Techniques in The Treatment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soil and Water: A Critical Review

CHEMISTRY AND RELATED LAWS
Chemistry Department
Central Mindanao University
Techniques in the Treatment of Heavy Metal Pollution in Soil and Water:

A critical review
Marybeth Hope T. Banda, Kristelmae C. Cabayao, and Rhiezel R. Malificiado
Chemistry Department, College of Arts and Sciences, Central Mindanao University
Maramag, Bukidnon, 8710, Philippines
Date Submitted: August 12, 2015
Date Published: August 12, 2015
ABSTRACT:
Soil and water polluted with heavy metals have become
common problem across the globe due to increase in
geologic and anthropogenic activities. The most important
heavy metal with regard to potential hazards and occurrence
in contaminated soil and water are arsenic, cadmium,
chromium, mercury, lead and zinc. These metasl will
accumulate and can affect the plants and animals. It will
subdue in water and will accumulate in marine life living in that area. Then human consumed food with high
level of heavy metals will cause various diseases and even death. They are so toxic that they bioconcentrate,
bioaccumulate or biomagnify in the body. There are various techniques used to treat the polluted soil such as:
Phytoremediation, bioremediation, phytotechnologies, vitrification and conductive heating technology and
chemical treatment technologies. In water bodies contaminated with heavy metals are treated by rhizofiltration,
adsorption, biosorption, and chemical precipitation and membrane filtration. The instruments that commonly
used for heavy metal detection were the atomic absorption spectroscopy (ASS), flame absorption spectroscopy
and the coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), atomic emission spectrometry (AES) , X-ray fluorescence
analysis, voltammetric analysis, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES).Using this
techniques and instruments can help in reducing the associated risk brought by heavy metal pollution in human,
plants, animals and the environment..
KEYWORDS: heavy metal , rhizofiltration, adsorption, membrane filtration, chemical precipitation, in situ
chemical reduction, in situe chemical oxidation, electrokinetics, bioremediation, phytotechnology, vitrification,
calcium polysulfide, permanganate, hydrogen peroxide, atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic emission
spectrometry, flame absorption spectroscopy, coupled plasma mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma
optical emission spectroscopy, voltammetric analysis, X-ray fluorescence analysis
1. Introduction
2.
3. Heavy metals are globally-distributed
pollutant in the environment. Extracted from
earth crust and harnessed for human industry
for a thousand years. Common sources are
mining, soil erosion, industrial discharge,
urban run-off, sewage effluents, pest or disease
control agents applied to plants, air pollution
fallout (Morais et al., 2012).Including disposal

of high metal wastes, leaded gasoline and
paints, land application of fertilizers, animal
manures,
sewage
sludge,
pesticides,
wastewater irrigation, coal combustion
residues, spillage of petrochemicals, and
atmospheric deposition (Wuana et al., 2011).
In some cases, after mining activities have
1 | B and a,Cab ayao,Mal if i ci ad o (2015)

