1.

INTRODUCTION
The is an ever increasing need for the production of power due to the rapid increase of
population in the world and increasing per capita power consumption. Most of the world’s
energy supply today comes from burning fossil fuels, biogas etc., or from nuclear fission,
which have harmful effects on the environment. Also fossil fuels are exhaustible. Even though
some inexhaustible and non polluting energy production methods such as solar energy, tidal
energy and geothermal energy are used, at present they can only supply a small portion of the
global energy needs.

This is where the prospect of using Space-based Solar Power [1] arises. In outer
space there is an uninterrupted availability a huge amount of solar energy in the form of light
and heat. So the use of satellites to collect the solar energy and beam it back to the earth is
being considered. Solar panels can be fitted to the satellites to collect the solar energy and
convert is to DC energy. This is not a new concept for satellites, because this method is already
in practice to supply the power for the satellites in orbit. What is new is the concept of
transmitting the energy back to the earth to produce electricity. This method of producing
electric power is possible and it can solve all the world’s energy problems, though it has not
come into implementation yet.

The use of solar power satellites and wireless power transmission has great potential to
supply to the demand of the worlds growing power requirements and it is expected that it will
come into implementation by the year 2050 [2].

There are still a number of technologies which have to be developed for the realization
of the Space solar power but, there is an urgent need for a solution to the energy problems of
the world. Reason for the requirement of SSP is given in the next section.

1
2. The Need for Alternative Power Sources

2.1 Market for power

The growing population and constant industrial developments have exponentially
increased the amount of power consumed by the world. The trend according to many scientists
will continue for quite some time and the demand for power is only set to increase.

By 2050, according to some estimates, 10 billion people will inhabit the globe--more
than 85 percent of them in developing countries. The global energy marketplace is very
dynamic. World population is increasing by about 80 million each year [2]. The multinational
"middle class" is growing still more quickly. The US Department of Energy (DOE) Energy
Information Agency (EIA) has projected that the world-wide use of energy will approximately
double in the next twenty years - and that it will about double again in the twenty years that
follow. These projections are founded on the ongoing growth in populations in the developing
world and simultaneous growth in the per capita consumption of power in those nations.

The development of a nation is related directly to the power that it consumes. The more
remote places of the world are being connected to the grid and more countries are undergoing
development. Thus the need for power is exploding at a phenomenal rate.

2.2 Problems with present sources of power

The big question: How can we best supply humanity's growing energy needs with the
least adverse impact on the environment?

Dependence on fossil fuels is not the answer because burning coal, oil, and gas will
pour carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, raising the risk of global climate change. (And of
course these resources will not last forever.) Nuclear fission reactors avoid the greenhouse
problem but introduce the so-far intractable problem of disposing of nuclear waste. Controlled
nuclear fusion might someday provide an inexhaustible supply of clean energy-but after forty
years of continuous funding, a practical fusion reactor is still not in sight.

That leaves the menu of renewable energy sources. But terrestrial renewable sources
pose environmental problems because of their relatively large land requirements. Hydropower,

2
the most exploited renewable thus far, has significantly disrupted ecosystems and human
habitats. Solar, biomass, and wind farms would similarly compete with people, agriculture, and
natural ecosystems for land were they the basis of a global energy system.

Moreover, ground-based renewable energy systems, such as terrestrial photovoltaic

cells and biomass fuels, generate fewer than 10 watts of electricity per square meter, on a
continuous basis. To generate enough electricity to meet demand could require developing
countries either to divert land from agricultural use, and thus diminish the supply of food, or to
destroy natural ecosystems, a move that could hasten the onset of global warming.

Fig 2.1: the share of different sources in the world’s energy supply. [3]

3. Space Based Solar Power

3.1 Solar power

Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the Sun that has been harnessed by
humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation along
with secondary solar resources such as wind power, wave power, hydroelectricity and biomass
account for most of the available renewable energy on Earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the
available solar energy is used.

