Video Library for Exploration & Production Specialists Fundamentals of Petroleum Geology GL 101 Basic Concepts of Petroleum Geology R.C. Selley David C. Morrill International Human Resources Development CorporationCopyright’ © 9983 te of this book may publisher except i addeests HHRDC, Pi ational Human Kesources Oevulopme ‘used of reproduced in aay manner sshatsoever without written permission af the he case of brief quotations amborlied in critical articles and reviews, For mfotmation blisters, 187 Newbury Street, Hoston, MA 62716 USA. ‘orporation, All rights reserved. No attContents _ Acknowledgments v Preface vii Inctructions fa the User ix Legend x Introduction 1 Unit t Critical Risks to Petroleum Accumulation 2 Petroleum Chemistry & Maturation of Petroleum 19 Subsurface Heat 26 Subsurface Pressure 32 Unit Hl The Source Rock 36 Migration 40 The Reservoir 45 Unit HH The Trap 52 The Seal 62 The Sedimentary Basin 64 Exploration of a Petroleum Basin 72 Summary 82 References 85 Questions 87Cece te ee ere er tee en ee re eeeeneAcknowledgments This manual and the accompanying video program constitute one module of the IKROC Video Library for Exploration and Production Specialists. This madule was produced during the first production cycle of the Video Library, which was sponsores in part by the following companies: AGIP $.0.A. ARANCO Shevron Corporation Cities Service Gil and Gas Corporation Gome Petroleum Ltd. Gulf 0i1 Corperation Mobil Cil Corporation Phillips Petroleum Company chlumberge? Technology Corporation Texaco Inc. Their sponsorship does not constitute approval or recommendation of the methods or procedures containeo herein, Anyone using this program coes so with the understanding that these companies and IHRDC are to be held harmless from any use or misuse that may result therefrom. Throughout the production of the Videu Library, many companies have provided technical support, information, and {ilustrations. We would like to thank these companies for permission to use their materiais in the development of these movules. Mullivision, Inc. Neegham, Massachusetts Bay State Gas Brockton, Massachusette Millipore corp. Bedford, Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences Cambridge, MassachusettsTHRDC Video Library Modules in Petroleum Geology Wellsite Geology Fundamentals Gtx Samp ona Core arg and Analy at 204 Wireline Well Logging ot 402 Resiataty Logs Basie Skills ery Porosity Loge ot 2m ‘Geoigte Bese Sections soy suber May ome Presse Germraon ‘The Dipmeter Reservoirs St anda ot SR Raen Ree ose spioation foe Hoornaine Bancstare Rosercors ers Expat fo Marga start Sandctone Rosewois exploration or anne egpuctar GL 508 ero Eten ot Stich Bese oti Foroaty Evotuton of amie ese sof ne oS» SES, Structural Geology ‘and Global Tectonics ax oor Structural Geology en Pate Testers a0 ‘Bevoorant oF Sedereriary ans ese wateene Sorta ae sin Sone oes ae, Toplea suite for eronselecotioary taining purpowes ar inclcated by heavier 18, Geochemistry G71 Iotrodtion to aptertion Sesebernitey ou me Apeeaten ol Good Te Petron sxpontor General oy gor ‘comeuse Appleatons Petroleum Beleranon i aoe Protcgeciogy and Reale Sorsing 508 osourea Assessment ot soa Base Araie o o5 Play AnalysisPreface The IHROC Video Library for Exploration and Production Spectalists is a video-based instructional system that provides practical technical training in the fields of Petroleum Geology, Exploration Geophysics, and Petroleum Engineering. The organization of the Petroleum Geology specialty is shawn in the outline at left. Topics are organized into eight major series that address the foremost concerns of working geologists in the petroleum industry. Though the modules are designed to compose a working curriculum, they do not necessarily need to be studied in Sequential order. Module numbers beyond the 100, 200, and 300 series indicate in only a general sense tne level of difficulty and range of prerequisites, Distribution requirements will vary with the individual student 'y needs. However, the vicectapes ano manuals of the Funuawentals series constitute a self-contained introduction to Petroleum Geology. Familiarity with tneir content is necessary to study in the other series. The modules GL101-GL107 provice an overview for three distinct audiences 0 Geolugists who will then embark an the detailed study of 2 particular series; © Geuphysicists, engineers, and geotechnical support staff who require basic understanding of petroleum geology for job competency; o Professionals in marginally related or unrelated disciplines who, for short-term or permanent requirements, need to understand either the basic properties and behavior of oil and gas, the principles of petroleum geology, or both. This module, GL1O1 Basic Concepts of Petroleum Geology, is the first in’the Geology Specialty and serves aS a broad overview of the series. The manual is intended for both technical and nontechnical personnel within the petroleum industry. It dors assume, however, that the viewer has some knowledge of the basic principles of geology. Familiarity with GLIOL is a prerequisite to the study of subsequent moaules.Instructions to the User Each module in the Petroleum Geology specialty consists of one or more vigeotapes and # manual. Each viseotape is divides into instructional units of 15 to 30 minutes in length. Each unit corresponds to @ portion of the manual specified on the Contents page at