Thi s art i cl e i s for t he C hem i st r y and R el at ed La ws

ceased, the emitted metals continue to persist

in the environment (Duruibe et al., 2007).
4.
5. Metals are notable for their wide
environmental dispersion; their tendency to
accumulate in select tissues of the human
body; and their overall potential to be toxic
even at relatively minor levels of exposure
(Hu, 2002). Heavy metals have a density of
6.0 g/cm3 or more (much higher than the
average particle density of soils which is 2.65
g/cm3) and occur naturally in rocks but
concentrations are frequently elevated as a
result of contamination. It has a relatively high
density and is toxic or poisonous even at low
concentration (Duruibe et al., 2007).
6.
7. The most important heavy metals
with regard to potential hazards and
occurrence in contaminated soils are: arsenic
(As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury
(Hg), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn). They are
generally considered the most toxic to humans
and animals; the adverse human health effects
associated with exposure to them, even at low
concentrations, are diverse and include, but are
not limited to, neurotoxic and carcinogenic
actions (Morais et al., 2012). Soils are the
major sink for heavy metals released into the
environment and unlike organic contaminants
which are oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide by
microbial action, most metals do not undergo
microbial or chemical degradation and their
total concentration in soils persists for a long
time after their introduction (Chibuike et al.,
2014).
8.
9. Heavy metal contamination of soil
may pose risks and hazards to humans and the
ecosystem through: direct ingestion or contact
with contaminated soil, the food chain (soilplant-human or soil-plant-animal-human),
drinking of contaminated ground water,
reduction in food quality (safety and
marketability) via phytotoxicity, reduction in
land usability for agricultural production
causing food insecurity, and land tenure
problems (Chibuike et al., 2014).
10.
11. The
adequate
protection
and
restoration of soil ecosystems contaminated by
heavy metals require their characterization and
remediation. Soil remediation techniques are:
air
sparging,
bioreactor
landfills,
bioremediation, electrokinetics, in situ
chemical reduction, in situ oxidation,
nanoremediation, and phytotechnologies, (US
EPA, 2013). Some of the techniques to
remediate heavy metals in environment are
Rhizofiltration,
Adsorption,
Membrane
Filtration, Chemical precipitation.
12.
13. Various approaches are described in
the literature for detailed analysis of heavy
metals in environmental, biological and food
samples. Analytical methods frequently
require sample preconcentration and/or
pretreatment for the destruction of the organic
matrix such as wet digestion, dry ashing, and
microwave oven dissolution or extraction.
Continuing improvements in speciation and
microscopic trace element analysis are most of
the information of the chemistry of heavy
metals. Atomic absorption spectrometry
(AAS) and atomic emission spectrometry
(AES) are the most widely used techniques for
heavy metals quantitative analysis in
environmental samples. Inductively coupled
plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), a more
recent technology, can also be used for rapid
ultratrace multielement analysis. Atomic
fluorescence spectrometry is a single-element
technique that measures the light that is
reemitted after absorption. It is a
complementary technique to AAS that allows
the determination of mercury, arsenic and
selenium (after mineralization of the samples)
using a specific atomic fluorescence
spectrometer
equipped
with
hydride
generation). The limits of detection are about
0.5 g/L. X-ray fluorescence analysis, one of
the oldest nuclear techniques, is based on
subjecting the sample to electromagnetic
radiation of sufficient energy to remove
electrons from the inner orbitals. The
fluorescence X-radiation is characteristic for
each element and thus enables determination
of elements with high selectivity. Stripping
voltammetric
analysis
(especially
the
differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry


and adsorptive stripping voltammetry) is the

most common and interesting option for the
quantitation of heavy metals (Morais et al.,
2012).
14.
incidence in the Nigerian records that claimed

the lives of over 500 children within seven
months in 2010. Between January and July,
illegal miners from seven villages of
Bukkuyum and Gummi local governments in
Zamfara state brought rocks containing gold
ore into the villages from small-scale mining
operations; however, the villagers did not
know that the ore also contained extremely
high levels of lead. The ore was crushed inside
village compounds, spreading lead dust
throughout the community (Galadima et al.,
2012).
15.
16. Background of the article

