Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Prepared by
Okello Francis Eugene
February 2008
Course Structure
Second Year; Semester II
Core Course:
Yes
45
60
30
Class Hours
Day
Monday:
Evening
Course Assessment
Course Work:
Final Examination:
60%
Normal Progress
Grade Point [GP]
2.0 [50%]
Course Outline
Urban Roads;
of roads;
Junctions;
Route Surveys;
Intersections;
Selection of Routes;
Roundabouts;
Site Investigation;
Road Furniture;
Soil Survey;
Maintenance of Roads.
Field Exercise:
Soil Stabilisation;
Construction Techniques;
Drainage;
Maps
Street Lighting;
Highways;
Rural roads;
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... ii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... viii
Symbols and Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... ix
1.0
1.0
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 7
2.2
2.3
ii
2.6
Selection of Routes....................................................................................................... 23
3.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 27
3.2
3.5
References .................................................................................................................... 28
4.0
4.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 29
4.2
4.3
4.4
iii
Design Vehicles................................................................................................................ 33
iv
References .................................................................................................................... 84
5.0
5.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 85
5.2
5.6
References .................................................................................................................... 97
vi
List of Tables
Table 1.1: International Comparison of Road Statistics ............................................................ 4
Table 1.2: Car Ownership Rates (Cars per 1000 persons) ......................................................... 5
Table 2.1: Computation of NPV, B/C Ratio and IRR .............................................................. 22
Table 4.1: Terrain Classification .............................................................................................. 31
Table 4.2: Conversion Factor of Vehicle into Passenger Car .................................................. 32
Table 4.3: Dimensions of Design Vehicles .............................................................................. 33
Table 4.4: Level of Access Control .......................................................................................... 35
Table 4.5: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Ground for Wet Pavement Condition .............. 36
Table 4.6: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO ............................. 44
Table 4.7: Maximum Grades as recommended by MoWH&C ................................................ 53
Table 4.8: Minimum Radii for Crest Curves as Recommended by MoWH&C ...................... 57
Table 4.9: Minimum Radii for Sag Curves as recommended by MoWH&C .......................... 57
Table 4.10: Types of At-grade Intersections as recommended by MoWH&C ........................ 69
Table 4.11: The Limits of the Parameters used in Roundabout Capacity Equation ................ 81
Table 5.1: Subgrade Classes..................................................................................................... 91
Table 5.2: Traffic Groups ......................................................................................................... 91
Table 5.3: Average Vehicle Equivalence Factors, Ci ............................................................... 92
Table 5.4: Traffic Classes......................................................................................................... 92
Table 5.5: Determination of DSN for different Subgrade and Traffic Classes ........................ 92
Table 5.6: Layer Coefficients ................................................................................................... 93
Table 5.7: Compacted Thickness Ranges ................................................................................ 93
vii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Cross Section of Early Roads .................................................................................. 4
Figure 2.1: Outline Stages of the Project Cycle ....................................................................... 10
Figure 2.2: Typical Road Project Appraisal in Uganda ........................................................... 14
Figure 4.1: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances on a crest curve ......................................... 38
Figure 4.2: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S L ............................ 39
Figure 4.3: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S > L ............................ 40
Figure 4.4: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve ................................................... 42
Figure 4.5: Stages involved in attainment of super-elevation .................................................. 45
Figure 4.6: Attaining Super-elevation by revolving about the centre line ............................... 46
Figure 4.7: Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions ............................ 47
Figure 4.8: Widening on Curves .............................................................................................. 49
Figure 4.9: Climbing Lane outside the ordinary lane............................................................... 53
Figure 4.10: Highway Cross falls ............................................................................................. 54
Figure 4.11: Typical Vertical Curves ....................................................................................... 54
Figure 4.12: A Simple Symmetrical Parabolic curve ............................................................... 55
Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S L and b) when S > L .................... 56
Figure 4.14: Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements ....................................................... 64
Figure 4.15: Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements ......................................................... 64
Figure 4.16: Basic Intersection Forms ..................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.17: Typical Access Layout showing Visibility Requirements................................... 69
Figure 4.18: Typical T-Intersections ........................................................................................ 70
Figure 4.19: Typical Designs for Control Intersections ........................................................... 71
Figure 4.20: Selection of Intersection Category based on Safety ............................................ 72
Figure 4.21: Selection of Intersection Category based on Capacity ........................................ 73
Figure 4.22: Selection of Priority Intersection type based on Safety ....................................... 74
Figure 4.23: Selection of Control Intersection Type ................................................................ 75
Figure 4.24: Selection of Control Intersection Type ................................................................ 76
Figure 5.1: Definition of Pavement layers ............................................................................... 86
Figure 5.2: Summary of the Pavement Design Process ........................................................... 89
viii
AASHTO
ADT
ALD
CBR
E.S.A
GB3
GIS
HW
KUTIP
LL
Liquid Limit
LS
Linear Shrinkage
M.S.A
MC
Moisture Content
MDD
OMC
ORN
PI
Plasticity Index
PL
Plastic Limit
TRRL
ix
Introduction
Everybody travels, whether it is to work, play, shop, do business, or simply visit people. All
foodstuffs and raw materials must be carried from their place of origin to their place consumption
[OFlaherty, 2002].
Historically, people have travelled and goods have been moved by:
a) Road i.e. using cars, wagons, cycles and motor vehicles;
b) Water i.e. using ships and boats;
c) Rail i.e. initially using animals and then the steam oil or electric powered locomotives to
pull passenger carriages and goods wagons;
d) Air i.e. using airships and aeroplanes (20th Century)
1.1
1.2
Early manufactured roads were stone-paved streets of Ur in the Middle East (4000BC), the
corduroy log paths near Glastonbury, England (3300BC), and brick pavings in India (3000BC):
The oldest existing wooden pathway in Europe, the 2km long Sweet Track, was built across (and
parts subsequently preserved in) marshy ground near Glastonbury. The oldest existing stone road
in Europe was built in Crete in 2000BC.
1.3
1.5
NB:
All values are for 1998
Indias road length now is 3.3million km and the road is 1km/sq km.
In modern times, Europe saw the beginnings of the Expressway system of World War II. Italy,
under Mussolini, started the Autostrade. The famous German Autobahns were planned in the
late 1920s and Hitler accelerated their completion. The Autobahns became a key part of the wartime infrastructure for the movement of tanks and other military vehicles
UK started its Motorway construction rather late, in the 1950s. These form the arterial road grid of
the country linking London to major cities like Manchester, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol, Edinburgh
and Newcastle.
Perhaps the largest arterial system, the US interstate, was started after World War II as a national
defence system. The construction of the 41, 000 miles system was approved in 1956. It was
funded by the Federal Government to an extent of 90 per cent, the balance being states matching
share. It linked all the major cities of the nation. It is toll-free.
USA also pioneered the modern super highway - a limited access, high-speed facility. The Bronx
River Parkway constructed in 1925 was the forerunner to many such to come later.
The inter-state system of USA
The worlds best road system is perhaps in the USA. The interstate system was taken up after the
Second World War as a defence system. It is now fully functional. The USA now has a length of
88,400km of express ways, of which 5,000km (6 per cent) was tolled. The remaining length is
toll-free.
Autobahns of Germany
Germany began constructing its express ways, which were known as Autobahns in the late 1920s.
Before the start of the Second World War, Germany had about 4,000 km of express ways. The
country has now 11,238km of express ways most of which are non-toll.
Express ways in France.
France started the construction of its express ways in the 1950s. The work was carried out through
semi-government public companies. Private companies were involved in the work in the 1970s.
The network was developed as a toll system. By 1996, the country had a network of 8,768km of
express ways, 72 per cent of which are tolled.
Vehicle Ownership
Since road transport gives mobility to persons, the vehicle ownership rate has been increasing at a
fast rate round the world. Table 1.2 gives a comparison of the car-ownership rate (cars per 1000
persons) in some selected countries. The rate is very high in USA. (One car per two persons), and
is currently low in India (one car per 250 persons). This rapid growth calls for modernization of
the road system.
Table 1.2: Car Ownership Rates (Cars per 1000 persons)
China
India
Pakistan
Indonesia
Egypt
Thailand
Brazil
Malaysia
South Korea
Japan
U.K.
Australia
Germany
USA
3
4
6
10
19
22
76
113
114
342
248
459
459
504
1.5.1
References
1.
Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2.
OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of
Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
Introduction
Transport is an important infrastructure for development. It occupies a pivotal position in the
growth of developing countries. Planning for economic development is now an accepted tool
widely followed in most of the countries. So far there is very little evidence of a scientific
approach in planning at the national level in the transport sector. However, the outlays and targets
are normally adopted after a careful study of the existing facilities, their deficiencies and
immediate needs. Very often it has been experienced that investment decisions are taken after a
bottleneck situation develops. The transport plan should be integrated in the countries overall
economic plan since transport in its own sake has no meaning. It assumes importance only in as
far as its serves the ultimate goal of development i.e. transport plans must translate overall
development objectives and potentials into transport requirements [Kadiyali, 2006].
2.2
2.3
2.3.1
5)
6)
7)
8)
The first three steps (1-3) make up the planning phases of the project cycle, though evaluation
(step 8) may also be considered integral to the planning process by providing feedback on the
wisdom and processes of past decisions. Figure 2.1 provides an outline of the stages of the project
cycle. The planning phases of the cycle involve a gradual process of screening and refining
alternative options (for resolving an earlier identified problem). In this process there are clear
decision points (at the end of each stage) when potential projects are either rejected or taken
forward for further and more detailed analysis. Dubious projects should be rejected at an early
planning stage (and before feasibility) as they gain a momentum of their own, and hence become
increasingly difficult to stop at the later stages in the cycle when minor changes of detail are often
all that are possible. Within each of the planning phases (project identification, pre-feasibility and
feasibility), the same basic process of analysis is adopted. Differences occur largely in the level of
detail applied. Sometimes phases are merged, with pre-feasibility becoming an extension of the
project identification, or a first step in the feasibility stage [TRL, 2005].
2.3.2
Problem Identification
The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. General planning identifies key transport
constraints and sketches solutions at a global or macro level, and should prioritize these as to the
need and urgency for resolution. The planning process takes into account government policies and
programmes (in all relevant sectors) which impact on transport development. The need for general
road development is therefore examined in a very wide socio-economic and policy-orientated
context. The framework for general planning could be cross-sectoral in nature or it could also be
focused specifically on transport issues. In all cases, however, the scope is macro in nature,
taking in a complete region or city. Examples of such spatial (or structure) plans and
transportation studies include:
a) A national or regional development study (e.g. regional spatial plans)
b) An urban development study (or master plan)
c) A national or regional transport study (sometimes known as a multi-modal or inter-modal
transport study)
d) An urban land-use/transportation study
e) An integrated rural accessibility plan
f) A road safety strategic plan
2.3.3
Pre-feasibility
At the start of the pre-feasibility stage there is a clearly defined transport problem (identified in
general planning), but no strong evidence that this problem could be solved by road improvement,
or any other transport solution (e.g. improvements to transport services) in an environmentally or
economically acceptable manner. By the end of the pre-feasibility stage, there will be clear
evidence whether or not a road improvement project is worthwhile. If it is, the pre-feasibility will
normally identify what type of project would be suitable, checks that the project is not premature
and provides the information needed to commission a feasibility study. Typically, this phase
might identify corridors that require a new road.
An affirmative pre-feasibility study will also trigger the inclusion of a line-item in the long-term
road preparation budget (of the ministry or its highway agency). It gives advance warning that
monies will need to be budgeted for the future implementation of this particular project. The prefeasibility study may indicate that the proposed road improvement project would not be effective
in solving the problem, or should be reconsidered later, perhaps when there is more traffic). In that
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
case the process should be terminated or shelved without incurring the high cost of a feasibility
study.
2.3.4
Feasibility
The feasibility study finds the most suitable road improvement project for solving or helping to
solve an identified transport problem. At the start of the study there is a clearly defined problem
with an expectation that the problem can be solved by some form of road improvement, in a
manner that is environmentally, socially and economically acceptable. This expectation is backed
up by the evidence needed to justify the considerable cost of carrying out a feasibility study
(identified in a pre-feasibility study). The level of detail of this study will depend on the
complexity of the project and how much is already known about the proposal.
By the end of the study there should be a clear recommendation for a specific road improvement
project. The study will provide evidence that this particular project should be carried out and that
this project provides the most suitable solution to the problem, taking into account its operational
benefits and its environmental and economic implications. It will also provide a detailed
description and a preliminary engineering design (PED) and associated drawings of the proposed
project to enable costs to be determined at a level of detail to enable funding decisions to be made.
The feasibility study will also provide an input to the road preparation budget process, giving
greater detail (than earlier phases) of costs that will be incurred and project timings.
2.3.5
Design
The final engineering design (FED) is often very costly (up to 15 per cent of project costs) and
usually follows provisional commitment to the project. Numerous decisions which will affect
economic performance are taken throughout design; and economic appraisal often results in
redesign. In this stage, working drawings and bills of quantities are normally prepared.
2.3.6
2.3.7
Implementation
Several aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of the
implementation. The better and more realistic the plan, the more likely it is that the plan can
actually be carried out and the full benefits be realised. A flexible implementation plan should also
be sought. It is almost inevitable that some circumstances will change during the implementation.
Technical changes may be required as more detailed soils information becomes available or as the
relative prices of construction materials change. Project managers may need to change and re-plan
parts of the project to take account of such variations. The more innovative and original the
project is the greater is the likelihood that changes will have to be made during implementation.
2.3.8
Operation
This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are realised
and maintenance is undertaken.
10
2.3.9
2.4
2.4.1
Define Objectives
A road project is wherever possible set against the background of a national or regional transport
plan or at least a road plan. Definition of project objectives provides the basic framework for
carrying out feasibility studies. The objective of providing a new road could be any of the
following:
a)
b)
c)
d)
11
2.4.2
2.4.3
Preliminary considerations
The underlying issues are taken into account during the feasibility study:
a) Analysis period and design life Most road projects are analysed on a 15 year time
horizon. The analysis period may be partly dictated by the nature of the investigation. For
example, long periods are useful when comparing mutually exclusive projects, whereas
short periods may be appropriate for small projects (such as regravelling of rural access
roads), where the life of the investment is expected to be limited to a few years.
b) Uncertainty and risk Projects in developing countries are always set against a
background of economic, social and political uncertainty to some degree. The steps taken
to reduce uncertainty include risk analysis using probabilistic techniques for well defined
projects and scenario analysis in explanatory projects.
c) Choice of technology According to the Transport and Road Research Laboratory
(TRRL, 1998), engineers have to decide between mechanised and labour based techniques
in preparing designs and specifications of works.
d) Institutional issues The major institutional issues to be considered include:
The institutional framework in which the roads are set including the aspects of
organising, staffing, training, procedures, planning, maintenance, funding and controls.
