pigs a d cale) i he ase ce f disea
se. I 2000 he US Fd a d Drug Admi israi (FDA) a u ced heir i e i
revke apprval f flurqui l e use i pulry prduci ecause f sus
a ial evide ce li ki g i he emerge ce f flurqui l e resisa campyl
acer i feci s i huma s. The fi al decisi a flurqui l es frm use
i pulry prduci was made u il five years laer ecause f challe ges
frm he fd a imal a d pharmaceuical i dusries. Tday, here are w federa
l ills (S. 549 a d H.R. 962) aimed a phasi g u " -herapeuic" a iiics
i US fd a imal prduci
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Mecha is ms
Schemaic represe ai f hw a iiic r esisa ce evlves via aural selec
i . The p seci represe s a ppul ai f ace ria efre ex psure
a a iiic. The middle se ci shws he ppulai direcly a fer expsure
, he phase i which selec i k place. The las seci shws he disri
u i f resisa ce i a ew ge erai f aceria. The lege d i d icaes he
resisa ce levels f i dividuals.
A iiic resisa c e ca e a resul f h riz al ge e ra sfer, a d als f
u li ked pi m uai s i he pahge
ge me a d a rae f au 1 i
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8 per ch rmsmal replicai . The a iiic aci agai s he pahge ca
e se e as a e vir me al pressure; hse aceria which have a muai a
llw i g hem survive w ill live reprdu ce. They w ill he pas s his
rai heir ffspri g, which will resul i a fully resisa cl y. The f
u r mai mecha isms y which mic rrga ism s exhii resisa ce a imicr i
als are:
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1. Drug i acivai r mdificai : e.g. e zymaic deacivai f Pe icilli

G i sme pe icilli resisa aceria hrugh he prduci f lacamases. 2. Al
erai f arge sie: e.g. alerai f PBPhe i di g arge sie f pe icill
i si MRSA a d her pe icilli resisa aceria. 3. Alerai f mealic pah
way: e.g. sme sulf amide resisa aceria d require paraami e zic acid
(PABA), a impra precursr fr he sy hesis f flic acid a d ucleic acid
s i aceria i hiied y sulf amides. I sead, like mammalia cells, hey ur
uilizi g prefrmed flic acid. 4. Reduced drug accumulai : y decreasi g
drug permeailiy a d/r i creasi g acive efflux (pumpi g u) f he drugs ac
rss he cell surface. There are hree k w mecha isms f flurqui l e resis
a ce. Sme ypes f efflux pumps ca ac decrease i racellular qui l e c
ce rai . I gram- egaive aceria, plasmid-mediaed resisa ce ge es prduc
e prei s ha ca i d DNA gyrase, preci g i frm he aci f qui l
es. Fi ally, muai s a key sies i DNA gyrase r Tpismerase I ca decre
ase heir i di g affi iy qui l es, decreasi g he drugs effecive ess. R
esearch has shw ha he acerial prei LexA may play a key rle i he acq
uisii f acerial muai s givi g resisa ce qui l es a d rifampici .
A iiic resisa ce ca als e i rduced arificially i a micrrga ism
hrugh larary prcls, smeimes used as a selecale marker exami e h
e mecha isms f ge e ra sfer r ide ify i dividuals ha asred a piece
f DNA ha i cluded he resisa ce ge e a d a her ge e f i eres.
Resisa pahge s
1. Saphylcccus aureus
Saphylcccus aureus (cllquially k w as "Saph aureus" r a Saph i feci
) is e f he majr resisa pahge s. Fu d he mucus memra es a d h
e huma ski f aru d a hird f he ppulai , i is exremely adapale a
iiic pressure. I was e f he earlier aceria i which pe icilli resis
a ce was fu di 1947, jus fur years afer he drug sared ei g mass-prduce
d. Mehicilli was he he a iiic f chice, u has si ce ee replaced y
xacilli due sig ifica kid ey xiciy. MRSA (mehicilli -resisa Sap
hylcccus aureus) was firs deeced i Briai i 1961 a d is w "quie cmm
" i hspials. MRSA was resp sile fr 37% f faal cases f sepsis i he UK
i 1999, up frm 4% i 1991. Half f all S. aureus i feci s i
he US are resisa pe icilli , mehicilli , eracycli e a d eryhrmyci .