the beginning of the manval. the moaules of the first two series -- Fundamentals and Basic Skills -- sheulo be used as an initial overview before more advanced subjects are attempted. Once the student is familiar with thit material, it is not necessary that he or she pursue study in numerical orger. At the same time, a general, cumulative knowledge is assumec for modules in the GL60O series. For each module, the manual contains more detailed Anformation, practical examples, case histories, and exercises. The recommences method of study is as follows: o View the first unit of the videotape. You may want to oo this more than once, until the basic principles are understood. © Turn to the manual and read the corresponding material. Oc not attempt to read and follow the videotape simultaneously, © Work the exercises specified at the end of each unit. © Continue in a unit-by-unit pattern until the module is completed. Remember, you may want to review certain portions of the videotape or reread portions of the manual as you proceed. fhe structure of this video-based training program enables you to work at your own pace. © The reader who requires a more in-depth treatment of this topic is referres to the Further Heading section of the manual. o To assist us in obtaining your opinion af this videouassisted training program, we ask you to complete the enciosec evaluation form and submit it to your training administrator or mail it to: SHROC EaP video Library 137 Newbury Street Bosten, MA 02116 U.S.A. xLegend Rita e] Igneous Sandstone es Limestone ae Sandstone saturated witn olf [777] water ea Sandstone saturated with gas Shale NOTE: For definitions of geological terms used in this manual, please refer toz Glossary of Geological Terms Sean tate R.C. Bates and J.A. Jackson American Geological institute Falls Church, VAFundamentals of Petroleum Geology Series GL101 BASIC CONCEPTS OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGY Authors: Audience: F.C. Selley and Mavi © Morill 47 minutes 90 pages, 34 ilustrations Video Program: Manual: Contents: INTRODUCTION CRITICAL RISKS TO PETROLEUM ACCUMULATION Tho Five Factors: Souree, MigrationPath, Reservoir Trap; Seal Lesser Faviurs, Revoverabilty, Quality; Economics PETHOLEUM CHEMISTRY ‘The Hydrocarbon Series in Petroleum Glassitication of Cruce Olls, How Petroleum Chemistry Determines Type ‘Quanity of Retined Hydrocarbons MATURATION OF PETROLEUM Diagenesis of Organic Matter into Kerogen Alteration of Kerogen into Petroleum Conditions Required SUBSURFACE HEAT How Geothermal Gradient Alfecis the Formation of Cil The Determinants of Geothermal Gradient SUBSURFACE PRESSURE The Causes and Effects of Pressure Abnormal Pressures THE SOURCE RACK What Makes a Good Source Rock? Production and Preservation of Organic Matter MIGRATION Spatial Relationships of Source Rocks to Reservoir Rocks Migration Paths Entry-level petroleum geologists. Also of benetit to exploration geophysicists, petroleum engineers, technical support staff, and managerial perconncl THE RESERVOIR What Makes a Good Reservoir? Porosity and Permeability THE TRAP What Makes a Good Trap? Structural and Stratigraphic Traps The Timing and the Formation of Traps THE SEAL What Makes a Good Seal? Types of Caprock ‘THE SEDIMENTARY BASIN Thy Presence and Richness of Petroleum in the Basins Classifivations uf Sevimentary Basins EXPLORATION OF A PETHOLEUM BASIN The Major Phases of Petroleum Exploration New Liscoveries in Mature Basins ‘SUMMARY REFERENCES EXERCISESUnit I Introduction This module introduces topics that are fundamental to the tasks of the exploration geologist. Study is intended to be of interest to a broad audience that includes both technical and non-technical personnel within the petroleum industry. The video program that accompanies this module serves as a broad overview of the principles of petroleum geology and as an abstract of several of the major topics considered in detail in Modules GL 102 through GL 107 of the series. The manual, however, will treat these topics from a somewhat different perspective, concentra- ting on aspects that relate to the explora- tion task and to the worldwide geological occurrences of petroleum. The sequence of topics in this manual will closely follow those presented in the video portion of this module.Critical Risks to Petroleum Accumulation The task of finding a petroleum field is not a simple one, First, there must be a rock containing original organic matter, @ source rock . Usually this is a mudrock or shale, which is a very common rock type and makes up about 80% of the world's sedimentary rock volume. However, even an average shale contains only about 1% to 2% organic matter, and this number can vary widely. Many shales have very low organic content and make poor source rocks. Then, the source rock must be buried deeply so that temperature and time can cause the organic matter to mature into petroleum. This usually requires deposi- tion into sedimentary basins, depressed areas thickly filled by sediments. Our search for petroleum is further limited, since over half of the world's continental areas and adjacent marine shelves have sediment covers either too thin or absent. The lightiy-shaded areas on the world map in Figure 1 indicate areas thatare ant likely to have petroleum prospects. Even where the organic matter can become mature, not all of it becomes Petroleum. In a typical example (Figure 2a) @ normal