Strengthening the institutions responsible for implementing the project; and
The funding and maintenance capability of road maintenance organisations.
e) Socio-economic considerations The major issues that are assessed in terms of the
impact of the project on the target community are social changes, construction
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
12
consequences, road accidents, severance, minorities like gender issues and availability of
local expertise and resources.
f) Environmental Conditions The impact of the road project on the surrounding
environment is taken into consideration. The impact is more significant for new projects
penetrating an undisturbed country tan for upgrading projects because the latter usually
follow an existing alignment.
2.4.4
2.4.5
2.4.6
13
2.4.8
Recommendations
The feasibility study report marks the end of the appraisal process and recommends whether the
project should go ahead and the standards to which it should be built. The depth and detail to
which the report covers certain aspects depends on who the report is being for. An analysis carried
out for a development bank covers financial aspects very thoroughly. Projects prepared for aid
agencies normally dwell heavily on the socio-economic factors.
2.5
2. Problem Identification
3. Determine Alternatives
4. Project Strategy
5. Engineering, Economic and
Environmental analyses
6. Draft Recommendation for
preferred solution
7. Review by Ministry of Works,
Housing and Communications
8. Finalisation of Recommendation
9. Submission for Funding
14
15
16
1
. 2.2
1
2.6.4
17
18
Vehicle Factors
Age
Make
Horse-power, engine capacity
Load carried
Condition of Vehicle
Level of maintenance input
Type of fuel used
Type of tyres (rayon, nylon, radial ply, cross ply etc.)
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
Roadway Factors
Roughness of the surface
Type of the surface
Horizontal curvature
Vertical profile
Pavement width
Type and condition of shoulder
Urban and rural location
Number of junctions per km
b)
c)
i)
ii)
Traffic Factors
Speed of travel
Traffic volume and composition.
i)
ii)
iii)
Environmental Factors
Altitude
Rainfall
Temperature
d)
Research has shown that the vehicle operating cost components are closely governed by (i)
roadway factors such as roughness, pavement width, rise and fall and horizontal curvature, (ii)
vehicle factors such as age and load carried and (iii) traffic factors such as speed and volume of
traffic. It follows therefore, that good roads result in lower vehicle operating costs.
Highway improvements result in speedier travel. Savings in travel time are enjoyed by occupants
of vehicles, goods in transit and the vehicles in transit
Road accident rates are governed to a certain extent by the condition of the road. Highway
improvements can thus bring about a reduction in road accidents. The cost of road accidents,
which have been eliminated by highway improvements, represents a benefit.
When carrying out economic analysis, costs and benefits are considered exclusive of taxes. Taxes
do not represent an economic cost and represent only a transfer within the community. Insurance
premiums are also excluded from economic analysis since the savings in accidents already
account for this element.
In a developing country, there are certain resources which are scarcer than the others. The
prevailing market prices, therefore, do not reflect the true economic value of the resources. In
order to correct such distortions and imperfections, shadow pricing is done. A case in example is
the cost of imported fuel in Uganda. Since foreign exchange reserves are very precious, such
imported items are shadow priced at a higher value than the market price when carrying out the
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
19
economic evaluation. Similarly, unskilled labour is surplus in Uganda and the prevailing wage
rate (which is statutorily fixed) may not truly reflect this situation. A shadow-pricing of such
labour at a slightly lower level would be appropriate.
Inflation is disregarded in economic analysis, as it is generally assumed that all prices increase in
the same proportion, but relative prices remain constant. But if differential inflation is expected to
occur among commodities, necessary adjustments need to be made.
2.6.5
Evaluation Techniques
The methods commonly adopted for economic evaluation are:
a) Net present value (NPV);
b) Benefit/cost Ratio (B/C Ratio);
c) Internal Rate of Return (IRR);
d) First Year Rate of Return (FYRR).
1
Where;
NPV0
Bi
Ci
i
n
=
=
=
=
=
. 2.4
20
Solutions are normally found graphically or by iteration. However, with a computer program, the
work is rendered simple. The IRR gives no indication of the sizes of the costs or the benefits of a
project, but acts as a guide to the profitably of the investment [Thagesen, 1996].
If the internal rate of return calculated from the above formula is greater than the rate of interest
obtained by investing the capital in the open market, the scheme is considered acceptable.
d) First Year Rate of Return (FYRR) Method
The FYRR is simply the present value of the total costs expressed as a percentage of the sum of
benefits in the first year of trafficking after project completion. Thus FYRR is given by;
,%
FYRR = 100
Bj
j 1
C (1 + r )
j =0
100
. 2.5
.... (2.6)
j 1
Where j is the first year of benefits, with j = 0 in the base year, and other notation is as before.
If the FYRR is greater than the planning discount rate, then the project is timely and should go
ahead. If it is less than the discount rate, but the NPV is positive, the start of the project should be
deferred and further rates of return should be calculated to define the optimum starting date.
It is should be noted that the results of the cost-benefit analysis are no better than the assumptions
and input data on which it is based. The data and parameters used in the analysis of a road project
can be prone to substantial errors and it is important to recognise that these exist and to take steps
to minimise them [Thagesen, 1996].
2.6.6
21
The IRR method is popular with international lending agencies like the World Bank. It lends itself
admiringly well for use in a computer-aided design model. It avoids the need for selecting a
discount rate initially. The rate derived from computations can be easily compared with the market
rate of interest, with which economists, financial experts and bankers are familiar. Its
disadvantage is that the computations are tedious and a solution can only be obtained only by trial
and error.
The NPV method suffers from the same disadvantage as in case of B/C ratio method in that a rate
of discount has to be assumed.
2.6.7
RoadUser Costs
With Impr. Without Impr.
101.5
160.7
105.6
168.2
110.2
176.3
116.2
185.2
122.3
190
128.4
199
135.6
210
143.2
219.5
149.1
228.2
154.6
240.1
Accident Costs
Maintenance Costs
With Impr. Without Impr. With Impr. Without Impr.
2.5
3.6
10
7.5
2.6
3.7
10
7.5
2.7
3.8
10
7.5
2.8
3.9
10
7.5
2.9
4
10
7.5
2.9
4
10
7.5
3
4.1
10
7.5
3.1
4.2
10
7.5
3.2
4.3
10
7.5
3.2
4.3
10
7.5
Project is Economically Justified
Project is Economically Justified
Project is Economically Justified
0.0000087571284
17.843439000%
Benefits
57.8
61.2
64.7
67.6
66.3
69.2
73
74.9
77.7
84.1
Total
NPVo
B/C Ratio
IRR
DiscountedBenefits DiscountedBenefits
(NPV, B/C)
(IRR)
51.607
49.048
48.788
44.070
46.052
39.536
42.961
35.053
37.620
29.173
35.059
25.839
33.021
23.130
30.251
20.139
28.019
17.729
27.078
16.283
380.458
300.000
80.458
1.268
17.84%
22
2.7
Selection of Routes
2.7.1
Introduction
The location of a new or major road requires consideration of many complex and interrelated
factors and brings together different professionals namely economists, geologists, planners,
surveyors and road engineers. The process of defining the physical location of a new road must be
preceded by the analysis of data on traffic volumes, planning intentions in the area to be traversed
and preliminary estimates of the anticipated design of the new road. Route location consists of
selecting the best compromise between demand factors and terrain factors. Demand factors
determine the areas to be served by the new road standard and terrain factors influence the
engineering cost. Terrain factors include: Ground conditions, materials for construction,
earthworks, drainage both surface and subsurface and the need for structures. The choice of route
is normally associated with the problem identification and feasibility stages of the project life
cycle. Road locations are easier to determine through low cost relatively undeveloped lands than
through well developed rural and urban areas.
2.7.2
2.7.3
a) Reconnaissance Survey
The reconnaissance stage of the survey process takes place during the identification stage of the
project where alternative possible routes are determined in terms of the corridors in which they lie.
The first step in the reconnaissance survey is to carry out a major desk study of the
bands/corridors being evaluated within the region. The types of information typically gathered for
a desk study include:
23
a) General land survey locating the site on maps. Dated air photographs, site boundaries,
outliners of structures, meteorological information e.t.c.
b) Permitted use and restrictions Planning restrictions of an area according to planning
legislation, local authority regulations and byelaws, ancient monuments, burial grounds,
environmental restrictions.etc.
c) Approaches and access Checking road ownership, closed railway lines etc.
d) Ground conditions Geological maps, seismicity etc
e) Sources of material for construction
f) Drainage and sewerage Authorities in charge, location of sewer lines, location of storm
drains etc.
g) Water supply Authorities concerned location of existing lines etc.
h) Electricity supply Information on concerned authorities and existing lines
i) Telecommunications Information on concerned authorities and existing lines.
Next, armed with questions from the desk study, the reconnaissance engineer visits the field to fill
in omissions in information gathered from the desk study and further limit the corridor under
study into a more suitable terrain and provide further data useful for design. The reconnaissance
study should be low key so as not to attract attention of local residents who may pre-empt the
development of the project. On completion of the reconnaissance survey the engineer should have
sufficient information which when combined with economic, environmental, planning, social and
traffic inputs enable the selection of the feasible corridor routes. The renaissance report describes
the preferred corridor routes; a state of criteria satisfied by the project, presents tentative project
cost estimates, provides provisional geotechnical maps and shows characteristics of important
engineering features. It also states special issues that may lead to design and construction
problems.
b) Preliminary Location Survey
This is the feasibility stage of the project where corridors are appraised to select the best route. It
is a large scale study of one or more feasible routes within the corridor whose purpose is to collect
all the physical information that may affect the location of the proposed road way. It results in a
paper location that defines the line for the subsequent final location survey. Site investigations are
carried out of alternative routes guided by terrain evaluation.
In the course of carrying out the preliminary survey, a ground survey, which is one of the
approaches, the other being an aerial survey is taken by means of traversing and levelling to
produce a strip map of the proposed corridor for the route showing the physical features along the
route, locations of soft ground, locations of water bodies, power lines pipelines, houses
monuments etc. These are converted into a topographic map that shows both horizontal and
vertical data usually with the aid of contour lines that enable the road alignment to be defined in
both horizontal and vertical planes. The survey area should be greater than the roadway width of
the proposed route.
The next step is the determination of the centreline of the proposed road. It should fit the
topography while meeting the intended traffic service requirements. It is a trial and error process
were trial centrelines are drawn on the strip map and are adjusted according to the skill and
judgement of the engineer. Sketching can be by the method of arcs or the method of tangents. The
process of sketching on paper should go hand in hand with field observations.
Many considerations influence the choice of centreline finally selected. These include;
a) In rural areas locate the road along property edges rather than through them;
b) Avoid alignments that cause the motorist to drive into the rising or setting sun for long
periods;
c) Site the road so as to view a prominent scenic feature;
d) Minimise the destruction of manmade culture, cemeteries etc;
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
24
e) Avoid highly developed expensive land areas and seek alignments that cause minimum
environmental damage;
f) If a vertical curve is superimposed on a horizontal curve, ensure the horizontal curve is
longer;
g) Avoid introducing a sharp horizontal curve at or the top of a pronounced crest curve or the
low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve. For safety reasons, make horizontal and
vertical curves as flat as possible at junctions with other roads;
h) Avoid locating bridges on or near curves;
i) Minimise the use of alignments that require excavation of rock;
j) Balance excavation quantities with embankment quantities.
Finally cost comparisons are made of alternative alignments to assist in recommendation of the
best route.
c) Final Location Survey
The final location survey involves fixing the final, permanent centreline of the road, while
gathering additional physical data needed to prepare construction plans. The centreline that is
pegged during the final location survey should closely follow the paper location of the preliminary
survey map. Levels should be taken at regular intervals along the centreline. This should be
extended say 175m beyond the start and end of the proposed scheme. Cross section levels should
be taken at right angles on both sides of the centreline ensuring the width is greater than the
proposed roadway width. The levelling data obtained in the final location survey are fundamental
to the vertical alignment, earthworks and drainage designs. Main ground investigations for design
are carried out during the final location survey. The subsurface investigations should provide
borrow pit information. Benchmarks are also established during the final location survey.
d) Road location in built up areas
It takes a longer time to establish a major road in a built up area than in an undeveloped area. The
search for the line of a new road involves a combination of a reconnaissance-preliminary survey
(dominated by transport planning activities) and a final location survey.
The reconnaissance-preliminary survey involves a transport planning investigation carried out in
conjunction with a desk based physical site survey. The steps can be summarized as:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
The final location survey is similar to the one described above for rural areas except it is more
complex to carry out. Setting out may need more complicated offsetting and reference methods.
2.7.4
References
1.
Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Danida, 1998. Kampala to Fort-Portal Road Upgrading Project,
Uganda: Design, Tendering and Supervision of Mityana-Mubende-Kyenjojo Section. Interim
Engineering Report, COWI in Joint Venture with Road Directorate, Denmark Ministry of
Transport.
25
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications and Gauff Ingenieur, 1993. Transport
Rehabilitation Project Upgrading, Regravelling and Rehabilitation of Roads. IDA Credit No.
P593 UG, Part 1, Volume I, Engineering Report, Detailed Engineering Study.
Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of
Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
Thagesen, B., 1996. Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. 1st Edition. E
& FN Spon Publishers, London, Uk.
Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 2005. A Guide to Road Project Appraisal. Overseas
Road Note 5. Crowthorne, England.
26
Introduction
A highway engineer is required to design road facilities which will be used by pedestrians, cyclists
animal-drawn vehicles and a variety of motor-powered vehicles. The great variation in road user
behaviour and vehicle characteristics necessitates an understanding of these variations as a
precondition to highway design.
Human factors that govern the behaviour of the driver, cyclist and the pedestrians have a
considerable effect on the design elements. Knowledge of how this behaviour is influenced by
various external conditions is useful in designing the road facility. The characteristics of the
different types of vehicles will influence the geometric design elements of the highway and will
determine the safety of traffic using the road [Kadiyali, 2006].
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
Vision
Pedestrians, cyclists and drivers are able to use the road safely because of the help received by the
eyes in seeing the road and traffic thereon and in evaluating the size, shape, colour, distance and
speed of approach of various objects on the road. Safety of traffic depends upon the ability of the
road users to see traffic lights, traffic signs, vehicles on the road, safe gap and safe crossing places.
The drivers are able to cross, overtake, stop, accelerate and decelerate their vehicles on seeing the
road conditions, the traffic conditions and the environmental conditions affecting safe traffic
movement.
3.2.3
Hearing
For safe driving, cycling and walking, sound is an invaluable aid. Horns can alert the road user.
Similarly the sound of a nearing vehicle or that of skidding may alert the road user and avert and
accident. Efforts are being made to take measures for the control of noise pollution on roads.