Solar power provides electrical generation by means of heat engines or photovoltaic

cells. Once converted, its uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar
applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via
distillation and disinfection, daylighting, hot water, thermal energy for cooking, and high

3
temperature process heat for industrial purposes. The figure 3.1 shows the process of
converting solar irradiance to electrical energy

Fig 3.1: the process of converting solar radiation to electrical energy

3.2 Benefits and limitations of terrestrial solar power

Power obtained from the suns energy has certain advantages over other methods of
power generation. Solar power is the most abundantly available form of energy. Also the
power can be generated from the suns energy without any undesirable by-products. Using solar
power can greatly reduce the amount of annual CO2 emission which is largely responsible of
global warming

Despite of the advantages there are still some drawbacks in producing solar power from
solar power plants. [2],[4],[5]

• The efficiency of the solar panels used to collect energy and generate power is small
ranging up to 25%.

• The land area required for the solar power plants is more.

• The implementation of power generation from solar energy is at present costlier than
the conventional power generation methods.

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3.3 Benefits of space based solar power
The sun’s radiation can be converted into electrical energy even is space using the any
of the current methods employed to generate solar power such as photovoltaic cells, but there
are certain advantages of collecting solar energy in space using satellites.

The sun’s energy is almost continuously available to a satellite located in a

geosynchronous orbit about the earth (leading promoters of space based solar power schemes
to dub it "base load solar power").

A 2007 study by the Pentagon’s National Security Space Office which included
representatives from DOE/NREL, DARPA, Boeing and Lockheed-Martin found that a one-
kilometer-wide band of space in earth orbit receives enough solar energy in just one year
(approximately 212 terawatt-years) nearly equal to “the amount of energy contained within all
known recoverable conventional oil reserves on Earth today” (approximately 250 TW-yrs).
The Pentagon study suggested such a system could be tested as early as 2012, with the likely
first customer being the US military. [4]

There are a number of key advantages that make space based solar power an interesting
alternative to ground-based solar power:

• There is more energy to be collected - the sun is 8-10 times more intense in orbit than
on the surface of the Earth

• Space based systems can collect energy almost around the clock

• Ground-based systems suffer from weather phenomena such as clouds, precipitation,

and dust - space based system do not (though the increasing amount of junk in orbit
poses a similar hazard)

• Real estate costs are minimal - the only land that need be acquired is the land for the
receiving station.

• Transmission line costs are greatly reduced compared to remote generation facilities if
the ground station is located near existing transmission lines

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4. Solar Power Satellites (SPS)
The Solar Power Satellite [3],[4],[5] is expected to be the means for harnessing space
solar power. NASA, JAXA, and USRI have actively been conducting research on this concept.
The summary of outcome of the past few decades of research on SPS is presented below.

4.1 The Basic concept of SPS

The concept of the Solar Power Satellite (SPS) is very simple. It is a gigantic satellite
designed as an electric power plant orbiting the earth as shown in the fig 4.1.

It consists of mainly three functional units: a solar energy collector to convert the solar
energy into DC (direct current) electricity, a DC-to-microwave converter, and a large antenna
array to beam the microwave power to the ground. The solar collector can be either
photovoltaic cells or a solar thermal turbine. The DC-to-microwave converter of the SPS can
either be a microwave tube system and/or a semiconductor system, or their combination. The
third segment is a gigantic antenna array. The power beam must be controlled accurately to
less than 0.0005 degrees.

Fig 4.1: The concept of Solar Power Satellite

The SPS system is composed of a space segment and a ground power receiving site.
The latter uses a device to receive and rectify the microwave power beam. The device is called
a rectenna (rectifying antenna). The rectenna system converts the microwave power back to
DC power and is connected to existing electric power networks. The electricity sometimes can
be converted to other forms of energy.

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4.2 SPS systems
The entire SPS system consists of two parts, the space segment and ground segment.

Space segment:
The space segment is the satellite part which will be the space solar power station.
This part is responsible for reception and conversion of solar energy to electrical power and
also transmitting the power to earth in the form of microwave energy.

The key components of the satellite are solar panels, microwave oscillator, and
transmitting antenna. The concept of using solar power in satellites is not new, in fact the
satellites in orbit today use solar power to power their on board systems. The figure 4.1 a
regular satellite powered by solar panels.

Fig 4.1: A satellite with solar panels in orbit

Solar energy conversion (solar photons to DC current):

Two basic methods of converting sunlight to electricity have been studied: photovoltaic
(PV) conversion, and solar dynamic (SD) conversion.