17.
18. Heavy metals have the ability to enter
the human body through inhalation, ingestion
and dermal contact absorption (Boadu, 2014)
they also accumulate in soils, plants and in
aquatic biota. Heavy metals can persist for a
long time within different organic and
inorganic colloids before becoming available
to living organisms. They are non degradable
and therefore do not decay with time. Heavy
metals can be biomagnified if an organism
excretes it slower than it takes in. They can
therefore become dangerous to human beings
and wildlife.
19.
20. The presence of heavy metals in
water degrades their quality, which eventually
affects human health (Boadu, 2014). Heavy
metals can bind to vital cellular components,
such as structural proteins, enzymes, and
nucleic acids, and interfere with their
functioning. Broadly, long-term exposure to
heavy metals can have carcinogenic, central
and peripheral nervous system and circulatory
effects. In agriculture aspect heavy metal
contamination threatens the food sources for
human population as well as poor vegetation
growth and lower plant resistance against
forests pests. Thereby having a great impact on
the
quality
of
food,
groundwater,
microorganisms and plant growth. Their effect
on microorganisms can give rise to decrease in
litter decomposition and nitrogen fixation, less
efficient nutrient cycling and impair enzyme
(Boadu, 2014). Heavy metals persist for a long
time in the environment being non degradable
and are translocated to different components
affecting the biota.
21. These are some cases of heavy metal
pollution affects the humans, animals, plants,
and the environment. Zamfara lead poisoning
is the worst and most recent heavy metals
22.
23. In Bobak village (near Manchar Lake,
Sindh) 3040% suffer from rough skin with
black dots and arsenical skin lesions,
especially on face, arms, and feet, possibly due
to overexposure of high arsenic contents;
however, the other factors cannot be
ignored. Moreover, the exposed people had
clinical features like respiratory problems,
anemia, gastrointestinal problems, muscles
cramps, and weakness (Waseem et al., 2014 ).
24.
25. Since August 2009, a series of lead
poisoning cases occurred in Shaanxi, Hunan
and Yunnan provinces. Thousands of children
have been diagnosed with excessive lead in
their blood. Investigations later showed those
who were poisoned by lead lived near battery
factories or smelters. A study from the
Research Center for Eco-Environmental
Sciences at the Chinese Academy of Sciences
shows about 20 percent of the country's
farmland was polluted by heavy metals,
causing the crop output to decrease by more
than 10 million tons. Once heavy metals are
released into water or land, they are difficult to
extract and will have a negative impact on the
environment (Qian, 2015).
26.
27. Techniques involved solving the problem

28.
28.1Heavy metal pollution in water
29.
30. The heavy metal pollution is one of
the major environmental problems that we face
nowadays and it leads to serious problems


with the living organisms. There are many

techniques and instrumentation that are
applications of chemistry concepts and these
were used as treatment of water systems from
heavy metal pollution. The wastewaters from
industries were considered as one of the major
contributors of heavy metal pollution so there
is a great need for the treatment of these before
the heavy metals will contaminate the different
bodies of water. The instruments that
commonly used for heavy metal detection
were the atomic absorption spectroscopy
(ASS), flame absorption spectroscopy and the
coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS),
inductively coupled plasma optical emission
spectroscopy (ICP-OES).
137
Cs, and 90Sr (Chuken, 2010); Indian mustard

(Brassica juncea) that said to be effective for
the removal of Zn, Ni, Cd, Pb, Cu and Cr
(Chuken, 2010); tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
can remove Zn, Pb, Hg, Ni, Cu, Cr, As and Cd
according to Candelario-Torres et al. (2009).
These terrestrial plants can be used for treating
the wastewater that was analyzed for heavy
metal contamination.
36.
31.
32. 3.1.1 Rhizofiltration
33.
The plant-based technology is a

technique designed, highly develop, and used
due to its cost effectiveness and environmental
friendliness (Thayaparan et al., 2013). One
type of this plant-based technology is the
rhizofiltration that can be used for the removal
of heavy metals in water systems.
34.
Phytofiltration or commonly
called as rhizofiltration is a technique that
designed for the removal of the heavy metals
on aquatic environment through the use of
plants (Mohammad et al., 2014). This
technique
uses
the
hydroponic-based
environmental biotechnology in which the
plant are grown on contaminated area through
in-situ or ex-situ treatment for heavy metal
pollution wherein the roots can up take the
water and the metal contaminants (Chuken,
2010).
35.
In this technique, one of
major factor that to be considered was the
suitability of the plant. The aquatic and
terrestrial plants have a capacity in
rhizofiltration however; aquatic plants have
less potential with rhizofiltration due to their
slow-growing root system. The terrestrial
plants that used for rhizofiltration. Sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) can remove, uranium,
37. Figure
1. Utilization of plants in
rhizofiltration
38.
39.
Figure 1 shows the ex-situ treatment
of polluted water using the plants. The
potential species of plants were identified
through rhizofiltrators (Rawat et al., 2012).
40.
41.
The examples of instruments that can
be used for the detection of heavy metal in
water sample after rhizofiltration are
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS), inductively coupled plasma optical
emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) and atomic
absorption spectroscopy (AAS).
42.
43. 3.1.2 Adsorption
44.
One of the recent alternative
techniques in wastewater treatment on the
heavy metal contamination is adsorption.
Typically, the adsorption involves a foreign