3.2.4
27
Perception is the process of using the senses (e.g. seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling and the
thinking) to acquire information about the surrounding environment or situation.
The next stage is intellection, which means the identification of the stimuli by the development of
new thoughts and ideas. When a person receives certain stimuli, new thoughts and ideas may form
leading to better understanding of the stimuli.
Emotion is a strong feeling about somebody or something. It is an individual trait of a person
governing his decision making process.
Volition is the ability to make conscious choices or decisions. It is a persons will to react to any
given situation.
In highway design practice, the time that elapses between the perception of danger by a road user
and the decision to take action (Perception and brake-reaction time) is an important consideration
especially in the design of sight distances. The perception time is that time required for a driver to
come to a realisation that brakes must be applied. The brake reaction time is that time between
the perception of danger and the effective application of brakes. The AASHO practice is to use a
combined perception and brake-reaction time of 2.5 seconds.
3.3
Pedestrian Characteristics
3.3.1 Speed
Speed of walk of pedestrians is needed for design of traffic signals and other pedestrian facilities.
The average walking speeds range from 0.75m/s to 1.8m/s. The rate assumed in the Manual on
Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) for timing pedestrian signals is 1.2m/s.
The designers may keep in mind that many pedestrians consider themselves as not being governed
by any laws. In addition, any regulations pertaining to the movement of pedestrians are not being
enforced.
3.3.2
3.4
Vehicle Characteristics
The major vehicle characteristics considered in design include:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
3.5
Size;
Power performance of vehicles;
Rolling resistance;
Air resistance;
Grade resistance; and
Inertial forces during acceleration.
References
1.
Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2.
MoWH&C, 2005, Road Design Manual Vol.1 Geometric Design Manual
28
Introduction
Geometric design is an aspect of the highway design dealing with the visible dimensions of a
roadway. It is dictated, within economic limitations, by the requirements of traffic and includes
the design elements of horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance, cross-section components,
lateral and vertical clearances, intersection treatment, control of access etc [Kadiyali, 2006].
The purpose of geometric design is to reduce the number and severity of road accidents while
ensuring high traffic flow with minimum delay to vehicles [Thagesen, 1996]. The safe, efficient
and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large extent by the care with which the
geometric design has been worked out. Safety or the lack of it is an immediate corollary of the
various design features of the highway. Efficient and comfortable operation of traffic is possible
only if the design elements have been meticulously considered. A well designed highway has to
be consistent with economy. Too liberal standards may not fit in with the available resources,
whereas if the standards are too low, the cost of operation may mount up [Kadiyali, 2006].
The basic inputs are the Design speed and the Design hourly volume. The design speed governs
the design of vertical and horizontal curvatures while design hour volume governs capacity
required.
The design engineer has to consider the following points when selecting the design standards for a
highway.
a) Adequate geometric design in planning a highway facility ensures that the facility will not
become obsolete in the foreseeable future. Hence the volume and composition of traffic in
the design year should be the basis of design.
b) Faulty geometrics are costly, and in some cases impossible to rectify at a later date and so,
due to consideration should be given to geometric design at the initial stage itself.
c) The design should be consistent with and the standards proposed for different elements
should be compatible with one another. Abrupt changes in design should be avoided.
d) The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics of the road, including signs,
markings, proper lighting, intersections, etc.
e) The highway should be considered as an element of the total environment and its location
and design should enhance rather than degrade the environment. The highway should be
aesthetically satisfying. The design elements should strive to control pollution.
f) The design should be so selected that not only the initial cost of construction of the
facility, but also the total transportation cost, including maintenance cost and road user
cost should be minimised.
g) Safety should be inbuilt into the design elements.
h) The design should enable all the road users (motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and
animal drawn vehicles) to use the facility. The performance of the vehicles using the
facility should be given due consideration.
4.2
29
design standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design with another so that
the comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical option.
4.3
4.4
4.4.1 General
There are certain basic design controls and criteria which govern the geometric features of a
highway. These are: topography, traffic (its volume, directional distribution, and composition,
including the future estimates), speed, capacity design vehicle and control of access.
4.4.2 Topography
Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a highway.
The various design elements should be related to topographical features if an economical and
sound judgement is to emerge. The classification of terrain is normally done by means of the cross
(transverse) slope of the country, i.e. the slope approximately perpendicular to the centre-line of
the highway location.
30
Description
Flat
Level or gently rolling country which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope around 5%)
Rolling
Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently and
where occasional steep slopes may be encountered. It will offer some restrictions in horizontal
and vertical alignment. (20% transverse terrain slope > 5%)
Mountaneaous
Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite
restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep grades and
limited sight distances (70% transverse terrain slope > 20%)
Escarpment
In addition to the terrain class given above, a fourth class is added to cater for those situations
whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be met.
Escarpment situations are where it is required to switchback road alignments or side hill traverse
sections where earthwork quantities are huge (transverse terrain slope >70%)
4.4.3 Traffic
a) Importance of traffic data in Geometric Design
Of crucial importance in highway design is the traffic data both current and future estimates.
Traffic volume indicates the level of service for which the highway is being planned and directly
affects the geometric features such as width, alignment, grades etc. Without traffic data, it is futile
to design any highway.
b) Design Hour Volume (DHV)
The general unit for measuring traffic on a highway is the annual average daily traffic
volume, abbreviated as AADT. It is equal to the total annual volume of traffic divided by the
number of days in the year. Knowledge of traffic in terms of AADT is not of much use in
geometric design, since it does not represent the variations in traffic during various months
of the year, days of the week and hours of the day. A commonly used unit for geometric
design is the 30th highest hourly volume abbreviated as 30 HV. It is defined as the 30th
highest hourly volume during the year. Hence the design hourly volume (DHV) should be the
30 HV of the design (future) year chosen for design. Exceptions may be made on roads with high
seasonal fluctuation, where a different volume may need to be used [MoWH&C, 2005].
DHV is then expressed as DHV = AADT x K or ADT x K where K is estimated from the ratio of
the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site. The 30th HV is the 30th highest hourly volume
during the year.
The 30th HV is expressed as a fraction of ADT can vary as indicated in the following table.
Traffic Condition
Rural Arterial (average value)
Rural Arterial (maximum value)
Heavily trafficked road under
Congested urban conditions
30 t h HV as a fraction of ADT
0.15
0.25
0.08 0.12
31
0.10 0.15
0.20 0.30
Vehicle Type
Level
Terrain
Rolling
PCU
1.0
1.5
5.0
8.0
4.0
1.0
0.5
Mountainous
Passenger cars
1.0
1.5
Light goods vehicle
1.0
3.0
Medium goods vehicle*
2.5
10.0
Heavy goods vehicle
3.5
20.0
Buses
2.0
6.0
Motor cycles, Scooters
1.0
1.5
Pedal cycles
0.5
NA
* Also representative for combined group of medium and heavy goods vehicles and buses.
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the above table.
Passenger cars:
Medium goods vehicle:
Heavy goods vehicle:
Buses:
32
Overhang
(m)
Overall (m)
Length
Minimum
inside
radius
(m)
1.3
2.1
5.8
0.9
1.5
3.4
7.3
4.2
DV-2
4.1
2.6
9.1
1.2
1.8
6.1
12.8
8.5
DV-3
4.1
2.6
12.1
2.1
2.4
7.6
12.8
7.4
DV-4
4.1
2.6
16.7
0.9
0.6
6.1 &
9.1
13.7
5.8
DV-5
4.1
2.6
21.0
1.2
0.9
6.1 &
12.8
13.7
2.9
Rear
DV-1
Front
width
4x4
passenger car
Single unit
truck
Single unit
bus
Semitrailer
combination
large
Interstate
Semitrailer
Symbol
Minimum
design
turning
radius (m)
Height
Design
Vehicle type
33
85
50
2 . 4.1
The 85th percentile speed is selected as the design speed on the basis that it constitutes the most
appropriate choice. Use of the 99th percentile speed would be safer but extremely expensive while
use of the 50th percentile speed would be unduly unsafe for faster travelling vehicles [Rogers,
2003].
The curve depicting the cumulative distribution of speeds has a typical S shape. It is important
to note that designers use typical data previously obtained on similar roads.
4.4.6 Control of Access
Uncontrolled access to road side development along whose major function is to provide mobility
will result in an increased accident hazard, reduced capacity and early obsolescence of the roads.
In order to preserve major roads as high standard traffic facilities it is necessary to exercise access
control, whereby the right of owners or occupants of land to access is controlled by the Road
Authority.
Although control of access is one of the most important means for preserving the efficiency and
road safety of major roads, roads without access control are equally essential as land service
facilities. The following three levels of access control are applicable:
34
(1) Full access control: - means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic by providing access connections with selected public roads
only and by prohibiting direct access connections.
(2) Partial access control:- means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic to a degree in that, in addition to access connections with
selected public roads, there may be (some) private access connections.
(3) Unrestricted access: - means that preference is given to local traffic, with the road serving
the adjoining areas through direct access connection. However, the detailed location and
layout of the accesses should be subject to approval by the Road Authority in order to ensure
adequate standards of visibility, surfacing, drainage, etc.
Road function determines the level of access control needed. Roads of higher classes have their
major function to provide mobility, while the function of lower classes is to provide access.
Motorways should always have full control of access. For all purpose roads the following general
guidelines are given for the level of access control in relation to the functional road classification:
Table 4.4: Level of Access Control
Functional Class
A
Full
B
Full or Partial
C
Partial or Unrestricted
D
Partial
E
Partial or Unrestricted
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
Reduced
Partial
Partial
Partial
Unrestricted
Unrestricted
The reduced levels of access control may have to be applied for some road projects because of
practical and financial constraints.
Control of access is accomplished either by the careful location of accesses, by grouping accesses to
reduce the number of separate connections to the through traffic lanes or by constructing service
roads which intercept the individual accesses and join the through lanes at a limited number of
properly located and designed junctions. In every case the location and layout of all accesses,
service roads and junctions should be carefully considered at the design stage and include in the
final design for the project [MoWH&C, 2005].
4.5
Sight Distance
4.5.1 General
Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway that a driver can see in both the horizontal
and vertical planes. There are two types of sight distance: stopping sight distance and overtaking
sight distance [Rogers, 2003].
The design of a highway with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle results in safe operation.
Knowledge of the sight distance requirements is needed in designing vertical curves. It also
governs the set-back of buildings, slopes, fence, and other obstructions adjacent to a carriageway
on a horizontal curve [Kadiyali, 2006].
4.5.2 Stopping Sight distance, SSD
This is defined as the minimum sight distance required by the driver in order to be able to stop the
car before it hits an object on the highway. It is primary importance to the safe working of a
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
35
highway. Because of its importance to safety, all highways must be designed for the minimum
stopping sight distance. It is made up of two components:
a) The distance travelled during perception and brake-reaction time; and
b) The distance travelled during the time the brakes are under application till the vehicle
comes to a stop.
When sensations received through the eyes, ears or body are strong enough to be recognised and
interpreted, they become perceptions. In the cases of a motorist, it is the time which elapses
between the instant the driver perceives the object on the carriageway and the instant that he
realises that braking is needed. The time lag or the brief interval between the perception of danger
and the effective application of the brakes is called the brake-reaction time. The perception time
and the brake reaction time depend upon a variety of factors, e.g. age, sex, alertness and visual
acuity of the driver, visibility, vehicle design, the size and type of the object etc.
According to Ugandan practice, a perception reaction time of 2.5s, eye height of 1.07m above the
road surface and an object height of 0.15m are used in computing stopping sight distance. The
distance travelled during this interval, d1 is given by:
0.278
. 4.2
Where;
d1
v
V
t
=
=
=
=
The braking distance is the distance within which a moving vehicle comes to a stop after the
application of the brakes. On a level road, the distance is given by;
254
. 4.3
Where;
d2
V
f
=
=
=
The coefficient of friction (for a wet pavement condition) is assumed to vary from 0.40 at 30 km/h
to 0.28 at 120 km/h. The above considerations yield the values in Table 4.5 below as
recommended by MoWH&C.
Table 4.5: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Ground for Wet Pavement Condition
Brake Reaction
CoeffiAssumed
cient of
Breaking
Design
Speed for
friction for
distance
Speed
Conditio
wet
Time
Distance
on level
[km/hr]
n
pavement
[sec]
[m]
[m]
[km/hr]
conditin
(f)
Stopping
sight
distance for
design [m]
30
30-30
2.5
20.8-20.8
0.40
8.9-8.9
29.7-29.7
40
40-40
2.5
27.8-27.8
0.38
16.6-16.6
44.4-44.4
50
47-50
2.5
32.6-34.7
0.35
24.8-28.1
57.5-62.8
60
55-60
2.5
38.2-41.7
0.33
36.1-42.9
74.3-84.6
36
70
63-70
2.5
43.8-48.6
0.31
50.4-62.2
94.2-110.8
80
70-80
2.5
48.6-55.6
0.30
64.3-84.0
112.9-139.5
90
77-90
2.5
53.5-62.5
0.30
77.8-106.3
131.3-168.8
100
85-100
2.5
59.0-69.4
0.29
98.1-135.8
157.0-205.2
110
91-110
2.5
63.2-76.4
0.28
116.4170.1
179.6-246.5
120
98-120
2.5
68.1-83.3
0.28
135.0202.5
203.1-285.8
Some slight adjustments are needed in the values of the braking sight distance to take into account
the effect of grades. The following amended formula may be used to calculate d1.
. 4.4
254
Where;
G
The positive sign is used when the gradient is upgrade and the negative sign may be used if the
gradient is downgrade. Correction for grade should not be applied on undivided roads with twoway traffic but must invariably be considered for divided highways which have independently
designed profiles. The safe stopping sight distance, SSD is given by d1 + d2.
0.278
. 4.5
254
Example:
Calculate the safe stopping distance of a vehicle travelling at a speed of 80kph on an upward
gradient of 2%. Make suitable assumptions.
Solution
1.0
2.0
Data Summary
a) Vehicle running speed, V
b) Longitudinal gradient, G
c) Perception reaction time, t
d) Coefficient of friction, f
=
=
=
=
80kph
2% (upgrade = +0.02)
2.5s (Assumed)
0.3 (Assumed between 0.40 and 0.28)
80
254 0.30
0.02
55.60
78.74
134.34
37
Overtaking sight distance is of central importance to the efficient working of a given section of
highway. Overtaking sight distance only applies to single carriageways. There is no full
overtaking sight distance (FOSD) for a highway with a design speed of 120km/h since this speed
is not suitable for a single carriageway road. Full overtaking sight distances are much larger in
value than stopping sight distances. Therefore, economic realities dictate that they can only be
complied with in relatively flat terrain where alignments, both vertical and horizontal, allow the
design of a relatively straight and level highway [Rogers, 2003].