Most analyses of solar power satellites have focused on photovoltaic conversion

(commonly known as “solar cells”). Photovoltaic conversion uses semiconductor cells (e.g.,
silicon or gallium arsenide) to directly convert photons into electrical power via a quantum
mechanical mechanism. Photovoltaic cells are not perfect in practice, as material purity and
processing issues during production affect performance; each has been progressively improved
for some decades. Some new, thin-film approaches are less efficient (about 20% vs. 35% for
best in class in each case), but are much less expensive and generally lighter.

7
Size of solar cell array:

The solar cell array size for the SPS has to be very large with and area in the range of
kilometers to produce enough for the making the system to be affordable.

Converting DC to Microwave power:

To convert the DC power microwave power for the transmission through antenna to the
receiving antenna any microwave oscillator can be used. The various microwave oscillators
include the klystrons and magnetron. The magnetron model is most preferred due to high
efficiency.

Transmitter:

The power has to be beamed to the receiving point on earth. The beamed energy has to
travel a very large distance (36,000km in GEO) from orbit and through the earth’s atmosphere.
A very large, high power antenna array has to be used. The phased array antenna model is used
to concentrate the beam so that it can reach the target ground station. A phased array is a
group of antennas in which the relative phases of the respective signals feeding the antennas
are varied in such a way that the effective radiation pattern of the array is reinforced in a
desired direction and suppressed in undesired directions.

Ground segment:
The SPS system will require a large receiving area with a rectenna array and the power
network connected to the existing power grids on the ground. Although each rectenna element
supplies only a few watts, the total received power is in the gigawatts. The word “rectenna” [2]
[4] is formed from “rectifying circuit” and “antenna.” The rectenna receives microwave energy
and converts it to DC electricity. The rectenna is a passive element with a rectifying diode, and
is operated without any extra power source. The rectenna has a low-pass filter between the
antenna and the rectifying diode to suppress re-radiation of higher harmonics. It also has an
output smoothing filter. The rectenna can have any type of antennas including dipole, Yagi-
Uda antenna, micro strip antenna, or even parabolic antenna.

8
5. Wireless Power Transmission
If power is collected in space a mechanism is needed to transfer the power to earth so it
can be connected to the power grid and distributed to various locations. But it is not reasonable
to connect the space power station to the earth with conducting cables and wire. The wireless
transmission of energy [3][5][6] has been contemplated as the most logical solution to cater to
the problem of power transmission from space to earth.

5.1 Theoretical Background

It is known that electromagnetic energy also associated with the propagation of the
electromagnetic waves. We can use theoretically all electromagnetic waves for a wireless
power transmission (WPT). The difference between the WPT and communication systems is
only efficiency. The Maxwell’s Equations indicate that the electromagnetic field and its power
diffuse to all directions.

Typical WPT is a point-to-point power transmission. For the WPT, we had better
concentrate power to receiver. It was proved that the power transmission efficiency can
approach close to 100%. Famous power tapers of the transmitting antenna are Gaussian taper,
Taylor distribution, and Chebychev distribution. These taper of the transmitting antenna is
commonly used for suppression of sidelobes. It corresponds to increase the power transmission
efficiency.

Future suitable and largest application of the WPT via microwave is a Space Solar
Power Satellite (SPS).

5.2 Microwave power transmission:

Microwave power transmission (MPT)[3][6] is the use of microwaves to transmit
power through outer space or the atmosphere without the need for wires. It is a sub-type of the
more general wireless energy transfer methods. The reasons for microwave power transmission
being the preferred choice for wireless power transmission is because of

• High penetration through atmosphere

• Availability of more band width and

• The high gain and directivity of the microwaves.

9
 Microwave transmission is usually used in satellite communication. MPT is similar to
the microwave transmissions for satellite communication in terms of the antenna array of
transmitters and receivers but it has some distinct requirements.

1) For microwave power transmission (MPT), highly efficient energy transmission between
the transmitter and the receiver antennas is required. The product of the transmitter and
receiver diameters is a key parameter. A huge array is necessary for high efficiency. The
diameters are on the order of kilometers and the number of their elements is on the order of
billions for the SPS. The efficiency is about 90%.