marine shale with only 1% original organic matter will have less than a third of it converted to the hydro- carbon molecules that make up of1 and natural gas (Waples, 1981). The rest remains behind as an insoluble organic residue. However, the least efficient step is yet to come. Of all the petroleum generated, only a small part, usually less than 1% (Hunt, 1977), is able tn undergo migration out of the source bed tn accumulate within a porous and permeable reservoir. The majority of petroleum, or even in some cases all of it, will he dispersed for lack of @ good arrangement of strata to trap it, or will leak out ta the surface, for lack of a good impermeable seal or caprock.Fig. 23 Fig. 2b Generation, migration and accumulation of 129% of petroleum is lost or disparsed Ea 19% of source rod ts organic matter < 20% of organic matter is converted tu petroleutn 19% of petroleum ‘strapped The five requirements for commercial petroleum accumulation,Five factors, therefore, are the critical risks to petroleum accumulation (Figure 2b): (1) a mature source rock, (2) a migration path connecting source rock to reservoir rock, (3) a reservoir rock that is both porous and permeable, (4) a trap, and (5) an impermeable seal. If any one of these factors is missing or inadequate, the prospect will be dry and the exploration effort will be unrewarded. Not surprisingly then, less than half of the world's explored sedimentary basins have proved productive, (Huff, 1980) and typically only a fraction of 1% of the petroleum basin's area, and at most 5% to 10%, is actually prospective (Weeks, 1975). There are other risk factors which cannot be neglected in the exploration effort, such as the ability to recover the petroleum and the quality of the oil or gas. Less than 60%, and sometimes as low as 10% of the oil in the ground (oil-in- place) and 70% to 90% of the gas-in-place has proved economically recoverable bymodern technology. The geological setting must be accurately assessed tn optimize this recovery. Furthermore, in any petroleum basin, there will be some trans that are too small or reservoirs of ton Poor quality to pay back drilling and production costs. Assessors also need to be able to predict whether the product will be oil or gas, since in remote areas the added difficulties and handling costs of natural gas may be prohibitive. Similarly, it is often important to predict the chemistry of crude oils and natural gas mixtures, particularly in areas where the results may be only marginally commercial. These must all be, in part, considerations of the exploration geologist. At this point, the task may seem overwhelmingly difficult, but it is important to remember that Nature follows tules and does not randomly distribute this petroleum beneath the earth's surface. Our understanding of these rulesis based on numerous past lessons learned from the drilling of many surcessful wells and many dry holes. Lt is the application of these rules, to situations that are always somewhat unique, that is the “art” within the science of petroleum geoloay. Petroleum The topic of organic chemistry is very Chemistry complex, even though our concerns are only with the simplest organic compound group, the hydrocarbons. This is the group that makes up most of petroleum. Strictly speaking, hydrocarbons are compounds that contain only two elements, hydrogen and carbon. Consequently, petroleum is quite simple in its elemental composition. It contains relatively few impurities, mainly atoms of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. Figure 3 shows the average composition of petroleum in all three of its natural states of matter, as natural gas, liquid crude oil and solid or semi-solid asphalt. Sulfur and nitrogen are both undesirable elements within petroleum.‘Average chemical ‘compositions of natural 82s, crude oil and asphalt from Levorsen 1979. Average Comparison of Crude ol, Natural gas, Asphalt sraone tose one fee10 Sulfur is most abundant in the heavier crude oils and in asphalt. It can aleo occur in natural gas mixtures such as the Poisonous corrosive gas HS. Such natural as is called "sour gas" (as opposed to "sweet ga: + where HS is low or absent). Nitrogen content is generally higher in both asphalts and natural gas, when compared to crudes. In asphalt it occurs mostly in high molecular weight hydrocarbon compounds, called NSO compounds because they contain impurities of nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen. In natural gases, however, nitrogen occurs mostly as the inactive gas Nj and lowers the heating capacity (Btu) of the natural gas. Other compounds may also occur in natural gas mixtures, including CO, and the inert gases. Although the elemental composition of hydrocarbons is relatively simple, there are a vast number of ways the atoms can be arranged. Compounds with similar physicaland chemical properties can, however, be Grouped into hydrocarbon series, of which four are particularly important in Petroleum chemistry -- the paraffins, Rapnthenes, aromatics, and resins and asphaltenes (Figure 4). Paraftins occur as chain-like structures with the general formula ChHongg: The carbon number, "n! ranges from one in the hydrocarbon gas methane (CH,), the simplest member of the paraffin series, to over 40. A natural gas composed of nearly pure methane is called dry gas, Other light- weight paraffins, with carbon numbers up to 5, are alsu gaseous