material in gaseous or liquid for (adsorptive)

became attached to the solid or liquid surface
(adsorbent) and forms the adsorbate
(Christmann, 2011). The used of low-cost
adsorption like agricultural waste, industrial by
product and natural material has been
developed in application for the removal of
heavy metal (Barakat, 2010).
agricultural and biological wastes that can be

used are orange peel that can used for the
removal of Ni (II); coconut shell charcoal that
have been modified with the oxidizing agents
or chitosan that can used to remove Cr (IV)
(Babel, 2004); the maize cope and husk can be
used for the removal of Pb (II), Cd (II) and Zn
(II); Pecan shells activated carbon (Bansode,
2003) and potato peel charcoal (Aman et al.,
2008) can be used for the removal of the Cu
(II) and Zn (II) and the rice husk activated
carbon can be used for the removal of Cr (IV).
These agricultural wastes have also a specific
pH values upon the removal of heavy metal.
The other biosorbents such as the dried green
alga, spirogya (green alga), Ecklonia maxima,
Ulva lactuca, Oedogonium species, Nostoc
species and Bacillus can remove heavy metals
like Pb (II), Cr (IV), Cu (II), Cd (II) and Zn
(II) with their pH range of 2-6 for effective
metal removal (Chuken, 2010).
45.
For natural material, the
natural zeolites have gained a great significant
as adsorbent due to their ion exchange
capability. The clinophtilolite is a type of
zeolite that has a high selectivity for metal ions
such as Zn (II), Pb (II), Cu (II) and Cd (II).
46.
For industrial by-products,
the waste iron, fly ash, iron slags, hydrous
titanium oxide was chemically modified in
enhancing the performance in removing heavy
metals according to Barakat, 2010. Examples
of industrial by-products which has the
capacity to remove heavy metals are the green
sands, a by-product from the iron foundry
industry, was for Zn (II) removal; iron slag
was used for the Cu (II) and Pb (II) removal
(Feng, 2004); the bagasse fly ash from sugar
industry was used to remove Cd (II) and Ni
(II) (Gupta, 2003); the fly ash from coalburning was used for the removal of Cu (II)
and Pb (II) (Alinnor, 2007); the saw dust that
treated with 1,5-disodium hydrogen phosphate
was used as adsorption for Cr (IV) and
hydrous titanium oxide was used to remove
the Cu (II) and Cr (IV) (Ghosh et al., 2003).
These industrial by-products have their
specific pH values for the removal of the
heavy metals.
47.
Bio-sorption was defined as the use

of
agricultural
by-products
for
the
bioremediation of the heavy metal ions
(Chuken, 2010). It utilizes the inactive
microbial biomass to bind and concentrate the
heavy metals on waste streams through purely
physico-chemical pathways (Igwe, 2005). The
48.
The listsed adsorbents in natural

material,
industrial
by-products
and
agricultural by-products that have been listed
with the heavy metals that they are capable to
remove are recommended to use in application
of adsorption for treatment wastewater and to
other bodies of water.
49.
There are factors that affect the

adsorption of heavy metals by the adsorbents
these are pH, temperature, contact time and
initial concentration as the efficiency of the
adsorbent is strongly influenced through this
physico-chemical characteristics.
50. 3.1.3 Membrane Filtration