Full overtaking sight distance is measured from vehicle to vehicle (the hazard or object in this
case another car) between points 1.05m and 2.00m above the centre of the carriageway. FOSD is
made up of three components: d1, d2 and d3 as described below:
d1
distance travelled by the vehicle in question while driver in the overtaking vehicle
completes the passing manoeuvre (Overtaking Time);
d2
distance between the overtaking and opposing vehicles at the point in time at which
the overtaking vehicle returns to its designated lane (Safety Time);
d3
distance travelled by the opposing vehicle within the above mentioned Perception
reaction and overtaking times (Closing Time).
In order to establish the values for full overtaking sight distance, it is assumed that the driver
making the overtaking manoeuvre commences it at two design speed steps below the designated
design speed of the section of highway in question. The overtaking vehicle then accelerates to the
designated design speed. During this time frame, the approaching vehicle is assumed to travel
towards the overtaking vehicle at the designated design speed. The safety time, d2 is assumed to
be 20% of d3. These assumptions yield the following equation:
. 4.6
2 2 2
0.2
2.05
0.57
. 4.7
Where;
v
V
t
=
=
=
speed in m/s;
speed in km/h;
time taken to complete the entire manoeuvre.
The value of, t is generally taken as 10 seconds, as it has been established that it is less than this
figure in 85% of observed cases [Rogers, 2003].
2.0m
0.15m
1.07m
1.3m
Extra
distance
for large
vehicles
38
Note that in Uganda, the AASHTO standard and NOT the British Standard has been adopted for
computation of FOSD (See Uganda Road Design manual Vol.1, 2005).
4.5.4 Sight Distance for Multi-Lane Roads
Divided highways with 4 or more lanes need only be designed for safe stopping sight distance.
Undivided highways with 4 lanes have enough opportunities for overtaking within one half of the
carriageway. Such roads therefore need only be designed for safe stopping sight distance.
4.5.5 Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves
On horizontal curves with obstructions on the inside, an important consideration is the lateral
clearance so as to obtain the sight distance. It should be noted that:
i) Sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve;
ii) If the pavement has two or more lanes, sight distance is measured along the arc at the
centre of the inner lane.
The presence of obstructions adjacent to the highway such as boundary walls, buildings,
slopes of cuttings may constrain the limiting radius of the horizontal alignment. To provide
the necessary horizontal sight distances, it may be necessary to set back obstructions. In
cases where the obstructions are immovable, it may be necessary to redesign the road
alignment in order to meet the safety requirements. It is therefore necessary to estimate the
offset clearance necessary to secure the required horizontal distance by considering two
cases as in the following sections.
a) Required Sight distance, S lies wholly within the length of the curve, L (S L)
Assume Straight =
x
C
M
S
2
Vehicle Truck
RM
O
Figure 4.2: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S L
Source: Rogers, 2003
The offset M can be approximated by considering the vehicle truck to be along the chords AC
and CB.
When the radius of horizontal curvature is large, then it can be assumed that the required sight
distance, S, approximates to a straight line. When S lies within the curve length, the minimum
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
39
offset M from the centreline to the obstruction can be estimated by considering the triangle
OAM and ACD. Thus:
From triangle OAM,
R 2 = x 2 + (R M )
(i)
S
2
2
= x +M
2
(ii)
. 4.8
8
b) Required Sight distance, S lies outside the length of the curve, L (S > L)
S is greater than the available length of the curve L and overlaps on the tangents for a
distance l on each side.
x
l
E
P
l
B
RM
O
Figure 4.3: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S > L
Source: Rogers, 2003
Assuming a large horizontal radius of curvature and considering triangles ACP and OAP,
2
S
2
2
= x +M
2
(i)
d 2 = x 2 + (R M ) .
2
(ii)
Also,
d 2 = l 2 + R2
S L
But = + l so that (iii) becomes
2 2
(iii)
S L
2
d =
+R
2
2
8
(iv)
. 4.9
40
Example
A 2-lane 7.3 m single carriageway road has a horizontal curve of radius of 600 m. If the
minimum sight stopping distance required is 160 m, calculate in metres the required distance
to be kept clear of obstructions if the length of the curve is:
(a)
200 m;
(b)
100 m.
Solution
From the question, S = 160 m, R = 600 m.
(a) The length of the curve 200 m > 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies wholly
within the length of the curve. Applying equation (4.8), the required offset
2
(
160)
M=
= 5.33 m
8(600)
(b)
The length of the curve 100 m < 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies outside the
length of the curve. Applying equation (4.9), the required offset
M =
41
4.6
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the highway in a
horizontal plane. A horizontal alignment consists, in its most basic form, of a horizontal arc and
two transition curves forming a curve which joins two straights. In some cases the transition curve
may have zero length. The design procedure itself must commence with fixing the position of the
two straight lines which the curve will join together. The basic parameter relating these two
straight lines is the intersecting angles.
Minimum permitted horizontal radii depend on the design speed and the super-elevation of the
carriageway, which has a maximum allowable value of 7% in the UK, with designs in most cases
using a value of 5%. The relationship between super-elevation, design speed and horizontal
curvature is detailed in the following sub section.
Let;
M
v
V
R
g
N
e
C
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Mv 2
R
(i)
42
Mv 2
cos .
R
(ii)
Mv 2
sin ) .
R
(iii)
Mv 2
Mv 2
sin ) =
cos .
R
R
v 2
The term
gR
(iv)
v2
tan + =
gR
Or
v2
=e+.
gR
(iiv)
127
Equation 4.10 above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of the
curve, the super-elevation and coefficient of friction. This equation forms the basis of design
of horizontal curves,
Equation 4.10 can be rewritten as shown below and is known as the minimum radius equation:
127
The terms
. 4.11
2
v2
and v are known as the centrifugal ratio and centrifugal acceleration
gR
R
respectively.
If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by super-elevation, then frictional force will not
come into play. In this case, = 0 in equation 4.10. The super-elevation then provided is said to
be equilibrium super-elevation. In such a case, the pressures on the inner and outer wheels
would be equal.
Design practice is based on the assumption that at absolute minimum radius the 99th
percentile speed vehicle should not experience more than the maximum level of centrifugal
2
acceleration acceptable for comfort. Its value is 0.22g. Thus if v = 0 .22 g , then the total
R
centrifugal acceleration at the design speed (85th percentile speed) should not exceed:
43
0.22
0.156 . 4.12
50
65
80
100
120
130
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.67082
127
0.45
127
282
. 4.13
44
282
. 4.14
Substituting the values of camber for e in equation 4.14 above, the minimum radius beyond which
no super-elevation is required is obtained. In such cases where the radius is greater than those
given by the above formula it is desirable to remove the adverse crown in the outer half of the
carriageway and super-elevate at the normal crown slope.
4.6.6 Method of Attainment of Super-elevation
The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super-elevation surface
in two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until it is level as
shown below:
It is desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting point of
the transition curve. The raising of the outer edge should be done in a slope not exceeding 1 in 150
for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for hilly terrain.
In the second stage, any of the three methods given below may be adopted to attain the full superelevation:
a) The surface of the road is rotated about the centre-line of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the outer edge while keeping the level of the centreline constant (Figure 4.5 d);
b) The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the centre and the outer
edge (Figure 4.5 e);
c) The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the centre and the inner
edge (Figure 4.5 f);
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
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45
In most circumstances method (a) is generally used a it results in the least distortion of the
pavement. Figure 4.6 below shows the method of attaining super-elevation using method (a).
Example
Calculate the super-elevation to be provided for a horizontal curve with a radius of 400m for a
design speed of 100kph in plain terrain. Comment on the results. What is the coefficient of lateral
friction mobilised if super-elevation is to be restricted to 7%.
Solution
1.0
2.0
Data Summary
a) Curve Radius, R
b) Design Speed, V
c) Maximum super-elevation, e
=
=
=
400m
100kph
7%
3.0
282
100
282 400
0.089
8.9%
127
127
100
127 400
0.07
0.127
46
b) The Spiral
Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the most popular and
recommended for use in this country is the spiral. It is easy to set out in the field and the rate of
acceleration is uniform through the length of transition. Figure 4.7 below shows the main elements
of a circular curve provided with spirals for transition at its two ends.
max
Spiral angle
=
=
Deflection angle
Tangent length
47
R
S
L
I
T
T1
T2
U
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
. 4.15
radians . 4.16
L
inmetres . 4.17
24R
L
Tangentlength, T
R s tan
. 4.18
2
2
Shift, S
c) Length of Transition
The length of the transition should be determined from the following two considerations:
i)
The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration then:
=
=
=
Where;
aT1
aT
t
. 4.19
. 4.20
3.6
. 4.21
Where v is speed in m/s and V is speed in Km/hr. The value of C is usually taken as
0.3m/s3.
ii)
The rate of change of change of super-elevation should also be such as not to cause higher
gradients and unsightly appearances. This could be kept in 1 in 150 for roads in plain and
rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for roads in hilly terrain. Since the super-elevation can be given
by rotating about the centreline, inner or outer edge, the length of the transition will be
governed accordingly. In calculating the length of transition, the pavement width should
include any widening that may have been provided at the curve.
48
The higher of the values given by the above two methods should be adopted.
4.6.8 Curve Widening
Widening of pavements is needed on curves for the following reasons:
a) On curves, the vehicles occupy a greater width because the rear wheels track inside the front
wheels (See Figure 4.8)
b)
On curves, drivers have difficulty in
steering their vehicles to keep to centre line of the lane.
c)
Drivers have psychological shyness to
drive close to the edges of the pavement on curves.
From Figure 4.8, considering the triangle OCB, right
angled at B,
. 4.22
Assuming a wheel base of 6m for a vehicle corresponding to AASHTO single unit, widening in
metres, m is given by:
18
. 4.23
. 4.24
0.1
. 4.25
49
Example
A two-lane (7.0m wide) pavement on a National highway in hilly terrain has a curve radius of
250m. The design speed is 80kph, maximum super-elevation is 7%, camber is 2.5%, the relative
longitudinal gradient is 0.5% (1 in 200), the angle of deviation is 60o and the rate of change of
radial acceleration is 0.3m/s3. Determine the following assuming that; a) the curve will need to be
widened if the curve radius is less than 300m, b) the super-elevation is obtained by rotation about
the centre line, and c) the design vehicle is a DV-2 single unit truck with a wheel base of 6.1m.
i) The length of transition curve;
ii) The tangent length
iii) The total length of the curve.
Solution
1.0
Data Summary
a) Pavement width, W
b) Curve Radius, R
c) Design Speed, V
d) Maximum super-elevation, emax
e) Camber, eo
f) Relative longitudinal gradient, S
g) Angle of deviation,
h) Rate if change of radial accn., C
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
7.0m
250m
80kph
7%
2.5%
0.5%
60o
0.3m/s3
2.0
Sketch drawing
Refer to Figure 4.6
3.0
3.1
Transition Length, L
Based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, La
From equation 4.21, the transition length, L, required for safety and comfort is given by;
1
.
3.6
80
1
.
3.2
6.1
2 250
0.1
80
250
0.655
7.000 + 0.655
7.655m
.... (ii)
50
9.08% .
2.82 250
7.0
72.723
Therefore;
Adopt L = 146.319m since La > Ls. (i.e. take the greater of the two values)
4.0
Tangent Length, T
The tangent length T is given by;
T
S tan
L
24R
Where;
Therefore;
3.57m
60
146.319
219.558
2
2
220m
5.0
146.319
24 250
250
3.57 tan
2L
R 2
anglesareinradians
L
146.319
60
R
2
2
R
115.500m
180
2R
2x250
180
From which;
LT
115.500 2 146.319
408.138m
51
d) The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. Winding alignment consisting of short curves
should be avoided, since it is the cause of erratic vehicle operation;
e) A sharp curve at the end of along tangent is extremely hazardous and should be avoided. If
sharp curvature is unavoidable over a portion of the route selected, it is preferable that this
portion of the road be preceded by successive sharper curves. Proper signage, well in
advance of a sharp horizontal curve is essential;
f) Short curves giving the appearance of kinks should be avoided, especially for small
deflection angles. The curves should be sufficiently long to provide a pleasing appearance
and smooth driving on important highways. They should be at least 150m long for a
deflection angle of 5 degrees, and the minimum length should be increased by 30m for
each 1 degree decrease in the deflection angle;
g) For a particular design speed, as large a radius as possible should be adopted. The
minimum radii should be reserved only for the critical locations;
h) The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills. In the absence of cut slopes,
shrubs, trees, etc., above the roadway, the drivers may have difficulty in estimating the
extent of curvature and fail to adjust to the conditions;
i) While abrupt reversals in curvature are to be avoided, the use of reverse curves becomes
unavoidable in hilly terrain. When they are provided, adequately long transitional curves
should be inserted for super-elevation run-off;
j) Curves in the same direction separated by short tangents, say 300m -500m long, are called
broken-back curves. They should be avoided as they are not pleasing in appearance and are
hazardous;
k) Compound curves may be used in difficult topography in preference to a broken-back
arrangement, but they should be used only if it is impossible to fit in a single circular
curve. To ensure safe and smooth transition from curve to curve, the radius of the flatter
curve should not be disproportional to the radius of the sharper curve. A ration of 2:1 or
preferably 1.5:1 should be adopted;
l) The horizontal alignment should blend with the vertical harmoniously. General controls
for the combination of horizontal and vertical alignments should be followed [Kadiyali,
2006].
4.7
Vertical Alignment
Vertical alignment design refers to the arrangement of tangents and curves which compose the
profile of the road. It is composed of a series of straight-line gradients connected by curves,
normally parabolic in form. The main aim of vertical alignment is to ensure that a continuously
unfolding stretch of the road is presented to motorists so that their anticipation of directional
change and future action is instantaneous and correct [Rogers, 2003; OFlaherty, 2002].
In order to provide adequate visibility, oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road must be
seen clearly and in good time to ensure that vehicles travelling at the design speed can stop or
overtake safely. This requirement is achieved by use of sight distances and K-Values to be
discussed shortly in this chapter.
In order to provide passenger comfort, the effect of the radial force on the vehicle traversing a
vertical curve must be minimised. In crest curve design this effect could cause the vehicle to leave
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
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52
the road surface (e.g. in hump-back bridges) while in the sag curve the underside of the vehicle
would come into contact with the surface, particularly where the gradients are steep and opposed.
The result is discomfort and danger to passengers travelling. This can be minimised by:
Restricting the gradients; which has the effect of reducing the radial force;
Choosing a suitable type and length of curve such that this reduced force is introduced
gradually and uniformly as possible [Uren et al, 1989].