at normal temperatures aid pressures. A natural gas that contains Lnese other heavier paraffin gases along with methane is called wet gac. Peraffins with carbon numbers higher than 5 are normally liquid. High molecular weight paraffins become viscous, waxy solids. "Find 12 The four major hydrocarbon series of petroleum chemistry, Basic Hyrtrocarbon Series in Petroleum Typical Structure Wad Peratins SS r—e et brane CoHon + 2 toil ° ad HH HOM Key —Llr™t~”~”~—~™C CrHon Ld HP _ 4 I Wet i ‘Aromatics le i basic hexagonal ring structure Caton — 6 aa) I 4 ops Ms Rosine we 2 fused aromatic ings: C say NBO impurios cHNapnthenes form as closed ring structures with the basic formula Cy Ho,+ Compounds of the naphthene serles have chemical and physical properties similar to equivalent paraffins with the same carbon number. Together with the paraffins, naphthenes form the major components of most cruue oils. The aromatics are the Liird group and have a structure based on a hexayunal ring of carbons, with alternate simple and double bonds. This basic unit is calle the benzene ring, after the simplest and most abundant aromatic compound, benzene. Other aromatic compounds are made Ly substituting paraffinic chains or naphthenic rings at some of the hydrogen sites, or by fusing scveral benzene ri nus together. The fourth group, the resins and asphaltenes, are also composed of fus. benzene-ring networks, but they contain 314 impurity atoms and are not true hydro- carbons. These impurities are the high molecular weight compounds previously referred to as NSO compounds. Resins and asphaltenes are the heaviest components of crude oil and the major components in many natural tars and asphalts. Crude oils may be classified by their relative enrichment in these four hydro- carbon groups. One method, proposed by Tissot and Welte (1978) plots paraffins, naphthenes and the combination of aromatic and NSO compounds as three axes of a triangular graph and divides the graph into fields that represent six crude oil classes (Figure 5). Most normal crude oils fall within only three of these fields. They can be either: (1) rich in paraffins (paraffinic of1); (2) they can have nearly equal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes which together make up more than 50% of the crude (paraffinic- Raphthenic oil); or (3) they can haveTexnary diagram show: ing composition of the six classes of crude ols from 341 oil fields (rom Tissot and Welte, 1978; reprinted by permission (of Springer-Verlag) anowaTC He + NSO COMPOUNDS 541 Crude oils nso AKARES TPaRAFFNS) CCLALKANES (CTH) 1516 subequal amounts of paraffins and naphthenes, which total less than 50%, and the composition is dominated by the aromatics, resins and asphaltenes (aromatic intermediate oil). Oil may be degraded into heavy ofl and tar by bacterial action and by flushing by fresh meteoric waters of I surface origin. This ofl falls into one of two classes, aromatic-asphaltic or aromatic-naphthenic, both of which are enriched in aromatics. Some may contain naphthenes (aromatic-naphthenic oil) but the paraffin content is always very low. Deep burial, however, usually has the opposite effect in altering crude oil. It tends to make an oil less dense and more paraffinic, through processes involving both thermal maturation and the Precipitation and removal of asphaltic molecules. The chemistry of petroleum determines the types and amounts of refinedhydrocarbons produced. Figure 6 shows a generalized correlation between the hydro- carbon components of petroleum, its density, and the commercial products resulting from the refining process. There are several measures of the weight or gensity of crude o11 commonly used, two of which, relative density and API degrees, are shown in Figure 6; these measures are Giscussed more thoroughly in Module GL 102. Natural gas and lightweight oi] yield mostly fuels. Gasoline consists mostly of medium weight hydrocarbons with carbon numbers ranging from 7 to 12. These can occur either naturally or be cracked from higher weight molecules. Cracking is the Process in which carbon-to-carbon bonds are broken down by heat, into simpler, lighter weight hydrocarbons. Other high weight cumpounds, with carbon numbers greater than 15, are refined as lubricants, waxes and asphalts. 718 Generalized correlation ofthe (1) hydrocarbon ‘components of petroleum, (2) density, and (3) refined products. oo oii sengesoen ett aan te — oo " yarocaroon ange SS | |° Relative Oenaty B00 + 00-070 ‘900. $70Maturation of Petroleum Maturation is the complex process through which biological molecules, created by living organisms, are converted into petroleum. In the early stages of this alteration, or diagenesis, an intermediate form of organic matter, called kerogen, is formed. Kerogen is created by the breakdown of complex biological molecules, reactions between some of the newly created simpler molecules, and the loss of most non- hydrogen and carbon atoms like NH3, CO, and Hp0. Microscopically, kerogen can be seen as yellow-orange to brown-black particles or amorphous material. Since this material originated trom different kinds of living organisms, with different kings and proportions of biological molecules, kerogens will not all have the same chemical compositions and will yield different types and amounts of petroleum. Geologists nave found it convenient to group keruyens into four fundamentally different classes (Figure 7). 