51.
The used of membrane filtration have

different membrane types that used for the
removal of heavy metal. It works with high
efficiency, easy operation, and space saving.
The membrane processes that suits for the
removal of heavy metal was the ultrafiltration,
reverse
osmosis,
nanofiltration
and
electrodialysis.
52.
The ultrafiltration (UF) is a

membrane technique that works at low


transmembrane pressures to remove the

dissolved ad colloidal matter. It is utilizes
permeable membrane on separation of heavy
metals, macromolecules and suspended solids
in inorganic solution with the basis of pore
size (5-20 nm) and the molecular weight of the
separating compounds (1000-100000 Da). The
micellar enhanced ultrafiltration (MEUF) was
used for metal removal that depends on the
characteristics and the concentrations of
metals and surfactants, solution in pH, the
ionic strength and the parameters to operation.
The membranes that can be used for the
removal of several heavy metals such as Pb
(II), Cd (II), Zn (II) and Ni (II) in wastewater
are ceramic, polysulfone, amicon regenerated
cellulose and polycarbonate and the
corresponding surfactant or complexing agent
are dodycelamine, SDS and sodium lauryl
ether sulfate The MEUF was used to remove
Zn (II), Pb (II), Ni (II), Cu (II) and Cd (II)
through the used of synthetic water using the
two anions surfactants, the sodium dodecyl
sulfate (SDS) and linear alkylbenze (LAB) on
large-scale membrane system (Fu & Wang,
2011).
53.
The reverse osmosis (RO) uses the

semi-permeable membrane that allows the
fluid that has been purified to pass through
while rejecting the contaminants (Fu and
Wang, 2004). The reverse osmosis process, the
cellophane-lime membranes separates purified
water from the contaminated water
(Lakherwal, 2014). The Na2EDTA was used to
Cu2+ and Ni2+ by RO process (Mohsen-Nia,
2007). The used of RO for the removal of
heavy metals for wastewater has not been
widely develop.
54.
The other type of membrane filtration

is nanofiltration (NF). It is the intermediate
process between ultrafiltration and reverse
osmosis. This technology is the most
promising technology for the rejection of
nickel, copper and arsenic in wastewater
(Chuken, 2010).
55.
Electrodialysis (ED) is a membrane

process by which ions are transported through
semi-permeable
membrane
under
electricpotential influence. The membranes
were cation or anion selective, which means
that the positive or negative ions will used to
flow through. This technique was proven to be
the promising method on heavy metal
wastewater treatment (Chuken, 2010).
56. 3.1.4 Chemical precipitation

57.
The chemical precipitation involves

the process of the addition of chemical
reagents and the separation of precipitated
solids. The precipitation of metal was done in
the addition of the coagulants such as
aluminum, lime, iron salts and other organic
polymers (Lakherwal, 2014). Chemical
precipitation was combined with other
methods to work efficiently like the used of
Fenton process and chemical precipitation in
the treatment in wastewater. In this process,
the chemicals react with the heavy metal ions
forming insoluble precipitates. This process
includes hydroxide precipitation and sulfide
precipitation. In hydroxide precipitation, the
metal hydroxides were removed through
flocculation and sedimentation and the variety
of hydroxides was used to remove hydroxides
that the metals are precipitated from
wastewater. The sulfide precipitation is an
effective process for the treatment of heavy
metals and this process can achieved at high
degree for metal removal over a broad pH
range. The metal sulfide sludges have better
thickening and dewatering characteristics over
the hydroxide metal sludges (Fu and Wang,
2011).
57.1Heavy Metal Pollution in soil

58.
Some types of the soil
remediation techniques are: air sparging,
bioreactor
landfills,
bioremediation,
electrokinetics, in situ chemical reduction, in
situ
oxidation,
nanoremediation,
and
phytotechnologies, (US EPA, 2013). These
remediation technologies can be on site (in


situ) or off site (ex situ) (USDA NRCS, 2000).