2) The microwave beam should be correctly directed to the rectenna site. Pointing accuracy
3oo m or less from GEO (36,000 km in altitude) is required for a rectenna diameter of a few to
several kilometers. This corresponds to 0.0005º.

5) Highly efficient and light weight power transmitters with low harmonics need to be
developed. The low weight to power ratio is important for decreasing the launch cost. The
microwave devices for the SPS power transmitters are either semiconductor devices or
microwave tubes.

5.3 Recommended microwave power transmission

As a result of technical research based on the SPS 2000 conceptual study, wireless
power transmission at 2.45 GHz is found to be the most practical method that can be applied
for the early stage of space solar power stations. Although various ideas of wireless power
transmission have been proposed for future systems, only 2.45 GHz can be recommended to be
standardized as a practical standard for the following reasons.

1. Industrial targets of transmitting antenna design

2. Autonomy of rectenna research

3. Interference with radio communications

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6. SPS key technologies
The feasibility of the deploying the commercial SPS system depends on the
development of cost efficient technologies for design, manufacturing and control of the
satellite and ground systems. The various key technologies involved in the success of solar
power satellites are:

(a). Launch and transportation

The SPS is a gigantic space power station of ten thousand tons orbiting in
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO). This is one hundred times larger than the present
international space station in Low-Earth Orbit (LEO). Therefore, economical launch and
transportation vehicles for massive material, such as the commercially available Falcon 9 [3]
from Space X, or other private commercial transportation providers, are required in order to
realize an SPS that could provide power from space at a reasonable cost.

For the launch and construction of SPS, the following two vehicles are to be developed.
One is a Reusable Transport Vehicle [4], [8] to transport heavy materials, at a reasonably low
cost, to a LEO where assembly will be conducted. The other is an Orbital Transport Vehicle to
lift the SPS from the LEO to the final orbit (GEO). These two rocket technologies are essential
for realization of the SPS system.

With the current technologies the price of putting a SPS into orbit would cost too much
for it to have completive price with other power production methods.

(b). Solar power generation system

To realize a commercial SPS, we have to resolve the following three technical issues
regarding solar cells.

1. Weight reduction

2. Cost reduction

3. Mass production feasibility

The current state-of-the art space solar cells are heavy, fragile, and have severe
materials constraints. The next generation of cells will incorporate nanostructure materials,
which will increase the efficiency of solar conversion through quantum mechanical

11
confinement effects. This approach will allow the use of lightweight, flexible substrates,
greatly improving the power/mass ratio and the physical durability of the cells. Composites of
polymers and nano-materials offer the potential ultra-lightweight flexible thin film solar cells.

Ultra-light weight arrays [2],[7] of solar cells have recently been developed which have
a capability of providing very high power/kg ratio.

Fig 6.1: ultra thin solar cell array.

(c). Thermal control technology

Recently, SPS designers have noted the importance of a thermal control technology
because recent SPS models adopt solar cells with concentrators in order to reduce the weight of
solar cells and also adopt the solar cell – microwave ‘sandwich’ system modules in order to
reduce heavy power lines. The concentrators and the sandwich modules cause thermal
problems because of higher solar power inputs to the limited cell area.

The reference system designed by NASA and DOE [3] had large heat radiation panels
behind solar cells to avoid the thermal problems. As a countermeasure, a surface cover with a
wavelength selection function is proposed in Japan to reduce heat inputs. The thermal control
technologies are important topics in SPS system design.

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(d). Microwave power transmission on SPS

The technology employed for generating microwave radiation is extremely important

for the SPS system. It should be highly efficient, very low noise, and have an acceptable
weight/power ratio. A microwave energy transmitter often uses 2.45 GHz or 5.8 GHz in the
ISM band (ISM=Industry, Science, and Medical). There are two types of microwave generators
and amplifiers, the microwave tube and the semiconductor amplifier.