19Fig The four kerogen types in relation to petroleum _Renerated from them. 20Type I kerogen is derived mostly from the remains of algae, and when it matures it yields mainly crude oil. It is also capable uf yenerating the most petroleum of all the kerugen types. Type II kerogen consists mostly uf amorphous material, derived from the baclerial and mechanical breakdown of a mixture of marine, one- celled plonts and animals. This keruyen is also oil-prone but yields more natural gas than Type I. Type III kerogen, derived from the higher land plants, 1s sometimes known as coaly kerogen. The humic material in Type III kerogen has a low capacity to form oil and yielus mostly natural gas. Type IV kerogen cunsists mostly of inert particles that have Leen highly oxidized before burial, like charcoal. It is the rarest kerogen type and has practically no ability to generate either oil or gas. The chemistry of crude oil can also be linked to keragen type and original a22 organic matter. Usually land-derived, non-marine organic matter deposited near continental drainage areas (Type III coaly kerogen) will form mostly gas, but any of] formed will be low sulfur, paraffinic to paraffinic-naphthenic crude oils. Marine organic matter, particularly protein-rich types derived from marine animals (Type II mixed marine kerogen) tends to yield high sulfur aromatic-intermediate crude. Petroleum is generated when kerogen is subjected to the increased temperatures that accompany sediment burial (Figure 8). The alteration of kerogen to petroleum is similar to other thermal cracking reactions. Large kerogen molecules decompose upon heating, to yield smaller molecules of petroleum. These reactions usually require temperatures greater than 60°C. At lower temperatures, during early diagenesis, natural gas, called biogenic methane or marsh gas, is generated through the action of microorganisms that live near theGeneration of petroleum vs. temperature Generation Intensity Immavure Zone (ou Zone Wer Gas Sone oy Gas Temperature (°C) 100 175 225 315 wer Gas 2324 earth's surface. Vast quantities of biogenic methane are probably generated, but most of this will not encounter a trap and will be lost to the atmosphere. The temperature range between about 60°C and 175°C is commonly called the il window" (Figure 8). This is the principle zone of oil formation. It begins at burial depths of 1 to 2 km and ends at depths of 3 to 4 km in most areas, depending on factors such as the geothermal gradient. The first oil generated is heavy and tends to be richest in aromatic and NSO compounds. As burial and temperature increases, the oil becomes lighter and more paraffinic. At temperatures much above 175°C, the generation of liquid petroleum ceases and gas formation becomes dominant. When formation temperatures exceed 225°C, most kerogen has used up its petroleum-generating capacity. Source Tocks become overmature. However, some methane can still be created, even atthese very high temperatures, by the breakdown of the larger, heavier molecules of previously generated crude oil. Since the conversion of kerogen to petroleum is basically a series of chemical reactions, time must also play a major role in this process. Young, Tertiary-age rocks must be deeply buried or have high geothermal gradients in order to generate significant amounts of Petroleum. Although generation, migration and entrapment have been documented in Tocks as young as 1.0 to 1.5 million years old, major petroleum accumulations have Not been found in rocks less than 10 million years old (Halbouty et al., 1970). On the other hand, some older Paleozoic and Mesozoic source rocks may nut nave been buried very deeply, perhaps only to the uppermost part of the "oil window", but nave still generated Petroleum because of the time factor. However, in most petroleum occurrences,26 Subsurface Heat temperature appears to be a more significant factor than time. Temperature, modified by time, has been instrumental in the formation of mast major petroleum accumulations. During drilling, formation temperature can be measured by lowering self-recarding thermometers into the borehole. When this is done for various depth levels, the geothermal gradient can be determined. The worldwide average geothermal gradient, which measures the increase in the earth's temperature with depth, is about 26°C/km (14°F/1000ft). Gradients measured in sedimentary basins around the world typically range from lows of about. 18°C/km to highs of 55°C/km. A low geothermal gradient causes the first formation of oil to begin at fairly deep subsurface levels, but it also causes the oil window to be quite broad (Figure 9). In contrast, a high geothermal9 Range and width of the fil windaw 36 functian ‘of geothermal gradient Dept (km) 20 40 60 ‘Thermal Gradient (*Cikm) 728 gradient enhances the early formation uf oil at relatively shallow burial depths, but it causes the depth range of the oil windaw to be quite narrow. Overall, however, the oil-forming process is more efficient in young source rocks, where there is a high genthermal gradient and oil can form early at shallow depths (Klemme, 1975). The magnitude of a petroleum basin's geothermal gradient is most often directly related to the earth's heat flow; it will be high where heat flow is high (Figure 10). Consequently, high geothermal gradients are often found in basins that are associated with active