Remediation technologies can also be broadly
classified based on the primary mechanism by
which the treatment is achieved: (1)
Physical/Chemical Treatment Technologies;
(2) Biological Treatment Technologies; and (3)
Thermal Treatment Technologies (US EPA;
Solid Waste and Emergency Response, 2006).
59.
Physical/Chemical treatment
technologies, as the name suggests, involve the
physical/chemical properties of the pollutants
to remove and/or extract them. The
Physical/Chemical Treatment technologies for
soil that will be discussed in this paper are in
situ chemical reduction, in situ oxidation, and
electrokinetics.
Biological
treatement
techniques for contaminated soil involve the
use of microorganisms and/or plants to
remove, extract, etc. pollutants in the soil.
Biological treatment techniques that will be
discussed in this paper are bioremediation and
phytotechnologies.
Thermal
treatment
technologies involve heat to remove volatile
and semivolatile pollutants. Thermal treatment
technologies that will be discussed in this
paper are vitrification and conductive heating
technology.
60. 3.2.1 In situ chemical reduction
61.
In situ chemical reduction
involves the use of reductants or reductant
generating material to degrade, transform,
and/or immobilize organic and inorganic
compounds/pollutants (US EPA CLU-IN,
2014). The most commonly used reductant is
zero valent iron (ZVI), ferrous iron, sodium
dithionite, sulfide salts (calcium polysulfide),
and hydrogen sulfide (Dresel, Wellman,
Cantrell, & Truex, 2011).
62.
Metal
oxyanions
and
divalent metals are treated with zero valent
iron (US EPA CLU-IN, 2014). It is also used
to remediate halogenated ethenes and ethanes,
chromium (VI), arsenic, and uranium. The
presence of ZVI particles in the subsurface
provides an environment for the removal of
divalent metallic cations through reductive

precipitation,
surface
adsorption
or
complexation, or coprecipitation with iron
oxyhydroxides (Cundy, Hopkinson, & Whitby,
2008). The corrosion of the ZVI by water and
dissolved oxygen also produce a reduced
environment and increased pH (alkalinity).
63.
Reduction of halogenated
compounds can be represented by the
following equation (Deng & Hu, 2001):
64.
+ H 2 O
2++ RH + X
+ Fe
Fe0 + RX+ H 3 O
65. Reactions for Cr reduction and immobilization

include:
66.
2+ 4 H 2 O ( Fe x , Cr1 x ) ( OH )3 +5OH
2++CrO 4
Fe
67.
Calcium polysulfide (CaSx)
is a strong reductant with a pH around 11. It is
routinely used to precipitate metals in
wastewater treatment systems. When injected
into the ground it causes precipitation of
cations as sulfides (FeS, ZnS, PbS, CdS, and
CuS) and reduces oxidized metals such as
hexavalent chromium, which typically
precipitate as a hydroxide (Petersen &
Hedquist, 2006; Zawislanski, Horst, Gillow, &
Liles, 2010).
68.
Calcium polysulfide is not
used to treat arsenic, however. This is due to
the fact that the solubility of arsenic in water
increases with increasing pH (Zawislanski,
Horst, Gillow, & Liles, 2010).
69.
When mixed with water,
polysulfide dissociates to form the hydrogen
sulfide ion or dissolved hydrogen sulfide gas.


The sulfide ion is then capable of direct

reduction of Cr6+, as well as the reduction of
ferric iron to the ferrous form, which is also
capable of reducing Cr6+. This reaction
described by the following equation:
70.
2+ +2 H 2 O
+ 2 Cr ( OH )3+ 15 S+ 3Ca
2+ 3CaS 5+10 H
2 CrO 4
an effective reductant. When a ferrous iron