These have contrasting electric characteristics. The microwave tube, such as a cooker-type
magnetron, can generate and amplify high power microwaves (over kilowatts) with a high
voltage (over kilovolts). It is very economical. The semiconductor amplifier generate low
power microwave (below 100W) with a low voltage (below fifteen volts) [6]. It currently is
still expensive. There are some discussion concerning conversion and amplifier efficiency,
however, the microwave tube has higher efficiency (over 70%) and the semiconductor has
lower efficiency (below 50%). The weight of the MPT system is also important for reducing
the transportation cost of the SPS. Microwave tube is lighter than a semiconductor amplifier
when we compare the weight by power-weight ratio (kg/kW) because the microwave tube can
generate and amplify higher power microwaves than can the semiconductor amplifier. Detailed
research results concerning these microwave generators and amplifiers are described below.

(e). Target detection and beam control

It is important that all of the transmitted microwave power is collected in the rectenna
site on the ground. The absorption by the atmosphere is to be less than 2%. Accuracies of
target detection and beam forming are very important in increasing the beam collection
efficiency. The beam control is possible using reflector antennas on the ground segment to help
align the transmitter with the computer control.

(f). Rectennas (rectifying antenna) and ground network

The SPS system will require a large receiving area with a rectenna array and the power
network connected to the existing power grids on the ground. Although each rectenna element
supplies only a few watts, the total received power is in the gigawatts. The existing power
network is much larger: hundreds GW. It is important to study the rectenna element, array, and
networks step by step to realize the SPS system.

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7. SPS RESEARCH: models proposed by various countries

7.1 US research:
Sun tower:

The “Sun Tower” [4] SSP Concept is one of the new models and exploits several
innovative approaches to reduce the SSP development and life-cycle cost, while at the same
time broadening market flexibility. The concept will entail relatively small individual system
components with an extensively evolvable modularity as depicted in fig.7.1

Fig 7.1: the sun tower structure

Integrated Symmetrical Concentrator:

The integrated symmetrical concentrator [2], shown in fig 7.2, is the latest model
proposed by the US after the review of various technologies concerning the SPS systems. It
redirects the Sun's energy by reflection, rather than first converting it to electricity and then
distributing it over long cable lines. The concept is based on an unusual structural
configuration consisting of two symmetrical clusters of very large, flat solar reflectors,
arranged so that they reflect and concentrate the Sun's energy on another structure consisting of
two solar arrays surrounding a central transmitter. This second structure would then rotate so
that the transmitter continuously points to the Earth while the solar reflectors always face the
Sun.

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 Fig 7.2 Integrated symmetrical concentrator

7.2 Japanese research:

JAXA 2003 Model (Formation Flying SPS) [3]:

Fig 7.3: JAXA reference model 2003

The NASA-DOE Reference Model hinted at the need for a rotating joint. This
mechanism becomes necessary because the Primary Mirror and the Conversion Module

15
inherently have different requirements. The Primary Mirror must constantly rotate in three
dimensions to accommodate the Sun. It must reflect sunlight to the Conversion Module.
However, the Conversion Module that beams energy down to an Earth station cannot be
rotated. It was assumed by all SPS developers that the Primary Mirror must be mechanically
connected to the Conversion Module.

In 2003, "Formation Flying", a major breakthrough in SPS development, was proposed.

In this new proposal, the Primary Mirror is physically separated from the Conversion Module.
The 2003 JAXA model is shown in Fig.7.3. It is based on a formation-flight of a rotating
mirror system and an integrated panel composed of a photo-voltaic cell surface on one side and
a phased array microwave antenna on the other side. The lifting force provided by solar
pressure can be used to fly the Primary Mirrors independently. Formation flying mirrors are
used to eliminate the need for the rotary joints. The whole system becomes more mechanically
stable and reliable.

7.3 European Research

The Sail Tower:

Fig 7.4: the European “sail tower” model

Europeans proposed a Sail Tower SPS (fig 7.4). The Sail Tower [3] design is similar to
NASA’s Sun Tower SPS but uses a thin-film technology and innovative deployment
mechanisms developed for solar sails. The main characteristics are summarized in Table 7.1

16
 Each single sail is 150m×150m and is automatically deployed by extending four
diagonal light-weight carbon fiber (CFRP) booms that are initially rolled up on a central hub.

The power generated within the sail modules is transmitted through the central tether to the
antenna where microwaves of 2.45 GHz are generated in mass-produced inexpensive
magnetrons. Slotted carbon-fiber waveguides mounted on the antenna main structure are used
as active antenna elements.