deformation, seafloor spreading and mountain-building (tectonic) processes. Gradients will usually be low in basins associated with old, stable interiors of the continents, the craton. Gradients will also tend to be low in areas insulated by cool underlying rocks or thick, rapidly deposited sediments.Locally, the geothermal gradient wii be influenced by the subsurface rocke through which the earth's heat must pass. The thermal conductivity of rocks, is inversely related to the qeothermat gradient (Figure 10). It varies bath with the rock type or lithology, and the kinds and amounts of pore-filling fluids. Thus, the geothermal gradient will normally vary vertically through a stratigraphic Sequence (Figure 11), and temperature wilt have a nonlinear relationship to burial depth. The present-day geothermal gradient may be of less importance to maturation than paleogeothermal conditions, Particularly in areas that have underaone large-scale uplift and erosion. The chemical reactions completed at higher temperatures are normally not reversible. It is therefore most important to be able to establish the highest temperature attained at some time in the geological 29Fig. 10 30 Equation for heat flow. Heat Flow = Geothermal Gradient x Thermal ConductivityThermal conductivities and geothermal gradient for acolumn of sedimentary rock ‘Thermal Conductivity (wattsimeter + K) Lithotogy 000 40906000 6 Temperature (°C) 50100 150200 2 coal zg © EES nate Ea & frelon — — Geothermal Gradient 312 Subsurface Pressure past. Various measurement methods, or paleothermometers, have been devised to determine the maximum formation temperature of @ source rock. These are more thoroughly treated in Module GL 104. Pressure, which like temperature increases with depth, plays a relatively minor role in the petroleum-generation process (Phillippi, 1965), but has other important effects. The total overburden pressure exerted at any point in the subsurface is the sum of two forces: the weight due to the over- lying rock (lithostatic pressure) and pressure due to fluids contained within the pore spaces (fluid or pore pressure) (Figure 12). Lithostatic pressure is transmitted via grain-to-grain contacts and averages about .6 psi/ft (.136 kg/cm. m) (13.6 kPa/m). Fluid pressure is usually transmitted via Pore-to-pore communication extending to the surface and is then called hydrostatic pressure. ForFig. 12 Equation for overburden pressure, Overburden Pressure = Lithostatic Pressure + Fluid Pressure 3334 a typical subsurface brine, hydrostatic pressure gradient is about .465 psi/ft (.1052 kg/cm”. m) (10.52 kPa/m). Pressures increase with burial depth and in a normally pressured well, the fluid pressure is always slightly less, and the lithostatic pressure slightly more, than half of the total overburden pressure, at any depth (Figure 13). However, abnormally pressured rocks are sometimes encountered in drilling, often unexpectedly. This may cause serious problems. If the rocks are overpressured, where @ permeability barrier seals pore fluids off from communication with the surface and the fluid pressure becomes too high, the pressure exerted by the drilling mud may not be great enough to hold back the fluids in the rock, causing @ possible "blow out". Underpressuring, or abnormally low fluid pressure, is less common. However, it too can cause problems, when high-pressure drilling muds enter the lower-pressured formationFig.13 Graph of oral subsur- Pressure (psi) face pressure gradients o 5000 10,000 15,000 5000) 7 Xo aster Fant or 2 8 10,000 ° 500 1000 Prossure (kglem2) 35causing loss of circulation, plugging up the pores of reservoir rocks, and thereby, lowering the mud column in the well and causing the normally pressured formations to possibly blow out. Although abnormally high pressures may be encountered in various sedimentary provinces, they are particularly prevalent in rocks deposited in delta environments where sedimentation may be too rapid for deep shales to thoroughly compact and dewater. In this case, some of the weight of the overlying sediment which is normally taken up by grain-to-grain contacts in normally compacted rocks is taken up by the fluid in the pore spaces. Turn to Questions 1.1 to 1.3 Unit I The Source Rock Source rocks are any rocks in which sufficient organic matter to form petro- leum has been accumulated, preserved, andUnermally matured. Organic particles are usually fine-grained, and will settle out most easily in quiet-water environments. Therefore, source rocks are must commonly fine-grained rocks, particularly shales. Other potential sources are fine-grained carbonates (lime mud), mud-carbonate mixtures (marl), or coal (Figure 14). One of the most important factors in determining whether an organic-rich rock will become a source rock is its thermal maturity. However, some potential source rocks have never reached this thermal level. An example is oil shales like the Green River Shale of the U.S. Rocky Mountain region, where instant maturation can be artificially induced by heating the rocks to temperatures of about 500°C, a process called "pyrolysis". Tar sands, like the Athabasca tar sands of western Canada have sometimes been regarded as immature source rocks, like oi] shale. However, the majority opinion is that they were once 37Fig. 14 38 Major types of source rocks and percentage of world’s petroleum ‘occurrence for each (data from Klemme, 1980) Mari