solution is injected into the subsurface alone it
has a tendency to rapidly precipitate out of
solution as a ferric iron product (US EPA
CLU-IN, 2014).
75. 3.2.2 In situ chemical oxidation
76.
In situ chemical oxidation
(ISCO) is an aggressive remediation
technology that has been applied to a wide
range of volatile and semivolatile hazardous
contaminants form source zones (US EPA,
2010). This remediation technology involves
reduction-oxidation reactions that converts
hazardous compounds to nonhazardous or less
toxic compounds that are more stable, less
mobile, or inert. The oxidizing agents most
commonly used for this treatment are
hydrogen peroxide, catalyzed hydrogen
peroxide, potassium permanganate; sodium
permanganate; sodium persulfate, and ozone.
In situ chemical oxidation is applicable to both
groundwater and soil contamination.
71.
Chromium hydroxide is
relatively insoluble in the neutral pH region
between 7 and 9, with solubility increasing
under acidic and alkaline conditions. Reducing
conditions created following the addition of
calcium polysulfide enable reduction of other
oxidized species such as Fe3+ to Fe2+, which in
turn enhances the reduction of Cr6+ as
described by the following equation:
72.
3+ + H 2 O
+ Cr ( OH )3 +3 Fe
+5 H
2+3 e
2+ +CrO 4
3 Fe
73.
As reactions between CaSx
and Cr6+ take place in groundwater, most of the
sulfur precipitates as elemental sulfur,
although a minor amount goes to form sulfate (
2
SO 4 . The reduced conditions generated
can promote growth of sulfate-reducing
bacteria that tend to convert the native and
additional sulfate ion back to hydrogen sulfide
ion or hydrogen sulfide gas dissolved in water,
thereby achieving further reduction of Cr 6+
(Petersen & Hedquist, 2006).
74. Sodium dithionite is a strong reductant and is
used primarily in the textile and paper
industries. It also is used as a metal reductant
in wastewater treatment. Ferrous iron is also
77. The following are the general equations to

describe the reaction/oxidation of oxidants
78. Permanganate
79.
MnO2 +2 H 2 O
++3 e
+ 4 H
MnO4
80. Hydrogen Peroxide Derived Reactants
81.
2 H 2 O
++2 e
H 2 O2 +2 H
82.
2 H 2 O
++2 e
2 OH +2 H

83.
2 H 2 O
++2 e
HO 2 +2 H
84.
2 H 2 O
++3 e
+ 4 H
O2
85.
3 OH
+ H 2 O+2 e
HO2
86. Ozone
87.
O2+ H 2 O
++2 e
O3 +2 H
88.
2O3 +3 H 2 O2 4 O2 +2 OH +2 H 2 O
89. Persulfate
90.
2
2 SO 4
2+ 2e
S2 O8
91.
2
SO4
+ e
SO4
92.
Permanganate-based ISCO
is more fully developed than other oxidants.
Widespread use of in-situ permanganate
oxidation
involving
a
diversity
of
contaminants and geological environments
under well-documented pilot- and field-scale
conditions (in conjunction with long-term

monitoring data and cost information) has
contributed to the development of the
infrastructure needed to support decisions to
design and deploy permanganate ISCO
systems. However, additional research and
development is needed. Fenton-driven ISCO
has been deployed at a large number of sites
and involves a variety of approaches and
methods involving the use of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2) and iron (Fe). In general,
Fenton chemistry and in-situ Fenton oxidation
is complex, involves numerous reactive
intermediates
and
mechanisms,
and
technology development has been slower.
Ozone (O3) is a strong oxidant that has been
used in the subsurface but in much more
limited application than permanganate and
Fenton-driven oxidation. Persulfate (S 2O82-) is
a relatively new form of oxidant that has
mainly been investigated at bench-scale.
However, considerable research and applied
use of this oxidant at an increasing number of
field sites is resulting in rapid development.
The electrode (oxidation) potential of the
oxidant and reactive species is a measure of
the oxidizing strength of the reactive species,
but is not a measure of the reaction rate with
different organic compounds (Huling &
Pivetz, 2006).
93. 3.2.3 Electrokinetics
94.
Electrokinetics involves the
use of low-intensity direct current through
ceramic
electrodes
inserted
to
low
permeability soil, mud, sludge, and marine
dredging. These electrodes then mobilize
charged chemical species and cause ions and
water to move toward the electrodes. Among
the different techniques to remove the
contaminants
at
the
electrode
are:
electroplating,
precipitation
or
coprecipitation, pumping of water, and
complexing with ion-exchange resins (US
EPA, 2014).
95.
The
mechanisms
that
transport contaminants through the soil and