4.7.2 Gradients
The rate of rise or fall of road surface along its length with respect to horizontal distance is termed
as gradient [MoWH&C, 2004]. The use of steep gradients in hilly terrain generally results in
lower road construction and environmental costs. However, it also adds to road user costs through
delays, extra fuel costs and accidents. Gradients of up to about 7% have little effect on the speeds
of passenger cars. Nevertheless, the speeds of commercial vehicles are considerably reduced on
long hills with gradients in excess of 2%. For short distances, gradients of 5% or 6% may have
little detrimental effect on commercial vehicle speeds [OFlaherty, 2002]. Long, steep, downhill
grades are very dangerous and need careful design, preferably with escape roads (side roads that
are designed to bring out-of-control vehicles to a safe stop) [MoWH&C, 2004]. The Uganda Road
Design manual (2004), suggests maximum gradients as presented in Table 2.16 below:
Table 4.7: Maximum Grades as recommended by MoWH&C
Speed
Maximum Grade (%)
(km/h)
Flat Rolling Mountainous
50
6-8 7-9
9-10
80
4-6 5-7
7-9
100
3-5 4-6
6-8
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual (2004)
According to British Standards of road design, a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.5% is needed
to ensure effective drainage of carriageways with kerbs.
4.7.3 Climbing Lanes
The limitation of gradients to a maximum value is not in itself a complete design control, and
therefore an additional climbing lane is normally provided on long uphill climbs. The provision of
a climbing lane is normally considered when the combination of hill severity and traffic volumes
and composition is such that the operational benefits achieved are greater than the additional costs
of constructing an additional lane.
In Uganda, however, climbing lanes are recommended for use if the design truck speed decreases
more than 20 km/h under the truck speed limit, normally 80 km/h in rural conditions. A climbing
lane is inserted into the carriageway by means of entry and exit tapers to the left of the continuous
lane so that slow moving vehicles have to merge into the faster traffic at the termination point as
shown below.
53
54
Let;
Then;
.
100
100
At x = L
100
100
100
100
100
From the above equation, it implies that If x = 0, the y = C2 = RLPC (i.e. reduced level at PC)
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
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55
Therefore the general equation used determine the reduced level at any point on the vertical curve,
RLx is given by;
100
. 4.26
200
100
100
100
200
From which;
/
200
. 4.27
c) Sight Distances
The length of curve to be used in any given situation depends on the sight distance. It is the
distance of visibility from one side of the curve to the other [Uren et al, 1989].
There are two categories of sight distance namely:
Stopping sight distance (SSD); which is the theoretical forward sight distance required by
a driver in order to stop safely and comfortably when faced with an unexpected hazard on
the carriageway, and
Full overtaking sight distance (FOSD); which is the length of visibility required by
motorists to enable them to safely and comfortably overtake vehicles ahead of them.
When designing vertical curves, it is important to know whether safe overtaking is to be included
in the design. If it is to be included, then the FOSD must be incorporated in the design and if it is
not then SSD must be incorporated. On single carriageways, it is usually necessary to consider
whether to design for overtaking only at crest curves since overtaking is not a problem on dual
carriageways and visibility is usually more than adequate on single carriageways [Uren et al,
1989].
Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S L and b) when S > L
Source: OFlaherty (2002)
d) K-Values
In the past it was necessary to use the appropriate sight distance for the road type and design speed
in question to calculate the minimum length of the vertical curve required. Nowadays, however,
constants which greatly simplify calculations have been provided by the MoWH&C [Uren et al,
1989]. The minimum length of vertical curve Lmin for any given road is obtained from the formula.
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
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56
. 4.28
Where;
K
R
A
=
=
=
There are three categories of K-Values for crest curves (SSD and FOSD crest curve values
obtained from Table 2.17) and one category of K-Values for sags obtained from Table 2.18. The
K-Values obtained are derived from the sight distances as already discussed [MoWH&C, 2004].
Table 4.8: Minimum Radii for Crest Curves as Recommended by MoWH&C
Radius (m) R
(R= K * 100)
Stopping
Overtaking
(km/h)
desirable minimum desirable no overtaking
centreline
markings
50
1100
600
11000
5500
80
4500
3000
32000
15000
100
10000
7000
65000
24000
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004
Speed
Radius (m) R
Desirable
Minimum
50
600
400
80
1300
1000
100
2000
1500
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004
200
For S > L;
2
200
. 4.30
Where;
Lmin
S
=
=
57
A
h1
h2
=
=
=
For full overtaking sight distance, FOSD, h1 = h2 = 1.05m. The decision to which equation should
be used at a given site can be made by solving either of the equations below;
. 4.31
If e > h1 then equation (4.29) is used and when e < h1, equation (4.30) is used [OFlaherty, 2002].
4.7.7 Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements
a) Based on clearance from structures during day time
In certain situations when a road passes beneath structure such as an over pass or bridge on sag
curves, the primary design criterion for designing the sag curve may be the provision of necessary
clearance in order to maintain the drivers line of sight [Rogers, 2003]. The minimum length of
sag curve which meets minimum stopping sight distance requirements is given by;
When SSD L
Lmin =
AS 2
h1 h2
8 D 8 2
....(4.33)
Lmin
h + h2
2 S 8 1
2
=
A
....(4.34)
Where;
h1
h2
L
A
D
=`
=
=
=
=
Lnight =
AS 2
200(h3 + S tan )
200 ( h3 + S tan )
A
....(4.35)
....(4.36)
Where h3 = headlight height (usually 0.6m above the carriageway), = angle of upward
divergence of light beam (usually 1.0o), and L, A, and S are as defined previously.
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58
It should however be noted that the above equations (based on night time conditions) are;
Very sensitive to the assumption of a 1degree upward divergence of the light beam;
They erroneously assume that headlights can illuminate an object on the carriageway at
long distances and they ignore the fact that many vehicles are driven on dipped lights;
and
The effect of headlamps is reduced on horizontal curves [OFlaherty, 2002].
AV 2 AV 2
=
13 a
390
....(4.37)
Where; V = design speed (km/hr), A is the algebraic difference in grade (%), and a = vertical
radial acceleration (m/s2) usually taken as 0.3 m/s2 for comfortable design [OFlaherty, 2002].
d) Design Speed and Speed Limit
Design speed is a measure of road quality. It may be defined as the maximum safe speed that can
be maintained at a given section of the road where conditions are so favourable that the design
features of the road govern vehicular movements [MoWH&C, 2004]. The selection of design
speeds for road sections of a particular classification is primarily influenced by;
Nature of terrain:- whether level, rolling or mountainous; and
Motorist expectations: - in relation to free speed at which it is safe to drive (in rural areas)
or legal to drive (in urban areas) [OFlaherty, 2002].
Speed limit on the other hand is the maximum allowable speed on a road. The normal speed limit
on rural roads in Uganda is 80km/hr and that in trading centres, towns and cities is 50km/hr.
Speed limits may be reduce but not increased by local speed limits shown on regulatory traffic
signs [MoWH&C, 2004].
In a nutshell, the design speed should not be lower than the speed limit and should be preferably
10km/hr higher than the speed limit. Short rural sections with design speeds lower than the speed
limit should be treated with warning signs and no overtaking markings [MoWH&C, 2004].
e) Length of Vertical Curve to be used
Normally the value for minimum length of curve obtained from the K-Value is not used. A greater
value is instead chosen. This may be due to the necessity to fit the curve into particular site
conditions and the necessity to fit the vertical alignment of the road to the horizontal alignment (a
process known as phasing of vertical and horizontal alignment) [Uren et al, 1989].
f) Phasing of the Vertical and Horizontal Alignment
Phasing is usually done when designing new roads or improving existing alignments and follows
the procedure below;
Designing or redesigning the horizontal alignment;
Taking reduced levels at regular intervals along the proposed centreline and plotting a
longitudinal profile;
Superimposing chosen gradients on the longitudinal section, altering their percentage as
necessary to try to balance out any cut and fill in addition to trying to get the vertical
tangent points to coincide with those of the horizontal curve.
It is this last point that often gives the length of vertical curve in order to avoid the creation of
optical illusions in the vertical plane [Uren et al, 1989].
59
g) Setting-Out Data
In setting out a vertical curve on ground, the objective is to place large pegs at the required
intervals along the line of the proposed roadway and to nail a cross-piece to each peg at a certain
height (usually 1.0m), above the proposed road level. These pegs are called profiles and the
erection of these profiles is the standard method of setting out proposed levels on any construction
site. The following information is required for any setting out calculations; the length of the curve
(which is dependent on the gradient of the straights and site distance) and the gradients of slopes
together with one change point preferably a point of vertical intersection [Irvine, 1998].
4.7.8 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment
The following general controls for vertical alignment should be kept in view while designing the
vertical profile of a highway:
a) The grade line selected should be smooth with gradual changes, consistent with the class
of highway and terrain. Numerous breaks and short lengths of grades should be avoided;
b) The roller-coaster or hidden type of profile should be avoided as it is hazardous and
aesthetically unpleasant;
c) Undulating grade line, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades, should be
appraised for their effect upon traffic operation. Such profiles permit heavy trucks to
operate at higher overall speeds than when an upgrade is not preceded by a down grade,
but may encourage excessive speeds of trucks with consequent hazard to traffic;
d) A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by short
section of tangent grade) should generally be avoided;
e) On long continuous grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at the bottom
and flatten the grades near the top. Alternatively, long grades may be broken by short
intervals of flatter grades;
f) Intersections on grades should be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable, the
approach gradients and the gradient through the intersections should be flattened to the
maximum possible extent.
Vertical Curve Examples
Question one
The elevation of an intersection of rising gradient of 1.5% and a falling gradient of 1.0% on a
proposed road is 93.600m AOD. Given that the K-Value for this particular road is 55, the through
stationing of the intersection point is 0 + 671.340 and the vertical curve is to have equal tangent
length. Calculate:
a) The through stationing of the tangent points of the vertical curve if the minimum required
length is to be used.
b) The elevations of the tangent points and the elevations at exact 20m multiples of through
stationing along the curve.
c) The position and level of the highest point on the curve.
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Grades; Initial, m
Final, n
b) Point of Intersection
Stationing of PVI
Elevation of PVI
c) K-value
=
=
1.5%
-1.0%
=
=
=
0 + 671.340
93.600m AOD
55
60
(+1.5%) (-1.0%)
2.5%
=
=
=
Stationing of PVI =
Elevation of PVI
=
=
=
100 200
92.570 0.015x 0.000091
From which the table below is derived
Stationing
Sta.
0+602.590 (PVC)
0+620.000
0+640.000
0+660.000
0+680.000
0+700.000
0+720.000
0+740.000
0+740.090 (PVI)
Checks:
Xmax =
RLLast =
L
=
RLPVT =
137.500m
921,912m AOD
its OK
its OK
61
100
200
x 0;
x 82.5m
100 100
This means that the highest point is located 82.5m from PVC i.e. at station (0+602.590) +
82.5 = 0+685.090
The elevation of the highest point is located at x = 82.5m, therefore from the above equation
1.5 82.5
2.5
92.570
82.5 93.189mAOD
.
100
200
Question Two
An equal tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades of -2.0% (initial) and +1.0%
(final). The PVI (Point of vertical intersection) is at station 11 + 000.000 and elevation 420.000m
AOD. Due to a street crossing, the elevation of the roadway at station 11 + 071.000 must be at
elevation 421.500m. Design the curve assuming it has a shape of the form; y = ax 2 + bx + c .
Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Type of vertical curve
b) Grades; Initial, m
Final, n
c) Point of Intersection, PVI
Stationing
Elevation
d) Point of Interest
Stationing
Elevation
:
=
=
Equal tangent
-2.0%
+1.0%
=
=
11+000.000
420.000m AOD
=
=
11+710.000
421.500m AOD
Note: There is need to determine, L such that station 11+071.000 is at elevation 421.500m AOD
3.0 Solving the Parabolic Equation for constants a, b and c
The parabolic equation is of the form;
bx c . i
2
b . ii
At PVC; x = 0
2 0
At PVT; x = L
100
0.02 . iii
62
100
n m
200L
1.0 2.0
200L
0.015
. iv
L
2 0.00375
44.825, 449.842
44.825m is not feasible since the point of interest is 71m beyond PVI, therefore L = 449.842. This
means that the point of interest is located x = 0.5(449.842) +71 = 295.921m from PVC.
5.0
=
=
=
Stationing of PVI
=
=
=
Elevation of PVI
=
=
=
Exercise
A 150m long equal tangent vertical curve connecting grades of +1.2% (initial) and -1.08% (final)
crosses a one-meter diameter pipe at right angles. The pipe is located at station 11 + 025.000 and
its centerline is at elevation 1091.6m. The PVI of the vertical curve is at station 11 + 000.000 and
elevation 1095.2m. Using offsets determine the depth, below the surface of the curve, to the top of
the pipe and determine the station of the highest point on the curve.
63
4.8
Cross-Sectional Elements
4.8.1 General
The cross-sectional elements of a highway design pertain to those features which deal with its
width. They embrace aspects such as road reserve width, carriageway width, central reservation
(median), shoulders, camber, side slopes, horizontal and vertical clearances etc.
carriageway
support
strip shoulder
lateral
clearance
traffic lane
camber %
fill or
embankment
traffic lane
camber %
shoulder
lateral
clearance
catch drain
back or outer
slope
safety zone
road prism
cut
natural terrain
verge
support
strip
right-of-way
boundary
roadside area
verge
road reserve
edge
strip
traffic lanes
outer
edge
strip
median
traffic lanes
inner
camber %
outer hard
shoulder
edge
strip
divider
separate
edge
footway/
strip
cycleway
camber %
inner hard
shoulder
outer hard
shoulder
64
a) The design volume, i.e. the greater the traffic volume the wider the carriageway and,
normally, the greater the number of lanes;
b) Vehicle dimensions, i.e. heavy commercial vehicles require wider carriageways to ensure
adequate clearances when passing each other;
c) The design speeds, i.e. vehicles travelling at high speed, especially commercial vehicles,
require wider carriageways to ensure safe clearances between passing vehicles;
d) The road classification, i.e. the higher the road classification the greater the level of service
(and width of carriageway) expected.
Internationally, it is generally accepted that lane widths should normally be at least 3.5m,
although narrower lanes are often used for economic or environmental reasons on both rural
and urban roads. However, increasing the lane width up to 3.65m on two lane two way rural
roads decreases accident rates [OFlaherty, 2002].
4.8.4 Central Reservation (Median) Strip
A central reservation strip is the longitudinal space separating dual carriageways. The functions of
the median strip are:
a) To separate the opposing streams of traffic;
b) To minimise head-light glare;
c) To include space for safe operation of crossing and turning vehicles at intersections at
grade;
d) To provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.