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This lef va cmyci as he ly effecive age availale a he ime. Hwever,
srai s wih i ermediae (4-8 ug/ml) levels f resisa ce, ermed GISA (glycp
epide i ermediae Saphylcccus aureus) r ISA (va cmyci i ermediae Sap
hylcccus aureus), ega appeari g i he lae 1990s. The firs ide ified case
was i Japa i 1996, a d srai s have si ce ee fu d i hspials i E gla d
, Fra ce a d he US. The firs dcume ed srai wih cmplee (>16 ug/ml) resis
a ce va cmyci , ermed RSA (a cmyci -resisa Saphylcccus aureus) ap
peared i he U ied Saes i 2002. A ew class f a iiics, xazlidi es,
ecame availale i he 1990s, a d he firs cmmercially availale xazlidi
e, li ezlid, is cmparale va cmyci i effecive ess agai s MRSA. Li ez
lid-resisa ce i Saphylcccus aureus was repred i 2003. CA-MRSA (Cmmu iy
-acquired MRSA) has w emerged as a epidemic ha is resp sile fr rapidly p
rgressive, faal diseases i cludi g ecrizi g p eum ia, severe sepsis a d e
crizi g fasciiis. Mehicilli -resisa Saphylcccus aureus (MRSA) is he m
s freque ly ide ified a imicrial drug-resisa pahge i US hspials.
The epidemilgy f i feci s caused y MRSA is rapidly cha gi g. I he pas
10 years, i feci s caused y his rga ism have emerged i he cmmu iy. The
2 MRSA cl es i he U ied Saes ms clsely assciaed wih cmmu iy ure
aks, USA400 (MW2 srai , ST1 li eage) a d USA300, fe c ai Pa -ale i e
leukcidi (PL) ge es a d, mre freque ly, have ee assciaed wih ski a d
sf issue i feci s. Oureaks f cmmu iy-assciaed (CA)-MRSA i feci s
have ee repred i crreci al faciliies, am g ahleic eams, am g mili
ary recruis, i ewr urseries, a d am g me wh have sex wih me . CA-MRSA
i feci s w appear e e demic i ma y ura regi s a d cause ms CA-S.
aureus i feci s.
2. Srepcccus a d E ercccus
Srepcccus pyge es (Grup A Srepcccus: GAS) i feci s ca usually e r
eaed wih ma y differe a iiics. Early reame may reduce he risk f de
ah frm i vasive grup A srepcccal disease. Hwever, eve he es medical
care des preve deah i every case. Fr hse wih very severe ill ess, s
upprive care i a i e sive care u i may e eeded. Fr pers s wih ecri
zi g fasciiis, surgery fe is eeded remve damaged issue. Srai s f S.
pyge es resisa macrlide a iiics have emerged, hwever all srai s re
mai u ifrmly se siive pe icilli . Resisa ce f Srepcccus p eum iae
pe icilli a d her ea-lacams is i creasi g wrldwide. The majr mecha ism
f resisa ce i vlves he i rduci f muai s i ge es e cdi g pe icill
i -i di g prei s. Selecive pressure is hugh play a impra rle, a
d use f ea-lacam a iiics has ee implicaed as a risk facr fr i fec
i a d cl izai . Srepcccus p eum iae is resp sile fr p eum ia, ac
eremia, iis media, me i giis, si usiis, peri iis a d arhriis.
13
Pe icilli -resisa p eum ia caused y Srepcccus p eum iae (cmm ly k w