Table 7.1 characteristics of the “sail tower”

As the phased arrays, several sets of wave guides radiate the microwave power to the
rectennas on the Earth where the power is transformed and fed into the existing power
distribution networks. The power intensity across the antenna surface is designed with a
truncated 10 dB Gaussian distribution that minimizes side lobes and scattering.

This technology is much more developed than laser power transmission and promises
much higher system efficiencies with almost no weather dependency.

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8. Advantages and drawbacks of Space Solar Power

Advantages of Space Solar Power

1. Unlike oil, gas, ethanol, and coal plants, space solar power does not emit greenhouse
gases.

2. Unlike coal and nuclear plants, space solar power does not compete for or depend upon
increasingly scarce fresh water resources.

3. Unlike bio-ethanol or bio-diesel, space solar power does not compete for increasingly
valuable farm land or depend on natural-gas-derived fertilizer. Food can continue to be
a major export instead of a fuel provider.

4. Unlike nuclear power plants, space solar power will not produce hazardous waste,
which needs to be stored and guarded for hundreds of years.

5. Unlike terrestrial solar and wind power plants, space solar power is available 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week, in huge quantities. It works regardless of cloud cover, daylight, or
wind speed.

6. Unlike nuclear power plants, space solar power does not provide easy targets for
terrorists.

7. Space solar power will provide true energy independence for the nations that develop it,
eliminating a major source of national competition for limited Earth-based energy
resources.

8. Space solar power will not require dependence on unstable or hostile foreign oil
providers to meet energy needs, enabling us to expend resources in other ways.

9. Space solar power can take advantage of our current and historic investment in
aerospace expertise to expand employment opportunities in solving the difficult
problems of energy security and climate change.

10. Space solar power can provide a market large enough to develop the low-cost space
transportation system that is required for its deployment. This, in turn, will also bring
the resources of the solar system within economic reach. [9],[10]

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Disadvantages of Space Solar Power
Though there are many benefits of using solar power satellites and space based solar
power there are still some obstacles in the way of the complete realization of this goal.

1. Maintenance of SPS is expensive and challenging.

2. Requires a large reduction in launch and in place costs to compete effectively with
ground-based solar.

3. Geosynchronous orbit is already in heavy use; could be endangered by space debris

coming from such a large project.

4. The size of construction for the rectanna is massive. [9][10]

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 CONCLUSIONS
The increasing global energy demand is likely to continue for many decades. New
power plants of all sizes will be built. However, the environmental impact of those plants and
their impact on world energy supplies and geopolitical relationships can be problematic.
Renewable energy is necessary approach. However, many renewable energy sources are
limited in their ability to affordably provide the base load power required for global industrial
development and prosperity, because of inherent land and water requirements.

Based on current research space based solar power should no longer be envisioned as
requiring unimaginably large initial investments in fixed infrastructure before the emplacement
of productive power plants can begin. Moreover, space solar power systems appear to possess
many significant environmental advantages when compared to alternative approaches to
meeting increasing terrestrial demands for energy - including requiring considerably less land
area than terrestrially-based solar power systems. Though the success of space solar power
depends on successful development of key technology, it is certain the result will be worth the
effort.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Frank Paul Davidson, Katinka I. Csigi, Peter E. Glaser, Solar Power Satellites: A Space
Energy System for Earth.

2. http://www.spacefuture.com/

3. URSI Inter-commission Working Group on SPS, Supporting Document for the URSI White
Paper on Solar Power Satellite Systems, July 2006.

4. http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/a_fresh_look_at_space_solar_power_new_

architectures_concepts_and_technologies.shtml

5. Lin, J.C.,” Space solar-power stations, wireless power transmissions, and biological
implications”, Microwave magazine, IEEE, 2002, volume3, pg. 36-42

6. Brown, W. C., “Beamed microwave power transmission and its application to space”, IEEE
Trans. Microwave Theory Tech., vol. 40, no. 6, 1992, pp.1239-1250

7. http://www.spacefuture.com/archive/early_commercial_demonstration_of_space_solar

_power_using_ultra_lightweight_arrays.shtml

8. http://www.spacetransportnews.com/

9. http://www.economist.com/opinion/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12673299

10. http://www.spacereveiw.com/

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