The central reservations on high-speed heavily trafficked rural roads in the United States are
typically 15m to 30m. In Europe they tend to be much narrower (say 4 10m) and to be used with
safety barriers. Those in Britain are normally 4.5m wide, and include a crash barrier. In urban
areas they can be as narrow as 1m, but 3m is preferred so that a crossing pedestrian pushing a
pram or wheelchair has space to wait in safety [OFlaherty, 2002]. On severely restricted arterial
streets, where a narrow separator of 0.6 1.2m is feasible, it may be desirable to have few, if any,
openings in median except at intersections.
4.8.5 Shoulders
A shoulder is a portion of the roadway adjacent to the carriageway and is intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of base and surface
courses. The width of the shoulder should be adequate for giving working space around a stopped
vehicle. American practice recommends a 3m width for high type facility and a width of 1.2m 2.4m for low type facilities. UK practice for rural roads recommends widths ranging from 1.2m to
3.65m depending upon the road type and nature of kerb treatment.
4.8.6 Laybys and bus bays
When economic considerations do not favour the construction of shoulders on rural roads, laybys
should be provided instead, at spacings that are appropriate to the traffic volume. Thus, for well
trafficked and lightly trafficked single carriageways, it is British practice to provide 2.5m and 3m
wide by 30m long laybys at 1.5km and 5.8km intervals, respectively, on either side of the
carriageway, while 3m wide by 100m long laybys are provided at approximately 1km intervals on
each side of dual carriageways. Laybys should be located at sites with good visibility and
provided with tapered hard-strips at either end to assist in the safe deceleration and acceleration of
vehicles using them.
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
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65
Full bus bays (3.25m by at least 12m, plus 20m end tapers) may be provided at bus stops in urban
areas; however, the appropriateness of this provision is dependent on the traffic volumes on the
road in question.
4.8.7 Kerbs
A kerb (as termed as curb) is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or
shoulder, forming part of gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining the
edge to vehicle operators. Its functions are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Kerbs are classified as barrier or mountable. Barrier kerbs are designed to discourage vehicles
from leaving the pavement. The face may be vertical or sloping and the height may range from
15cm to 25cm. Mountable kerbs are those which can be easily crossed by vehicles if required.
They are used at medians and channelizing islands.
4.8.8 Camber
Camber, also known as cross fall, facilitates drainage of the pavement laterally. The pavement can
have a crown or a high point in the middle with slopes downwards towards both edges. This is
favoured on two-lane roads and wider undivided roads. On divided roads, the individual
carriageways may be centrally crowned separately or a unidirectional slope may be provided
across the entire carriageway width. The amount of camber to be provided depends upon the
smoothness of the surface and the intensity of rainfall. In the UK, a value of 2.5% is generally
adopted for design. A cross fall for the shoulders should be generally steeper than for the
pavement by about 0.3 0.5% to facilitate quick drainage. The UK practice is to provide 5% slope
on the shoulder [Kadiyali, 2006].
4.8.9 Side slope
According to OFlaherty (2002), soil mechanics analysis enables the accurate determination of
maximum slopes at which embankments or cuts can safely stand. However, these maximum
values are not always used, especially on low embankments not protected by safety fences. The
slopes of embankments and cut sections depend upon the type of soil and the height of
embankment or depth of cuttings. A flatter slope is conducive for erosion control, but is costly.
Flatter slopes of embankments promote safety of traffic. Ordinarily, 1.5:1 to 2:1 in mild slope
conditions and 2:1 to 3:1 in overwhelming slope conditions will be adequate.
4.9
4.9.1 General
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross, within
which are included the roadway and roadside design features which facilitate orderly traffic
movements in that area. An intersection leg is that part of any one of the highways radiating from
an intersection which is outside of the area of the intersection.
66
The importance of intersection design stems from the fact that efficiency of operation, safety,
speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly governed by the design. Since an intersection
involves conflicts between traffic in different directions, its scientific design can control accidents
and delay and can lead to orderly movement of traffic. Intersections represent potentially
dangerous locations from the point of view of traffic safety. It is believed that well over half the
fatal and serious road accidents in built-up areas occur at junctions [Kadiyali, 2006].
The following principles should be considered in a good design:
a) The number of intersections should be kept to a minimum. If necessary, some minor roads
may be connected with each other before joining a major road;
b) The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by drivers are
eliminated. This can be achieved by various techniques such as channelizing and
staggering;
c) The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or from
traffic signs about which path he/she should follow and the actions of merging and
diverging. This can be achieved by good layout, traffic islands, signs and carriageway
markings. Good visibility improves safety;
d) The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths. Smoothness, in contrast to abrupt and
sharp corners, should guide minor streams of traffic into stopping or slowing down
positions;
e) The number of conflict points should be minimised by separating some of the many
cutting, merging or diverging movements;
f) Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided with
adequate space at the junction.
4.9.2 At-grade and Grade Separated Junctions
An intersection where all roadways join or cross at the same level is known as an at-grade
intersection. An intersection layout which permits crossing manoeuvres at different levels is
known as a grade separated intersection.
The choice between an at-grade and grade separated intersection at a particular site depends upon
various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay etc. Grade-separated junctions
generally are more expensive initially, and are justified in certain situations. These are:
a) On high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways;
b) Certain at-grade intersections which have reached the maximum capacity and where it is
not possible to improve the capacity further by retaining the at-grade crossing;
c) At certain locations which have a proven record of bad accident history when functioning
as at grade junctions;
d) At junctions where the traffic volume is heavy and the delays and economic loss caused
justify the provision of grade-separation;
e) At certain specific topographical situations where it is logical to provide a grade-separated
structure rather than an at-grade intersection, which may involve considerable earthwork or
acquisition of land.
4.9.3 Basic Forms of At-grade Intersections
Intersections can be divided into the basic forms shown in Figure 4.16 below. From a design
aspect these intersections can also be divided according to whether they are controlled, priority
controlled (stop, Give Way), space-sharing (i.e. roundabouts), time sharing (i.e. traffic-signal
controlled), or grade-separated (including interchanges) [OFlaherty, 2002].
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
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67
68
a) An Access
According to MoWH&C (2005), an access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified road
with a classified road and shall generally be provided within the road reserve boundary of the
classified road. Access roads are used to connect properties etc. to the road network. Accident
risk increases with the frequency of access roads, so they should, as far as possible, be
discouraged on higher classes of roads. The lay out and location of the access must satisfy the
visibility requirement for "stop conditions given in Figure 4.17 below.
b) A Junction or an Intersection
A junction is the intersection of two or more classified roads on the same surface / at grade. At
grade intersections can be classified in to two main intersection categories based on the type of
control used. For each category, there are a number of intersection types as shown below.
Table 4.10: Types of At-grade Intersections as recommended by MoWH&C
Traffic control
Intersection
category
Major road
Minor road
Priority intersection
Priority
Control intersection
Intersection types
A Unchannelised T-intersection
B Partly Channelised T-intersection
C Channelised T-intersection
D
E
Roundabout
Signalised intersection
i)
Priority Intersections
Priority intersections will be adequate in most rural situations. Three types of T intersections are
given below:
Unchannelised T-Intersection (A)
The unchannelised design is suitable for intersections where there is a very small amount of
turning traffic. It is the simplest design and has no traffic islands (see Figure 4.18).
Partly channelised T-Intersection (B)
The partly channelised design is for intersections with a moderate volume of turning traffic. It
has a traffic island in the minor road arm. In urban areas, the traffic island would normally be
kerbed in order to provide a refuge for pedestrians crossing the road.
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
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69
Unchannelised
Partly channelised
Channelised
The crossroads form of priority intersection must not be used. It has a very high number of
conflict points, and has a much higher accident risk than any other kind of intersection. Existing
crossroads should, where possible, be converted to a staggered intersection, or roundabout, or be
controlled by traffic signals [MoWH&C, 2005].
ii)
Control Intersections
Control intersections are mostly used in towns and trading centres. However, roundabouts can be
used in rural areas in intersections between major roads or other intersections with high traffic
volumes. There are two types of control intersections:
Roundabout (D)
Roundabouts are controlled by the rule that all entry traffic must give way to circulating traffic.
The ratio of minor road incoming traffic to the total incoming traffic should preferably be at least
10 to 15%. Roundabouts can be of normal size, i.e. with central island radius 10 m or more, or
small size, i.e. with central island radius less than 10 m (see Figure 4.18).
Signalised Intersection (E)
Signalised intersections have conflicts separated by traffic signals. No conflicts are allowed
between straight through traffic movements.
Typical design of control intersections is shown in Figure 8.3.
Roundabout
Signalised intersection
70
c) Design Requirements
The design of at-grade junctions must take account of the following basic requirements:
safety
operational comfort
capacity
economy
i) Safety and Operational Comfort
A junction is considered safe when it is perceptible, comprehensible and manoeuvrable.
These three requirements can generally be met by complying with the following guidelines.
Perception
The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible;
Early widening of the junction approaches;
The use of traffic islands in the minor road to emphasize a yield or stop requirement.
The use of early and eye-catching traffic signs;
Optical guidance by landscaping and the use of road furniture, especially where a junction
must be located on a crest curve;
The provision of visibility splays which ensure unobstructed sight lines to the left and right
along the major road;
The angle of intersection of the major and minor roads should be between 70 and 110 degrees;
The use of single lane approaches is preferred on the minor road in order to avoid mutual sight
obstruction from two vehicles waiting next to each other to turn or cross the major road.
Comprehension
The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout;
The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be as much as possible
similar;
The provision of optical guidance by the use of clearly visible kerbs, traffic islands, road
markings, road signs and other road furniture.
Manoeuvrability
A1l traffic lanes should be of adequate width for the appropriate vehicle turning
characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turning radii shall be 15 meters minimum;
The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings;
Traffic islands and kerbs should not conflict with the natural vehicle paths.
ii) Capacity
The operation of uncontrolled junctions depends principally upon the frequency of gaps which
naturally occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of sufficient
duration to permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major road flow. In
consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be optimized by, for example,
channelisation or the separation of manoeuvres.
iii) Economy
An economical junction design generally results from a minimization of the construction,
maintenance and operational costs.
Delay can be an important operational factor and the saving in time otherwise lost may justify a
more expensive, even grade separated, junction.
CE 323 Highway Engineering 1, Lecture Notes. Kyambogo University, KAMPALA UGANDA
foe, 2008; foe700@yahoo.com.
71
Loss of lives, personal injuries and damage to vehicles caused by junction-accidents are
considered as operational "costs" and should be taken into account.
The optimum economic return may often be obtained by a phased construction, for example by
constructing initially an at-grade junction which may later become grade separated [MoWH&C,
2005].
d) Selection of Intersection Type
i) General
These selection guidelines provided by MoWH&C mainly deal with traffic safety. The ministry
recommends that other important impacts such as capacity/road user costs, environmental issues,
investment and maintenance costs should also be taken into consideration.
The selection is divided into two steps; selection of intersection category (priority or control) and
selection of intersection type. It is based on the following assumptions:
Priority intersections can be safe and give sufficient capacity for certain traffic volumes and
speed limits;
If a priority intersection is not sufficient for safety and capacity, the major road traffic must
also be controlled.
Depending on location, traffic conditions and speed limits, different types of priority or control
intersection should be selected.
ii) Selection of Intersection Category
Based on Safety
The selection of intersection category should mainly be based on safety. The selection can be
made by using diagrams with the relationships between the safety levels and the average annual
daily approaching traffic volumes (AADT in veh/day) based on accident statistics. The diagrams
shown in Figure 4.20 are for T-intersections on 2-lane roads with 50, 80 and 100 km/h speed limit.
The diagrams are, as already stated, based on general European experience on relationships
between speed, safety and traffic flows. They are judged reasonable to be used in Uganda until
sufficient local research is available.
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day
6000
50 km/h
Q3
Q1
Q2
3000
Select control
intersection
Select control
intersection
4000
80 km/h
Q3
Q1
2000
Q2
Consider control
intersection
Consider control
intersection
2000
1000
Select priority
intersection
Select priority
intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
100 km/h
3000
2000
Select control
intersection
Consider
control
intersection
Q3
Q1
Q2
1000
Select priority
intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
72
Based on Capacity
The selection of intersection category based on safety should be checked for capacity. It can be
made by using diagrams with the relationships between the capacity and the approaching traffic
volumes during the design hour (DHV in pcu/design hour). The diagrams shown in Figure 4.21
are for T-intersections on 2-lane roads with 50, 80 and 100 km/h speed limit. The desired level
refers to a degree of saturation (actual traffic flow/capacity) of 0.5. The acceptable level refers to a
degree of saturation of 0.7.
The diagrams are based on Swedish capacity studies with findings similar to other European
countries. It is judged reasonable to be used in Uganda until sufficient Ugandan research is
available.
Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour
50km/h
400
Acceptable
Acceptable
Desired
200
80km/h
400
Control or grade-separated
intersection needed
Control or grade-separated
intersection needed
Desired
200
Q3
Q3
Q1
Q2
Q1
500
1000
1500
Q2
500
1000
1500
Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour
400
100km/h
Acceptable
200
Control or grade-separated
intersection needed
Desired
Q3
Q1
Q2
500
1000
1500
73
50 km/h
Q3
Q1
Select channelised
T-intersection
Q2
4000
2000
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised
T-intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day
3000
80 km/h
Q3
Q1
Q2
2000
Select channelised
T-intersection
1000
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised
T-intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day
100 km/h
1500
Q3
1000
Q1
Q2
Select channelised
T-intersection
500
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised T-intersection
5000
10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day
74
capacity from each intersection. Observance of traffic signals by Ugandan drivers is reasonably
good, and could be improved through enforcement campaigns.
For some traffic distributions, for example high traffic volumes on the major road, the total delay
can be shorter in a signalised intersection than in a roundabout. The diagram in Figure 8-8 shows
the traffic conditions for which signalised intersections are most suited, based on Kenyan and UK
experience.
Minor road approaching AADT, veh/day
15 000
10 000
Interchange
needed
Roundabout
5 000
Consider
Signalised
Intersection
10 000
20 000
30 000
14
0.364
0.364
0.144
0.114
0.229
0.520
. 4.38
. 4.39
75
745
Where;
1
0.0345
0.364
. 4.40
. 4.41
0.094
3.65
0.0009
120
0.006 1
0.006
150 4.42
0.094
3.65
0.0009
120 . 4.43
0.094
3.65
0.0009
120 . 4.44
The superscript s (e.g. qsB-A) denotes the flow from the saturated stream i.e. one in which there
is stable queuing.
The geometric parameters wB-A and wB-C denote the average widths of each of the minor road
approach lanes for waiting vehicles in streams B-A and B-C respectively, measured over a
distance 20m upstream from the Give Way line;
wC-B denotes the average width of the right-turn (central) lane on the major road, or 2.1m if
there is no explicit provision for right turners in stream C-B.