as p eumcccus), was firs deeced i 1967, as was pe icilli -resisa g
rrhea. Resisa ce pe icilli susiues is als k w as ey d S. aureus. B
y 1993 Escherichia cli was resisa five flurqui l e varia s. Mycac
erium uerculsis is cmm ly resisa is iazid a d rifampi a d smeimes
u iversally resisa he cmm reame s. Oher pahge s shwi g sme re
sisa ce i clude Salm ella, Campylacer, a d Srepccci. E ercccus faeci
um is a her superug fu d i hspials. Pe icilli -Resisa E ercccus was
see i 1983, va cmyci -resisa e ercccus (RE) i 1987, a d Li ezlid-Re
sisa E ercccus (LRE) i he lae 1990s.
3. Pseudm as aerugi sa
Pseudm as aerugi sa is a highly prevale ppru isic pahge . O e f he
ms wrrisme characerisics f P. aerugi sa c siss i is lw a iiic s
uscepiiliy. This lw suscepiiliy is ariuale a c cered aci f
mulidrug efflux pumps wih chrmsmally-e cded a iiic resisa ce ge es (e
.g. mexAB-prM, mexXY ec.) a d he lw permeailiy f he acerial cellular e
velpes. Besides i ri sic resisa ce, P. aerugi sa easily develp acquired re
sisa ce eiher y muai i chrmsmallye cded ge es, r y he hriz al
ge e ra sfer f a iiic resisa ce deermi a s. Develpme f mulidrug re
sisa ce y P. aerugi sa islaes requires several differe ge eic eve s ha
i clude acquisii f differe muai s a d/r hriz al ra sfer f a i
iic resisa ce ge es. Hypermuai favurs he seleci f muai -drive a
iiic resisa ce i P. aerugi sa srai s prduci g chr ic i feci s, wher
eas he cluseri g f several differe a iiic resisa ce ge es i i egr s
favurs he c cered acquisii f a iiic resisa ce deermi a s. Sme r
ece sudies have shw ha phe ypic resisa ce assciaed ifilm frma
i r he emerge ce f small-cl y-varia s may e impra i he resp s
e f P. aerugi sa ppulai s a iiics reame .
4. Clsridium difficile
Clsridium difficile is a scmial pahge ha causes diarrheal disease i
hspials wrld wide. Cli damyci -resisa C. difficile was repred as he cau
saive age f large ureaks f diarrheal disease i hspials i New Yrk, A
riz a, Flrida a d Massachuses ewee 1989 a d 1992. Gegraphically disperse
d ureaks f C. difficile srai s resisa flurqui l e a iiics, su
ch as Cipr (ciprflxaci ) a d Levaqui (levflxaci ), were als repred i N
rh America i 2005.
14
5. Salm ella a d E. cli

Escherichia cli a d Salm ella cme direcly frm c ami aed fd. Of he mea
ha is c ami aed wih E. cli, eighy perce f he aceria are resisa
e r mre drugs made; i causes ladder i feci s ha are resisa
a iiics (HSUS Fac Shee). Salm ella was firs fu d i huma s i he 1970s a
d i sme cases is resisa as ma y as i e differe a iiics (HSUS Fac
Shee). Whe h acerium are spread, serius healh c dii s arise. Ma y pe
ple are hspialized each year afer ecmi g i feced, a d sme die as a resul
.
6. Aci eacer auma ii
O Nvemer 5, 2004, he Ce ers fr Disease C rl a d Preve i (CDC) repr
ed a i creasi g umer f Aci eacer auma ii ldsream i feci s i pa
ie s a miliary medical faciliies i which service memers i jured i he Ira
q/Kuwai regi duri g Operai Iraqi Freedm a d i Afgha isa duri g Operai
E duri g Freedm were reaed. Ms f hese shwed mulidrug resisa ce (MRA
B), wih a few islaes resisa all drugs esed.
Aler aives
Preve i
Rai al use f a iiics may reduce he cha ces f develpme f ppru is
ic i feci y a iiic-resisa aceria due dysacerisis. I e sud
y he use f flurqui l es are clearly assciaed wih Clsridium difficile
i feci , which is a leadi g cause f scmial diarrhea i he U ied Saes,
a d a majr cause f deah, wrldwide. There is cli ical evide ce ha pical
dermalgical preparai s c ai i g ea ree il a d hyme il may e effeci
ve i preve i g ra smial f CA-MRSA. acci es d suffer he prlem f r
esisa ce ecause a vacci e e ha ces he dys aural defe ses, while a a i
iic peraes separaely frm he dys rmal defe ses. Neverheless, ew sr
ai s may evlve ha escape immu iy i duced y vacci es; fr example a updae
I flue za vacci e is eeded each year. While hereically prmisi g, a i-saph
ylcccal vacci es have shw limied efficacy, ecause f immu lgical variai
ewee Saphylcccus species, a d he limied
15
durai f effecive ess f he a idies prduced. Develpme a d esi g f