Carbonate Coalconventional oil reservoirs, in which the oil became degraded from flushing by fresh meteoric waters and by bacterial action, these processes having converted lighter oil into a viscous asphaltic tar. Preservation of organic matter is usually harder to achieve than its Production. On land, with the exception ot some lakes and coal swamps, most organic accumulations are rapidly destroyed through oxidation and biological activity. More commonly organic matter is preserved in marine environments. Rapid deposition is one way to avoid the destruction of organic matter and is characteristic of source rocks in thick, Pruyrading sediment wedges, such as deltas. Rapid deposition, however, leads to dilution of the organic matter by sediment. Some shale source rocks found in rapidly prugrading deltas nave organic contents of only 1%. Usually shale requires @ higher orga © content than 39Migration this to be adequate source rocks. However, deltas often have excellent source/reservoir rock geometries, and structures are developed early in response tn the sediment load. In such cases, migration and accumulation of petroleum is probably more efficient than usual, and even such organic-panr shales make adequate source rocks. However, in most cases, marine shales with organic contents high enough to be petroleum source rocks are slowly deposited, under oxygen-free conditions that prevent organic destruction. This occurs most commonly in restricted marine environments, where a basin is silled or otherwise prevented from easy communication with the open ocean. At present, migration is the most poorly understood and least measurable stage in the cycle of generation, migration, and accumulation. Primary migration, which involves the expulsion ofpetroleum from the source rocks, is still a@ great mystery, Various models for primary migration have been proposed, although none appears to have wll the answers. These models are discussev in detail in Module GL 102, but their details do not need to greatly concern the exploration geologist. Secondary migration processes which involve the movement of petrolcum through permeable layers (carrier beds) to the trap, are better understood. Nonetheless, it is still often very difficult to apply these concepts to the exploration of o particular area. Although secondary migration is governed primarily by huayancy, which tends to move petroleum upward hy displacing heavier water, the tectonic and hydrodynamic regime also becomes important. Consequently, a wide variety of spatial arrangements between source rocks and carrier/reservair beds is possible (Figure 15). 4Fig. 13, a2 Varieties ot spatial arrangements of source tock to reservoiricarrer beds, and percentages ‘of world’s petroleum ‘occurrence for each (data from Klemme, 1980.) Underlying source Overying source Interbedded Interfingering — Downdip, older sourceIn older, more consolidated basins where there is little disruptive defurmation, secondary migration occurs updip along extensive structural- stratigraphic "ramps", that carry Petroleum from the deep basin to the hinge areas or @ regional arch (Figure 16a). In these cases long-distance migrations are possible, and large accumulations may result if the drainage area is Particularly large. llowever, secondary migration in young basins that are less ronsolidated and may be overpressured involves more movement through fravlures and faults (Figure 16b). In these situations, secondary migration often occurs over short distances. It is uften influenced by water released through compaction and by greater-than-normal vertical water and petroleum movements, and the pathways are more difficult to Predict. Migration is further comp) cateu in that it can occur quickly, over a short 43.Fig. 16 44 Pathways of secondary ‘migration in different types of sedimentary basins, showing general ‘models for (a) an old, consolidated basin and, (by fora young, less consolidated basinThe Reservoir time interval, or intermittently over a long time span, either early or late in a basin's history. Thus, while the concept of secondary migration is simple to understand, its application to the exploration task is often exceedingly difficult. There are two fundamental physical properties that @ good reservoir must have: (1) porosity, or sufficient void space to contain significant petroleum; and, (2) permeability, the ability of petroleum to flow into, or out of, these voids. Consequently, the only effective pores are those that are interconnected and permit fluids to flow through then. The only common rock types that normally have the favorable combination of porosity and permeability to be reservoirs are sandstones and carbonates (Figure 17). Many rocks are sufficiently porous but still useless as reservoirs, becauseFig. 