The parameters VrB-A and VlB-C denote right and left visibility distances, respectively, available
from the road;
VrC-B is the visibility available to right-turning vehicles waiting to turn right from the major
road;
W is the average major road carriageway width at the intersection; in the case of ghost or
raised islands, W excludes the width of the central (turning) lane;
WCR is the average width of the central reserve lane at the intersection on a dual carriageway
road.
All capacities and flows are in passenger car units per hour (pcu/hr) and distances are in meters.
One heavy vehicle is considered equivalent to two (2) pcu for calculation purposes. Capacities are
always positive or zero; if the right-hand side of any equation is negative, the capacity is taken as
zero. The ranges within which the geometric data are considered valid are as follows: w = 2.054.70m, Vr = 17 250m, Vl = 22 250m, WCR = 1.2 - 9m (dual carriageway sites only), W = 6.4 20m.
76
. 4.45
Where; D3 = total intersection delay (h) during the peak three hours, and P32 = ratio of flow in the
peak three hours to the 24-hour flow. The above formula assumes that delays are inflicted only on
minor road vehicles, which have to yield priority to the major road streams.
T-Junction Example
A new industrial complex is planned to be sited adjacent to an existing priority intersection. The
width of the main carriageway is 8m. The width of the carriageway for traffic movements B-A, BC and C-B are 3, 3 and 2m respectively. The visibility distances at the drivers eye height for the
junction are: VrB-A = 60m, VlB-A = 75m, VrB-C = 60m, VrC-B = 60m. The width of the central
reservation is 2m wide. The design flows (in pcu/hr) are represented in the figure below.
77
Solution
1.0 Summary of Design Data
W = 8m
VrB-A = 60m
WB-A = 3m
VlB-A = 75m
WB-C = 3m
VrB-C = 60m
WC-B = 2m
VrC-B = 60m
qA-C = 800pcu/hr
qA-B = 500pcu/hr
qC-A = 800pcu/hr
qC-B = 400pcu/hr
qB-A = 100pcu/hr
qB-C = 400pcu/hr
qC-B = 400pcu/hr
WCR = 2m
14
0.364
0.364
0.114
0.144
0.364
0.229
0.520
. .
. .
. .
0.0345 . .
0.0345 8
0.7240
1 0.094
1 0.094 3
3.65 1 0.0009
3.65 1 0.0009 60 120
1
1
0.094
0.094 3
3.65
3.65 1
1 0.0009
0.0009 60
1
1
0.094
0.094 2
3.65
3.65 1
1 0.0009
0.0009 60 120
120
150 . .
0.4885
120 . .
0.8882
120 . .
0.7993
Substituting the above values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii), the required turning movement
capacities can then be obtained as shown below;
0.4885 627 14 2
0.7240 0.364 800
0.114 500
0.229 800
0.520 400
59
/
0.8882 745
0.144 500
428
07993 745
500
322
0.85
0.93
0.85
1.24
0.85
Arm B-C
Arm C-B
78
Based on the reference flow capacity ratios obtained, it is apparent that all the arms have
exceeded their capacities and therefore need to be redesigned.
4.9.9 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts)
A roundabout is a form of channelization intersection in which vehicles are guided onto a one-way
circulatory road about a central island. Entry to the intersection is controlled by Give Way
markings and priority is now given to vehicles circulating (clockwise in Uganda) in the round
about.
The main objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interchange of traffic between
crossing traffic streams with the minimum delay. The operating efficiency of a roundabout
depends upon entering drivers accepting headway gaps in the circulating traffic stream. Traffic
streams merge and diverge at small angles and low relative speeds. For this reason, accidents
between vehicles in roundabouts rarely have fatal consequences [OFlaherty, 2002].
a) General Usage of Roundabouts
Roundabouts are most effective as at grade intersections in urban or rural areas that have all or a
number of the following characteristics:
Where there is inadequate space or unfavourable topography that limits a good geometric
design;
Where traffic flows are unbalanced, e.g. at major/ minor T-Intersections;
Where they follow a downhill approaches. The approach should be at least a 2% grade and
should be flattened at least 30m to the intersection.
Where there are heavy volumes of vehicular traffic and where there is heavy cyclist and
pedestrian traffic
Between traffic controlled signal intersections which could cause queing back into the
roundabout exits.
b) Types of Roundabouts
In Uganda there are two types of roundabouts namely:
i)
ii)
Normal roundabouts with a centre island radius greater than or equal to 10m. The central
island radius should normally be between 10m and 25m otherwise it becomes difficult to
control speeds for a radius bigger than the above range and puts pedestrians and cyclists at
risk. The width of the circulating carriageway depends on whether it is one or two lane.
Small roundabouts with a central island less than 10m. The inner central island radius
should be at least 2m.
79
. 4.46
. 4.47
Where;
Qe
Qc
k
F
fc
=
=
=
=
=
The symbols e, v, l, S, D, and r are described in Table 4.11. Qe and Qc are in pcu/h, and one
heavy goods vehicle is assumed equivalent to 2 pcu for computation purposes.
80
Table 4.11: The Limits of the Parameters used in Roundabout Capacity Equation
Geometric Parameter
Symbol Unit Practical Limits
Entry width
e
m
4 - 15
Approach half-Width
v
m
2 -7 .3
Average effective flare length
l'
m
1 - 100
Sharpness of flare
S
0 - 2.9
Inscribed circle diameter
D
m
15 - 100
Entry angle
deg
10 - 60
Entry radius
r
m
6 - 100
Source: OFlaherty, 2002
From the roundabout equation above, entry capacity decreases as circulation flow increases. The
sharpness of flare, S is a measure of the rate at which extra width is developed in the entry flare.
Small S values correspond to long gradual flares and big ones to short severe ones. The angle
acts as an alternative for the conflict angle between the entering and circulating traffic streams.
The entry radius, r is measured as the minimum radius of curvature of the nearest kerbline at
entry.
e) Design Reference Flow (DRF)
When designing a roundabout intersection, the entry angle for each arm of a trial layout is
compared with the hourly flow for the design (DRF). The reference flow to capacity ratio (RFC) is
an indicator of the likely performance of an intersection under the future year traffic loading. If an
RFC ratio of 0.85 occurs, it can be expected that queuing will automatically be avoided in the
design year peak hour in five out of six cases.
Roundabout Example
The table below shows measured turning movements in the AM peak period as recorded in a
traffic survey at a four arm roundabout. The survey was carried out in 2005. The expected rate of
traffic growth is 2%. It is assumed that funding will be readily available and that if any redesign
and reconstruction is needed, the roundabout will be reopened to traffic in the same year the
survey was carried out. The roundabout is being assessed for capacity to carry peak flows in 2019.
The geometric parameters for arms A and B are as shown below:
Geometric Parameter
Symbol Unit
Entry width
e
m
Approach half-Width
v
m
Average effective flare length
l'
m
Sharpness of flare
S
Inscribed circle diameter
D
m
Entry angle
deg
Entry radius
r
m
Arm A
14.0
8.0
40.0
30.0
30.0
40.0
Arm B
9.0
4.5
40.0
30.0
40.0
30.0
The base year traffic survey carried out in 2005 revealed the following traffic flows in pcu/hr.
From
(Origin)
A
B
C
D
A
200
550
100
To (Destination)
B
C
220
450
320
250
420
220
D
210
450
320
50
81
Solution
1.0 Summary of Design Data
a) Traffic growth rate, r
b) Design life, Y [= (2019-2005)+1]
c) Geometric parameters of Arm A and B
=
=
2%
15yrs
as shown in the table
=
=
=
=
=
1.125
The design flows, DF in 2019 are presented in the table below using the above formulae
From
(Origin)
A
0
303
833
151
A
B
C
D
To (Destination)
B
C
333
681
0
485
379
0
636
333
D
318
681
485
76
82
a)
Values of k
k
0.00347
30
0.978
0.00347 30
30
0.00347 40
30
1
r
0.05
1
40
1
0.978
30
0.978
0.05
1.0245
0.05
0.9816
b) Values of F
F 303
Where;
1.6 e v
1.6 14 8
1.6 9 4.5
S
SA A
0.240,SA B
0.180
l
40
40
x
e v
1 2S
:
:
4.5
303 12.054
303 7.809
c) Values of fc
0.210
f
14 8
1 2 0.24
12.054
9 4.5
1 2 0.180
7.809
3652.362
2366.127
0.2x
Where;
M
60
10
exp
And;
tD
Therefore;
:
:
MA
0.5
t DA
0.210 1.476 1
0.210 1.476 1
d) Circulating Capacity Qc
=
Arm A:
Qc
=
=
Arm B:
Qc
=
=
=
0.2 12.054
0.2 7.809
0.5
0.0498
1.476,t DA
0.0498
1.476
1.057
0.794
0.0498,MA
0.9816 2366.127
1.057 1424
0.794 1408
2200pcu/hr
1225pcu/hr
83
Arm B:
=
=
=
=
=
=
ArmB:RFC
Q
Q
Q
Q
1332
2200
1469
1225
0.61
1.20
0.85
0.85
4.0 Conclusion
Arm C has a RFC ratio of 61% which is less than 70%, implying that queuing on this arm will
be avoided for 39 out of 40 peak hours.
Arm D, on the other hand, has a RFC ratio of 120% which is far greater than 85%, implying
that queuing will occur on this arm of the roundabout in all the peak hours.
4.10
1.
2.
3.
References
Banister, A. and Baker, R, 1998, Surveying, 7th Edition, Longman limited, Singapore.
Irvine W, H, 1998, Surveying for construction, 4th Edition, Patson press, Great Britain.
Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including Expressways
and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
4. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
5. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2005. Road Design Manual Vol.1,Geometric
Design Manual, Republic of Uganda, Kampala.
6. OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of
Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
7. Rogers, Martin 2003, Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
8. Thagesen, B., 1996. Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. 1st Edition. E &
FN Spon Publishers, London, Uk.
9. Transport Research Laboratory, 1988, A Guide to Geometric Design, Overseas Road Note 6,
Crowthorne, England.
10. Uren, J, and Price, W.F, 1989, Surveying for Engineers, 2nd Edition, Macmillan Publishers, Hong
Kong.
84
Introduction
The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed
material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade. This is to ensure
that the stresses transmitted to the subgrade do not exceed its support capacity. Road traffic is
carried by the pavement, which in engineering terms is a horizontal structure supported by in situ
natural material. In order to support this structure, existing records must be examined and sub
surface explorations conducted. The engineering properties of the local rock and soil are
established, particularly with respect to strength, stiffness, durability, susceptibility to moisture,
and propensity to shrink and swell over time. The relevant properties are determined by either
field tests, by empirical estimates based on soil type, or by laboratory measurements. The material
is tested in its weakest expected condition, usually at its highest moisture content. Probable
performance under traffic is then determined. Soils unsuitable for the final pavement are identified
for removal, suitable replacement materials are earmarked, the maximum slopes for embankments
and cuttings are established, the degree of compaction to be achieved during construction is
determined, and drainage needs are specified. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the
in situ soil. If it is constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively
termed the subgrade [TRL, 1993].
The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layers that will
guarantee adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the pavement
does not become overstressed during the design life of the highway. The major variables in design
of a highway pavement are:
The thickness of each layer in the pavement;
The material contained within each layer of the pavement;
The type of vehicles in the traffic stream;
The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life;
The strength of the underlying subgrade [Rogers, 2003].
Pavements are called either flexible or rigid depending on their relative flexural stiffness.
5.2
Types of Pavements
85
5.3
5.3.1 Surfacing
The surfacing forms the topmost layer of the pavement. It usually consists of a bituminous surface
dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material. It is comparatively thin, but resists abrasion
and the impacts caused by wheel loads and the effects of weather condition [Bindra, 1999]. The
functions of this layer are; provision of a safe and comfortable riding surface to traffic, taking up
wear and tear stresses caused by traffic, provide a water tight surface against infiltration of water,
provide a hard surface which can withstand tyre pressure. Where premixed materials are laid in
two layers, these are known as the wearing course and the base course (or binder course) as shown
in Figure 1.1 (See next page) [TRL, 1993].
5.3.2 Roadbase
The roadbase is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It is structurally the most
important layer of a flexible pavement. It distributes the applied wheel load to the subgrade in
such a way that the bearing capacity of the subgrade soil is not exceeded. This layer requires
higher quality material often obtained by stabilizing sub-base materials. It will normally consist
of crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils, decomposed rock, sands and sand-clays stabilised
with cement, lime or bitumen [TRL, 1993].
Wearing Course
Base Course or Binder Course
Surfacing
Roadbase
Sub-base
Subgrade
Figure 5.1: Definition of Pavement layers
Source: TRL (1993)
5.3.3 Subbase
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the roadbase. It will normally consist of a
material of lower quality than that used in the roadbase such as unprocessed natural gravel, gravelsand, or gravel-sand-clay. It may or may not be present as a separate layer since its presence is
justified by the insufficiency of the subgrade or reliability [TRL, 1993].
Major uses include:
Distribution of stresses to the subgrade; as a result the sub base material must be stronger
than the subgrade material;
86
Acts as a drainage layer in case of poor subgrade. A good drainage layer should be able to
drain very fast if water is logged, but also must be able to retain some moisture in times of
extreme drought;
Serving as a separating layer preventing contamination of the roadbase by the subgrade
material;
Under wet conditions; it has an important role to play in protecting the subgrade from
damage by construction traffic;
Preventing capillary attraction effect.
The sub-base is omitted when the subgrade is a hard intact rock or if it is granular and has a CBR
greater than 30% and has no high water table [TRL, 1993].
5.3.4 Capping Layer (Selected or Improved Subgrade)
A capping layer may consist of better quality subgrade material brought in from somewhere else
or from existing subgrade material improved by mechanical or chemical stabilisation. It is usually
justified where weak soils are encountered [TRL, 1993].
5.3.5 Subgrade
This is the top surface of a road bed on which the pavement structure and shoulders including
kerbs are constructed. Generally the top soil portion up to 0.5m of the embankment or cut-section
is referred to as the subgrade [Bindra, 1999].
It may be undisturbed local material or may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill. The
loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the subgrade layer; it is therefore, essential that
the layer should not be over-stressed. The top part of the layer requires preparation to receive
layers on top either by stabilizing it adequately and therefore reduce required pavement thickness
or designing and constructing a sufficiently thick pavement to suit subgrade strength. The
subgrade strength depends on the type of material, Moisture content, dry density, internal structure
of the soil particles, and type and mode of stress applied [TRL, 1993]. The major factors that
influence pavement thickness are; design wheel load, strength of subgrade (and other pavement
materials), climatic and environmental factors [Singh, 2001].