mre effecive vacci es is u der way. The Ausralia Cmm wealh Scie ific a
d I dusrial Research Orga izai ( CSIRO), realizi g he eed fr he reduci
f a iiic use, has ee wrki g w aler aives. O e aler aive is
preve diseases y addi g cyki es i sead f a iiics a imal feed. The
se prei s are made i he a imal dy " aurally" afer a disease a d are
a iiics s hey d c riue he a iiic resisa ce prlem. Fur
hermre, sudies usi g cyki es have shw ha hey als e ha ce he grwh
f a imals like he a iiics w used, u wihu he drawacks f hera
peuic a iiic use. Cyki es have he pe ial achieve he a imal grwh
raes radii ally sugh y he use f a iiics wihu he c riui
f a iiic resisa ce assciaed wih he widespread -herapeuic uses f a
iiics curre ly uilized i he fd a imal prduci i dusries. Addii
ally, CSIRO is wrki g vacci es fr diseases.
Phage herapy
Phage herapy, a apprach ha has ee exe sively researched a d uilized as
a herapeuic age fr ver 60 years, especially i he Svie U i , is a al
er aive ha migh help wih he prlem f resisa ce. Phage herapy was widel
y used i he U ied Saes u il he discvery f a iiics, i he early 194
0s. Baceriphages r "phages" are viruses ha i vade acerial cells a d, i
he case f lyic phages, disrup acerial mealism a d cause he acerium
lyse. Phage herapy is he herapeuic use f lyic aceriphages rea pa
hge ic acerial i feci s. Baceriphage herapy is a impra aler aive
a iiics i he curre era f mulidrug resisa pahge s. A review f
sudies ha deal wih he herapeuic use f phages frm 19661996 a d few laes
gi g phage herapy prjecs via i er e shwed: phages were used pically
, rally r sysemically i Plish a d Svie sudies. The success rae fu d i
hese sudies was 8095% wih few gasri esi al r allergic side effecs. Bri
ish sudies als dem sraed sig ifica efficacy f phages agai s Escherichia
cli, Aci eacer spp., Pseudm as spp a d Saphylcccus aureus. US sudies
deal wih imprvi g he iavailailiy f phage. Phage herapy may prve as a
impra aler aive a iiics fr reai g mulidrug resisa pahge
s.
16
Research
New medicai s
U il rece ly, research a d develpme (R&D) effrs have prvided ew drugs i
ime rea aceria ha ecame resisa lder a iiics. Tha is
l ger he case.[ciai eeded] The pe ial crisis a ha d is he resul f
a marked decrease i i dusry R&D, a d he i creasi g prevale ce f resisa a
ceria. I fecius disease physicia s are alarmed y he prspec ha effecive
a iiics may e availale rea seriusly ill paie s i he ear fu
ure. The pipeli e f ew a iiics is dryi g up. Majr pharmaceuical cmpa i
es are lsi g i eres i he a iiics marke ecause hese drugs may e
as prfiale as drugs ha rea chr ic (l g-erm) c dii s a d lifesyle i
ssues. The resisa ce prlem dema ds ha a re ewed effr e made seek a i
acerial age s effecive agai s pahge ic aceria resisa curre a i
iics. O e f he pssile sraegies wards his jecive is he rai al l
calizai f iacive phychemicals. Pla s have a alms limiless ailiy
sy hesize armaic susa ces, ms f which are phe ls r heir xyge -su