17 46 Major types of reservoirs and pereantage of world’s petroleum occurrence for each Carbonate (limestone & dolomite) Fractured rocks of other types.their passageways or pore-throats are too small to allow petroleum droplets to move through them. This can be due to fine grain size, as in siltstones and shales, or to poor sorting, where fine and enarse grain sizes are intermixed and the finer particles clog the passageways (Figure 18). The best reservoirs are coarse- tn medium-grained and show a high degree of sorting. Muddy sandstone lithologies, Geposited by turbidity currents, or rocks Containing unstable minerals which are easily weathered to clay generally make Poor reservoir rocks. However, even poor Teservoir qualities can be amply compen- sated when there is a considerable thickness, or net pay thickness, to the oil column or great areal extent for the productive horizon. Permeability is measured in a unit called the Darcy. Most reservoirs, however, only have permeabilities recorded in the range of the millidarey (1/1000 Darcy), typically between 5 and 500 are E Poor permeability Good permeabilitymillivarcies, although some reservoirs may have permeavililies exceeding 5 Darcies. Gas, which is more viscous than crude oil, may be able to flow frum Light sands or dense limestones wilh permeabilities of only a few millidarcies ur less. Porosity in reservoir rocks Is normally between 10% and 20%, but some excellent reservoirs may have porosities of 30% or more. Accumulations in reser~ voirs with less than about 5% porosity are usually not commercial. Porosity can be divided into several types, summarized in Figure 19 and discussed in greater detail in Module GL 105. Sandstones usually have primary porosity, which decreases with depth of burial as the grains are compacted and intergranular cementation develops. However, leaching of carbonate cements and unstable minerals in sandstones can cause gnnd secondary Porosities even at depths where they would normally be tight. 49Fig. 19 Major types of eservoir Primary ‘Seconaary Intergranular Intragranutar 50Carbonate reservoirs are usually cemented quite early and most lose their primary porosity. Carbonates, when they are reservoirs, have porosities which are usually secondary, This may be cue to solution, to fracture or to intercrys- talline pore cevelopment. the latter is particularly important in many colomite Teservoirs where coarse crystalline dolomite has replaced limestone. A volume reduction of up to 13% accompanies this reaction anc may help to create the Secondary voids. Secondary porosities, both in limestones ana sandstones, are often developed by leaching along fault zones and unconformity surfaces. In such cases, these zones may become important conduits for secondary migration of hyarocarbons. A small fraction of worla oi1 reserves has been founa in lithologies, such as shale or igneous anc metamorphic basement rocks, that are not usually 352 Unit I The Trap reservoirs. In these rocks, as in many tight, brittic sandstones and carbonates, the oil resides within fracture porosity. Such reservoirs can be quite productive, as for example, the fractured Monterey chert reservnirs of California. Turn to Questions 1.4 to 1.6 The last critical factor in the cycle of generation, migration and accumulation is the development of a trap. A trap is a geometric configuration of structures and/ or strata, in which permeable rock types (the reservoir) are surrounded and confined by impermeable rock types (the seal). In some cases, traps may be created by hydro- dynamic factors, that is, by the movement of subsurface waters, but these are rela- tively rare. Most traps fall into one of three categories (Figure 20): they can be structural traps, stratigraphic traps, orFig. 20. Major types of oil raps and percentage of ‘world's petroleum occurrence foreach. Anticlines Faults. “Salt Diapirs-_Unconformity Reef Other Combination L IL Stratigraphic, | ; ‘Structural Traps Stratigraphic Traps Combination Traps 3354 combination traps that have both structural and stratigraphic aspects. Traps may contain oil, natural gas, or a combination of both, with gas, being lighter, trapped at the highest level (Figures 21a,b). Below the oil and gas columns and at the edges of the trap, the pores of the reservoir are filled with water, which is, with few exceptions, heavier than oil. Structural traps (Figure 21a) are limited in size by their closure, the vertical distance between the high and low points of the structure. They may be full to their spill points or, as is more common, may be less than completely full. Many stratigraphic traps (Figure 21b) are limited only by the quantity of petroleum they contain. Others, however, may be limited by the size and shape of the reservoir and by lateral lithologic changes. Structural traps are the most common exploration target, since they are often relatively easy to detect and have providedFig. 24 Trap nomenclature alin a simple structural rap, ‘and () in statigrapine traps. Note that the size ofthe stratigraphic trap ‘on the lets limited only by its petroleum content while the siz of the trap onthe rights selelimiting 5556 over three-quarters of the world's discovered reserves. This is particularly true of anticlines. Anticlines may originate in many ways, through compression (Figure 22a), or as compaction and drape features over Tigid high blocks (Figure 22b). Another type of anticlinal trap, called a rollover anticline, forms where rapid sedimentation onto undercompacted muds causes instability and slumping. This produces a type of fault called a growth fault, which may also trap oil (Figure 22c). Anticlines may occur alone or in combination with faults (Figure 22d). These faults may or may not help produce the trap. Faults may also be traps in their own right (Figure 22); but in either case the faults must be tight and impermeable if petroleum is to accumulate. Usually, there is no way to test this except by drilling. Salt flow structures or diapirs can generate anticlinal traps in the overlying