5.4
87
During structural design, emphasis is placed on commercial and heavy goods vehicles whose axle
weight is greater than 1,500 kg. It is these classes of vehicle that are most damaging to the
pavement. Their volume becomes critical in design [TRL, 1993].
5.4.2 Subgrade Assessment
The next step involves assessment of the strength of the subgrade soil. The sub-activities involved
in this step include: Assignment of climatic a regime, testing of soils, definition of uniform
sections, and designing of earth works. Properties of the subgrade soil are important in designing
the depth of the pavement. Weak subgrade material requires higher thickness to protect it from
traffic loads. Pavement deformation mainly depends on the subgrade properties and drainage.
During design and construction, proper drainage has to be maintained in order to control pavement
deformation. Climatic factors are important here because rainfall affects the moisture of the
subgrade and pavement layers. The daily and seasonal variations of rainfall are important in the
design and performance of the pavement. Where the water table is close to the formation level of
the roads, adjustments in the design of the pavement layer thicknesses are necessary. According to
Kadiyali (2000) and Arora (2000), the heights of embankments and the depth of water table below
the embankment affect the performance of an embankment and must be examined. Some of the
key tests in the design of the subgrade include the Compaction test, the Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer test and the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test.
5.4.3 Material Selection
The last step in pavement design involves the selection of the most economical combination of
pavement materials and layer thickness that will provide satisfactory service over the design life
of the pavement. Materials together with their grading determine the stress distribution
characteristics. Their durability under adverse weather conditions should be considered [TRL,
1993]. See Figure 5.2for a summary of the pavement design process.
5.5
Approaches to Design
Arora (2000) classifies the various approaches of pavement design into empirical and semiempirical methods. Empirical methods include; Group index method, CBR method (or thickness
design method) whereas semi - empirical methods include AASHTO method, Tri-axial test,
Nottingham method, California Resistance Value Test, McLeod method and Banister method. In
Uganda, the AASHTO and Thickness design methods are most commonly applied. These
methods will be looked at in more detail during the assessment of subgrade strength. The Group
index method is limited as it considers only the particle distribution of the soil and its atterberg
limits.
88
5.6
89
countries. The AASHTO design equation in the design guide 1972-1986 was also modified
through research done by the World Bank to suit conditions in developing countries.
It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to ensure
that they come up with an economical solution for a pavement design. Use of local materials has
to always be taken into considerations. Sometimes, more than one design standard is used for the
purposes of comparing one pavement design with another so that the comparison guides the
engineer in selecting the most economical option.
5.6.1 Uganda Road Design Manual
The Uganda Road Design Manual November 1994 has incorporated the pavement design guide
prepared for SATCC countries. The SATCC design guide was developed for Southern Africa
Transport and Communication Commission for use in Angola, Zambia, Botswana, Zimbabwe,
Mozambique, Malawi, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Tanzania [Thagesen, 1996]. The method follows
the AASHTO design concept as set forth in AASHTO interim guides for design of pavement
structures 1972-1986 published by the American Association of State Highways and Transport
Officials. The pavement strength required for a given combination of subgrade bearing capacity,
traffic load, service level and climate is expressed by means of the subgrade structural number.
Layer coefficients, according to the position in the structure, are given to determine the structural
number of the pavement. For each type of pavement, the thickness of the base and sub base layers
are determined so that the required structural number is satisfied [Uganda Road Design Manual,
1994].
5.6.2 Kenya Road Design Manual
The materials and pavement design in the Kenya Road Design Manual sets forth the standards for
structural design of new bitumen surfaced roads in Kenya. The Kenya Road Design Manual
includes design of gravel wearing course on unpaved roads.
5.6.3 TRL Road Note 31
The British Transportation and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) published the first version of
Road Note 31 in 1962 and subsequently revised it in 1976 and 1977. The Road Note 31 has in
1993 undergone a comprehensive revision by the transport research laboratory (TRL) and now
includes the structural catalogue where a layer thickness can be selected for a whole range of
common pavement combinations. The guidelines are based on an empirical method taking into
account the organisations vast experience in understanding the behaviour of road building
materials and their interactions in composite pavements.
5.7
=
=
=
=
90
The above equation assumes a terminal serviceability index of 1.5. This equation represents the
relationship between the weighted structural number and the design traffic. The design traffic has
been grouped into classes as shown in Table 5.4. For low traffic volumes less than 0.5 million
equivalent standard axles, reference is made to TRL Overseas Road Note 31 for design
thicknesses [Ruhweza, 2005].
5.7.2 Regional Adjustment
A regional factor of 1.0 was assumed for areas with rainfall most of the year creating a
permanently saturated condition (12 wet months) of the subgrade and unbound pavement layers.
The required structural number for this condition was entered into the charts as SNW. A regional
factor of 0.1 was assumed for very arid climates (0 wet months) where the pavement structure and
the subbase never reach a saturated condition. The required structural number for this condition
was entered into the design charts as SND.
Based on research carried out by the transportation department of the World Bank in connection
with the development of the HDM III model, a method for weighing SNW and SND was developed
to obtain the Design Structural Number DSN taking the actual wet and dry periods into account.
The modified formula for weighing of the structural number in accordance with the applicable
seasonal conditions (rainfall) assumes the form:
DSN
SND SNW
n
12
Where;
DSN
SND, SNw
nD, nw
SND
=
=
=
nD
12
. 5.2
SNW
91
Equivalence Factor
for =4.0
2.0
6.0
6.0
1.0
Description
3
2-Axle and Tandem Axle Rigid Trucks
4
Rigid Trucks with Drawbar Trailers
5
Articulated Units with Semi-Trailers
6
Buses
Source: AASHTO, 1993
Cum.No. Of standard
axles x 10
year one
T0 Very Heavy
> 20
8 - 20
T1 Heavy
2.5 - 8
T2 Medium
0.5 - 2.5
T3 Light
0.15 - 0.5
T4 Very Light
Source: AASHTO, 1993
> 2500
1000 - 2500
300 - 1000
60 - 300
20 - 60
5
250
100
30
6
25
50
20
6
1.2
Table 5.5: Determination of DSN for different Subgrade and Traffic Classes
Nw
S2
T4
T3
T2
T1
0
27.0
59.0
69.0
80.0
1
27.6
60.1
70.3
81.4
2
28.2
61.3
71.7
83.0
3
29.0
62.5
73.1
84.6
4
29.7
63.9
74.8
86.4
5
30.6
65.4
76.5
88.3
6
31.6
67.1
78.4
90.4
7
32.7
68.9
80.6
92.7
8
33.9
70.9
82.9
95.2
9
35.4
73.1
85.6
98.1
10
37.2
75.7
88.6
101.2
11
39.3
78.6
92.0
104.9
12
42.0
82.0
96.0
109.0
S3
T4
T3
T2
T1
24.0
54.0
64.0
74.0
24.5
55.0
65.2
75.3
25.0
56.1
66.5
76.7
25.5
57.3
67.8
78.3
26.1
58.6
69.3
79.9
26.7
60.0
71.0
81.7
27.4
61.6
72.7
83.7
28.2
63.3
74.7
85.8
29.1
65.2
76.9
88.2
30.1
67.4
79.3
90.8
31.2
69.8
82.1
93.8
32.5
72.7
85.3
97.1
34.0
76.0
89.0
101.0
S4
T4
T3
T2
T1
21.0
49.0
59.0
68.0
21.4
50.0
60.1
69.2
21.8
51.0
61.3
70.6
22.2
52.1
62.5
72.0
22.7
53.3
63.9
73.6
23.2
54.6
65.4
75.3
23.8
56.1
67.1
77.2
24.5
57.7
68.9
79.2
25.2
59.6
70.9
81.5
25.9
61.6
73.1
84.0
26.8
64.0
75.7
86.9
27.8
66.7
78.6
90.2
29.0
70.0
82.0
94.0
12.3
29.7
37.8
47.0
12.6
30.4
38.8
48.1
13.0
31.3
39.8
49.2
13.4
32.2
40.9
50.5
13.8
33.2
42.1
51.9
14.4
34.4
43.5
53.5
15.0
35.7
45.1
55.3
15.7
37.3
46.9
57.4
16.5
39.1
49.1
59.7
17.6
41.4
51.7
62.5
19.0
44.2
54.9
65.8
21.0
48.0
59.0
70.0
12.0
T4
29.0
T3
37.0
T2
46.0
T1
Source: AASHTO, 1993
S4
92
Layer Coefficient
a1 = 0.20
a1 = 0.35
Base
Bitumen Macadam
Natural or Crushed Gravel
Crushed Stone on:
Natural Gravel Subbase
Stabilised Subbase
Cement Treated Gravel:
Type A, 3.5 UCS (MPa) 5.0
Type B, 2.0 UCS (MPa) 3.5
a2 = 0.20
a2 = 0.12
a2 = 0.14
a2 = 0.18
a2 = 0.18
a2 = 0.14
Subbase
Natural Gravel, CBR 30%
Cement Treated Material:
Type B, 2.0 UCS (MPa) 5.0
Type C, 0.7 UCS (MPa) 2.0
Source: AASHTO, 1993
a3 = 0.11
a3 = 0.16
a3 = 0.12
100
30
125
125
200
200
125
125
70
70
175
175
150
150
100
100
100
250
200
200
93
The study of the initial traffic flows and axle load distribution, the choice of the design period and
the estimation of the traffic growth rate permits the calculation of the cumulative number of
standard axles to be carried by the road. This acts as the design criteria for structural bearing
capacity. The design equivalent number of standard axles is derived from the chosen traffic
expressed as the average annual daily traffic in vehicles per day, the traffic growth rate, the
vehicle fleet characteristics and the traffic composition. The contribution of the axle load from
private cars and light goods vehicles is ignored in the design of the equivalent number of standard
axles. The axle loading of a mixture of vehicle types is converted to a number of equivalent
standard axles using equivalence factors obtained using the formula below:
P
. 5.3
80
C
Where;
C =
P =
=
It is better to measure actual axle loads using a mobile weighbridge for medium to heavily
trafficked roads. For purposes of feasibility studies or where it may not be possible to obtain
actual axle loads especially in lightly trafficked roads, the equivalence factors in Table 5.3 may be
applied.
The average daily traffic from equivalent standard axles is obtained using the formula below:
T
V C . 5.4
Where;
Vi
Ci
=
=
For all commercial vehicles having the same growth rate, a cumulative number of standard axles
during the design period are calculated using the formula below:
365T
DT
r Y
r
. 5.5
Where;
DT
Td
r
Y
=
=
=
=
365T . G. Y 10
inmsa . 5.6
94
Knowledge of the types and characteristics of the available pavement materials as well as of the
climates, allows selecting one type of pavement.
d) Calculation of the Required Structural Number
For the estimated number of wet and dry months (nW and nD) and the wet and dry structural
numbers (SNW and SND) taken from the appropriate design chart, the weighted structural number
is calculated using equation 5.2. SNW and SND are obtained from design charts 1 to 8.
e) Determining the Thickness of the Surfacing, Base and Subbase courses
The thickness of the surfacing, base and subbase layers are determined so that the following
equation is satisfied.
DSN
a h
Where;
DSN =
a1,a2,a3 =
h1,h2,h3=
a h
a h . 5.8
Note: The layer coefficients assumed are in Table 5.6. For different types of materials considered,
guide values for the minimum and maximum practical thicknesses of a layer are given in Table
5.7 for effective compaction [Ruhweza, 2005].
Pavement Design Example
The Kampala Gayaza road is in a state of failure and is due for reconstruction. The following facts
have already been gathered about the project road:
a) The road is located in a region that has a rainy season with a total span of 5 months;
b) The subgrade soil is a good quality gravel with a soaked CBR in the range of 20 30%;
c) The subbase material will be cement treated Type C;
d) The most economical material for the roadbase will be crushed stone
e) The most suitable surfacing material will be Asphalt Concrete (AC);
Traffic counts and axle load surveys have shown that the initial (unidirectional) daily number of
commercial vehicles will be as follows:
a) 2-Axle and Tandem trucks
:
140 veh/day;
b) Trucks with drawbar trailer
:
30 veh/day;
c) Articulated Units
:
16 veh/day;
d) Buses
:
40 veh/day.
The economic study has recommended a 15 year design life and forecasts a constant annual traffic
growth rate of 2.5%. Design the flexible pavement using the AASHTO approach.
Solution
1.0 Design Information
(a) Number of wet months in the region, nW
(b) Subgrade CBR
(c) Traffic growth rate, r
(d) Design life, Y
(e) Construction Materials:
Surfacing Material
Roadbase material
Subbase material
2.0
3.0
=
=
=
=
5
20 30%
2.5%
15yrs
95
Where;
365. . . . 10
a)
b)
Wear factor, W
From equation 5.3
80
e.g. for 2-Axle and Tandem Trucks; C = 2.0 (from Table 5.3) since no axle loads were
provided.
c)
Growth Factor, G
According to AASHTO growth factor equation;
1 r Y 1
G
Y. r
1 0.025
1
1.1955
G
15 0.025
d)
Table of results
Vehicle Class
V
(Veh/day)
140
2-Axle and TandemTrucks
30
Trucks with Drawbar Trailer
16
Articulated Units
40
Buses
Cumulative Design Traffic, DT (in msa)
C
(esa)
2
6
6
1
G
1.1955
1.1955
1.1955
1.1955
Y
(years)
15
15
15
15
DT
(msa)
1.833
1.178
0.628
0.262
3.901
From Table 5.4 a cumulative design traffic of 3.901 msa corresponds to a traffic class of
T2 i.e. 2.5 < T (in msa) < 8.0.
4.0
SND SNW
n
12
SND
nD
12
SNW
59 82
65.4
5
7
59 .
82 .
12
12
Layer Thicknesses based on the Actual Design Structural Number, DSNa
.
5.0
96
a h
a h
a h
From design chart no. 6, for a subgrade strength class S4 and Traffic Class of T2 (i.e. S4
T2) corresponds to an asphalt surfacing thickness, h1 of 50mm. And from Table 5.6 a1 =
0.35, a2 = 0.18 and a3 = 0.12. Therefore;
DSN
0.35 50
0.18h
0.12h
By trial and error with guidance from Table 5.7, lets try h2 = 200mm and h3 = 200mm.
From which;
DSN
0.35 50
0.18 200
0.12 200
77.5
Since DSNa (= 77.5) > DSN (= 65.4), it implies that the design thicknesses of the layers are
acceptable.
6.0
5.8
Conclusion
The pavement should therefore be composed of the following layer thicknesses
a) Surfacing material
:
50mm
b) Roadbase
:
200mm
c) Subbase
:
200mm
References
1. Arora, K. R, 2000, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 5th Edition.
2. Bindra, S.P, 1999, A Course in Highway Engineering, 4th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publishers, New
Delhi.
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