siued derivaives such as a i s. Ms are sec dary mealies, f which
a leas 12,000 have ee islaed, a umer esimaed e less ha 10% f h
e al .I ma y cases, hese susa ces serve as pla defe se mecha isms agai
s predai y micrrga isms, i secs, a d herivres. Ma y f he hers a d s
pices used y huma s seas fd yield useful medici al cmpu ds i cludi g
hse havi g a iacerial aciviy. Tradii al healers have l g used pla s
preve r cure i fecius c dii s. Ma y f hese pla s have ee i vesiga
ed scie ifically fr a imicrial aciviy a d a large umer f pla prduc
s have ee shw i hii grwh f pahge ic aceria.A umer f hese ag
e s appear have srucures a d mdes f aci ha are disi c frm hse
f he a iiics i curre use, suggesi g ha crss-resisa ce wih age s
already i use may e mi imal. Fr example he cmi ai f 5-mehxyhyd car
pi e a d ereri e i hers like Hydrasis ca ade sis a d Bereris vulgaris ca
lck he MDR-pumps ha cause mulidrug resisa ce. This has ee shw fr Sa
phylcccus aureus. Archaeci s is he ame give a ew class f pe ially
useful a iiics ha are derived frm he Archaea grup f rga isms. Eigh a
rchaeci s have ee parially r fully characerized, u hu dreds f archaeci
s are elieved exis, especially wihi he halarchaea. The prevale ce f a
rchaeci s is u k w simply ecause e has lked fr hem. The discvery
f ew archaeci s hi ges recvery a d culivai f archaeal rga isms frm
he e vir me . Fr example, samples frm a vel hypersali e field sie, Wils
H Spri gs, recvered 350 halphilic rga isms; prelimi ary a alysis f 75 is
laes shwed ha 48 were archaeal a d 27 were acerial. I research pulished
Ocer 17, 2008 i Cell, a eam f scie iss pi pi ed he place ace
ria where he a iiic myxpyr i lau ches is aack, a d why ha aack is
successful. The myxpyr i i ds a d i hiis he crucial acerial e zyme,
RNA plymerase. The
17
myxpyr i cha ges he srucure f he swich-2 segme f he e zyme, i hii
i g is fu ci f readi g a d ra smii g DNA cde. This preve s RNA plymer
ase frm deliveri g ge eic i frmai he rismes, causi g he aceria
die. O e f he majr causes f a iiic resisa ce is he decrease f effec
ive drug c ce rai s a heir arge place, due he i creased aci f A
BC ra sprers. Si ce ABC ra sprer lckers ca e used i cmi ai wih
curre drugs i crease heir effecive i racellular c ce rai , he pssi
le impac f ABC ra sprer i hiirs is f grea cli ical i eres. ABC ra
sprer lckers ha may e useful i crease he efficacy f curre drugs ha
ve e ered cli ical rials a d are availale e used i herapeuic regimes.
Applicai s
A iiic resisa ce is a impra l fr ge eic e gi eeri g. By c sruc
i g a plasmid which c ai s a a iiic resisa ce ge e as well as he ge e
ei g e gi eered r expressed, a researcher ca e sure ha whe aceria replica
e, ly he cpies which carry al g he plasmid survive. This e sures ha he
ge e ei g ma ipulaed passes al g whe he aceria replicaes. The ms cmm
ly used a iiics i ge eic e gi eeri g are ge erally "lder" a iiics w
hich have largely falle u f use i cli ical pracice. These i clude:

ampicillin kanamycin tetracycline chloramphenicol
Industrially the use of antibiotic resistance is disfavored since maintaining ba
cterial cultures would require feeding them large quantities of antibiotics. Ins
tead, the use of auxotrophic bacterial strains (and function-replacement plasmid
s) is preferred.
What are superbugs?

These are normal bacteria which have crossed the limits of treatment by antibiot
ics. These cause pneumonia, Urinary infections and infections in other parts of
the body.
18
Superbug NDM1 Bacteria | Symptoms, Effects, Experiments, Prevention and Experts

Suggestions
The Superbug NDM1which stands for New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase is started to
spread in the world. The researchers found a new Bacteria called New Delhi meta
llobeta-lactamase (NDM-1) Bacteria, in patients of Asia and Britain. According t
o an international team of scientists People who traveled to India and Pakistan
to get medical treatment risk picking up and spreading a new Superbug Bacteria.
How NDM-1 effects Human Body
0 Multi drugresisa aceria are already a grwi g prlem i hspials acrss
he wrld, marked y he rise f superug i feci s like mehicilli resisa Saph
ylccus aureus (MRSA). 0 NDM1 makes aceria highly resisa alms all a ii
ics, i cludi g he ms pwerful class called carape ems. 0 Ms wrryi gly, N
DM1prduci g aceria are resisa ma y a iiics i cludi g carape ems. 0 Th
e scie iss said, a class f he drugs ge erally reserved fr emerge cy use a d
rea caused y her muliresisa aceria such as MRSA a d CDifficile.
Jha Piu frm he U iversiy f Calgary i Ca ada expressed: If his emergi
g pulic healh hrea is ig red, s er r laer he medical cmmu iy culd
e c fr ed wih carape em-resisa (aceria) ha cause cmm i feci s,
resuli g i reame failures wih susa ial i creases i healh-care css
Sympms f Super ug NDM-1 Baceria, Klesiella P eum iae a d E. Cli Sympms
0 Klesiella aceria c ai s he superug NDM1. 0 Klesiella p eum iae sympms
i clude sudde O se, f High Fever a d Hempysis . 0 Klesiella p eum iae is a
cmm gram egaive aceria see wrldwide. 0 I is als causi g Uri ary Trac I
feci s, Nscmial P eum ia, a d I ra admi al i feci s.
19
0 NDM1 which is fu d

feci s. 0 E. Cli is
spials. 0 E. Cli is
f Faal P eum ia a d
i he E. Cli aceria may e he cause f Uri ary Trac I

he leadi g cause f uri ary rac i feci s uside f h
A iiicresisa . 0 E. Cli is als resp sile fr cases
her i feci s.
Cu ries where Superug NDM1 Baceria is spreadi g

I a sudy pulished i The La ce I fecius Diseases jur al, he researchers
fu d ha NDM1 is ecmi g mre cmm i Ba gladesh, I dia, a d Pakisa a d is
sari g e impred ack Briai i paie s reur i g frm hese cu r
ies.
Experime s wih Superug NDM-1 Baceria
Walsh a d his i er ai al eam clleced aceria samples frm hspial paie
s i w places i I dia, Che ai a d Harya a, a d frm paie s referred Br
iai s ai al refere ce larary ewee 2007 a d 2009.They fu d 44 NDM1 psi
ive aceria i Che ai, 26 i Harya a, 37 i Briai , a d 73 i her sies i
Ba gladesh, I dia, a d Pakisa .
Preve i g he Spread f Superug NDM-1 Baceria
T preve spread f Superug NDM1 Baceria, Dcrs advise prvide adequae c
lea i g a d sa iizi g f all areas is he es mea s f preve i g furher spre
ad f he superug aceria. Hspials a d dcrs are u der advise say
p f he clea li ess issue.
Expers cmme i g Walshs fi di gs said i was impra e aler he e
w ug a d sar scree i g fr i early. I seems e mre da gerus ha Swi e
flu, si ce i is wrki g Resisa ce f Huma dy.
20
Aricles superug i ews papers Delhi superug hreae i g wrld, claim UK s