towards the electrodes are electromigration

and electroosmosis. Electromigration involves
the transportation of charged particles through
a substrate. Electroosmosis, on the other hand,
involves the movement of the liquid
containing the ions relative to the electrodes or
the
stationary
charged
surface.
Electromigration is the main mechanism for
electorkinetic remediation. The rate of
movement of the charged species, the
contaminants, depends on its charge (its
magnitude and its polarity) and the magnitude
of the electroosmosis-induced flow velocity.
Non-ionic species or contaminants are also
transported along the electromosis-induced
water flow (Federal Remedation Technologies
Roundtable, 2015).
contaminant control and containment, or both.

Phytotechnology can be applied both ex situ
and in situ. The major plant mechanisms
involved
in
this
technology
are
phytoextraction,phytodegradation,
phytovolatilization,
rhizodegradation,phytosequestration,and
phytohydraulics. Some of the organic
contaminants that can be addressed by this
technology are petroleum hydrocarbons, gas
condensates,
crude
oil,
chlorinated
compounds,
pesticides,
and
explosive
compounds. Inorganic contaminants such as
heavy
metals,
metalloids,
radioactive
materials, and salts can also be addressed by
this technology (Interstate Technology
Regulatory Council Phytotechnologies Team,
2009).
96. 3.2.4 Bioremediation

97.
Bioremediation involves the
use of microorganisms to breakdown organic
contaminants in soil, groundwater, sludge, and
solids. Types of bioremediation are: aerobic
bioremediation, anaerobic bioremediation, and
cometabolic bioremediation. Microorganisms
breakdown contaminants by using them with
as an energy source or co-metabolizing them
with another energy source. Bioremediation
involves the production of energy in a redox
reaction within the microbial cells. These
reactions include respiration and other
biological functions needed for cell
maintenance and reproduction (US EPA,
2014).
98. 3.2.5 Phytotechnology
99.
Phytotechnology is the use
of plants to extract, degrade, sequester,
transfer, contain, or stabilize contaminants
from soil, sediment, surface water, and
groundwater. Objectives for this technology
may be contaminant removal and destruction,
104. Conclusion and Future Directions
105.
106.
Heavy metals are important in many
respects to man, especially in the
manufacturing of certain important products
100. 3.2.6 In situ vitrification

101.
In situ vitrification (ISV)
involves the conversion of contaminated soil
to stable glass and crystalline solids. Two
methods are used to produce heat for melting
contaminated soil. The first, older, method
involves the use of electrodes and electric
resistance to vitrify materials. The second,
emerging, method uses plasma arc technology
(US EPA, 2006).
102. 3.2.7 Conductive Heating
103.
Conductive heating uses either an

array of vertical heater/vacuum wells or, when
the treatment area is within about six inches of
the ground surface, surface heater blankets.
While it is feasible to deploy all the wells in a
heater/vacuum mode, the typical deployment
is to place six heater-only wells in a hexagonal
shape with a heater vacuum well occupying
the center of each hexagon (US EPA; Solid
Waste and Emergency Response, 2006).
for human use. Nevertheless, the biotoxic
effects, when unduly exposed to them could be
potentially life threatening and hence, cannot
be neglected. It is one of the major problems
around the globe due to increase in geologic


and
anthropogenic
activities.
The
accumulation of heavy metals in soils and
water directly affect the plants and in
agricultural aspect. The marine life and even
humans can be affected. In summary, all living
organisms within a given
ecosystem are
variously contaminated along their cycles of
food chain.
116.
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