cie iss
Sa chia Sharma, Hi dusa Times New Delhi, Augus 12, 2010 Firs Pulished: 00:
54 IST(12/8/2010) Las Updaed: 01:38 IST(12/8/2010)
A ew hspial-acquired superug ha ca e reaed usi g exisi g drugs is
spreadi g frm I dia he res f he wrld, claim Briish scie iss. I dia
surge s ruish he claim sayi g is jus a her aemp sp husa ds f p
u ds frm leavi g he flu deri g Briish ec my
relaed sries
0 Li ki g I dia superug u fair a d wr g, says I dia 0 Gv c dem s ami g f
superug, refues is li kage 0 Sme i erpreai s made wihu my k wledge:
Superug auhr Accrdi g CII esimaes, 1.1 milli freig ers ravel I d
ia each year fr cheaper reame s a d surgeries. A hear ypass surgery css
$6,500 (R 3,03,550) i a crprae hspial i I dia, as cmpared $30,000 (R
14,01,000) $50,000 (R 23,35,000) i he US. S c vi ced are Briish scie is
s au he superug i feci ei g fuelled y I dias Rs 1,200-crre medical u
rism i dusry ha hey have chse prvcaively ame he ewly-ide ified g
e e ha causes he drug resisa ce as he New Delhi meall-ealacamase (NDM1). A sudy pulished i The La ce I fecius Diseases, Briish scie iss rep
r NDM-1 is ecmi g mre cmm i Ba gladesh, I dia, a d Pakisa a d is ei g
impred ack Briai hrugh paie s reur i g afer reame .
Healhcare expers i I dia say he Briish are jus wrried ecause hey are l
si g paie s hspials here. Is a false alarm, I rack i feci a d have
see a si gle case i my hspial. Hspial-acquired i feci s are far mre c
mm i Briai a d he Wes ha
21
i I dia, said Dr Yai Meha, chairma , i siue f criical care a d a aeshes

ia, Meda a The Mediciy. We ffer eer surgical ucmes a e-fifh he cs
, he added. Dr Ashk Seh, chairma a d chief i erve i is, Escrs Hear I s
iue a d Research Ce re said, Ms hspials i I dia, i cludi g Escrs, have
ai al a d i er ai al accrediai s... wh se d audirs rack qualiy
i cludi g i feci s fur imes a year. The audis shw ha crprae hspials
here are safer ha he Wes. Theyre defi iely safer ha Briai s Nai al Heal
h Service. Fr he sudy, auhr Timhy Walsh frm Cardiff U iversiy a d his
eam clleced aceria samples frm paie s admied i hspials i Tamil Nadu
a d Harya a, a d frm paie s referred Briai s ai al refere ce larar
y ewee 2007 a d 2009. They fu d 44 NDM-1-psiive aceria i Che ai, 26 i
Harya a, 37 i Briai , a d 73 i her sies i Ba gladesh, I dia, a d Pakisa
. Several all Briish NDM-1 psiive paie s had rece ly raveled I di
a r Pakisa fr hspial reame , i cludi g csmeic surgery. Whas paricula
rly wrryi g, wries Walsh, is ha he aceria is resisa all a iiics
, i cludi g carape em, a class f he drugs reserved rea i feci s caused
y her muli-resisa ugs like MRSA a d C-Difficile.
Drugresisa superug raced I dia
The Times f I dia
CHENNAI: Scie iss have racked dw a drugresisa superug ha i fecs paie
s a d causes muliple rga failure I dia hspials u dcrs here see i
i he germ f a mve damage he cu rys mi g medical urism i dusry
. The superug resisa alms all k w a iiics has ee fu d i UK
paie s reaed i I dia hspials. Named afer he I dia capial, i is a ge
e carried y aceria ha causes gasric prlems, e ers he ld sream a d
may cause muliple rga failure leadi g deah. " I dia als prvides csme
ic surgery fr Eurpea s a d America s, a d i is likely he aceria will sprea
d wrldwide," scie iss repred i The La ce I fecius Diseases Jur al W
ed esday. While he sudy has he medical wrld ur i g is fcus i feci c
rl plicies i I dia hspials, he I dia Cu cil f Medical Research has
alleged a ias i he
22
repr a d said i is a aemp hur medical urism i he cu ry ha is
aki g away huge cusm frm hspials i he Wes. "Such i feci s ca flw i
frm a y par f he wrld. Is u fair say i rigi aed frm I dia," said
ICMR direcr Dr M Kach. Kach has reas s fume, as he superug NDM1 ( Ne
w Delhi meall ealacamase) is amed afer he ai al capial, where a Swedis
h paie was repredly i feced afer u dergi g a surgery i 2008. Si ce he
here have ee several cases repred i he UK a d i 2009, he healh prec
i age cy i he UK issued a aler he gram egaive acerial i feci
ha is resisa eve he ms pwerful a d reserved class a iiics call
ed carape ems. I a ji sudy led y Che aiased Karhikeya Kumarasamy, purs
ui g his PhD a U iversiy f Madras a d UKased Timhy Walsh frm deparme f
immu iy, i feci a d ichemisry, deparme f medici e, Cardiff U iversi
y researchers sugh exami e wheher NDM 1 prduci g aceria was prevale i
Suh Asia a d Briai . "We saw hem i ms f he hspials i Che ai a d Ha
rya a. We esimae ha he prevale ce f his i feci wuld e as high as 1.5
%," Kumarasamy ld TOI. "We fu d he superug i 44 paie s i Che ai, a d 2
6 i Harya a, esides 37 i he UK a d 73 i her places acrss I dia, Pakisa
a d Ba galadesh," he said. Wha makes he superug mre da gerus is is aili
y jump acrss differe acerial species. S far, i has ee fu d i w c
mm ly see aceria, E cli a d K p eum iae. "We have fu d ha he superug
has he pe ial ge cpied a d ra sferred ewee aceria, allwi g i
spread rapidly. If i spreads a already hard rea acerial i feci , i
ca e ur mre da gerus," Kumarasamy said. Se ir dcrs wrki g i i feci
c rl said I dia lacks plicies a iiics, i feci c rl a d regis
ries fr hspialacquired i feci s. By he ICMR direcrs w admissi , I di
a ca scie ifically figh ack allegai s f ei g he surce f such super
ugs, as he cu ry des have a regisry f such hspialacquired i feci s
. "Tw i every five paie s admied hspials acquire i feci s. This ex
e ds he paie s say i he hspial, i creases he expe ses a d causes sideef
fecs," said Dr Dilip Mahai, head f he deparme f i er al medici e, Chris
ia Medical Cllege, ellre. Fr a l g ime, I dia has ee seei g Exe ded S
pecrum Bea Lacamase (ESBL), which are e zymes ha have develped a resisa ce
a iiics like pe icilli . ESBL e zymes are ms cmm ly prduced y w
aceria E cli a d K p eum iae, he w aceria i which he ew
superug has ee fu d. "These were reaed y a reserved class f a iiics
called carape ems. We have see a leas 3% f peple i feced wih his d
reac hese reserved drugs," he said. Pulic healh expers say glalisai
has allwed aceria spread rapidly acrss he wrld
23
a d I dia, as a medical hu, shuld e geared fr he challe ge. Kach, wh is
als he secreary, deparme f medical research, agrees. "A prese , we d
have a y sysem i place. There are eiher rules fr hspials r a regisry
recrd hspialacquired i feci s. We are w i he prcess f frmi g a ce
ll ha will acivae a regisry a d issue guideli es fr a i egraed surveill
a ce sysem," he said. A differe hi g is als serve ha Ge e resp sile
fr drugresisa
superug fu d
24
C clusi O he asis f ave i frmai we ca say ha a iiics has

e ake i lw amu herwise i effec is wrs ha is adva age. Therefre
a iiics are gd u wihi limied value.
Resul09A iiics are gd u wihi limied value. 09Is disadva age dmi a
es is adva age. 09Deahs f peple i creases wih ime due
a iiic resia ce.
25
Biligraphy www.wikipedia.cm www.ggle.cm www. ews e.cm www.ech pedia.c

m ewpapers-The Times f I dia -Hi dusa imes - avhara imes
26
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Biology Class Xii Cbse Investigatory Project On Antibiotics

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AIMAntibiotics-good or bad for us?

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