PreCalculus Formulas

Sequences and Series:

Binomial Theorem

n
( a + b) = a n k b k
k =0 k
n

Find the rth term

n n( r 1) r 1
b
r 1 a

Functions:
To find the inverse function:
1. Set function = y
2. Interchange the variables
3. Solve for y

Arithmetic Last Term

Geometric Last Term

an = a1 + (n 1)d

an = a1r

Geometric Partial Sum

Arithmetic Partial Sum

1 rn
S n = a1

1 r

a +a
Sn = n 1 n
2
f -1 (x)

n 1

Composition of functions:

( f g )( x) = f ( g ( x))
( g f )( x) = g ( f ( x))
(f

[r (cos + i sin )]n = r n (cos ni + i sin ni )

r = a 2 + b2
b
= arctan
a

x = r cos
y = r sin

a + bi
i = 1
i 2 = 1

( r , ) ( x , y )

Determinants:

3 5
4 3

= 3i3 5i4

Use your calculator

for 3x3 determinants.

f )( x) = x

Algebra of functions: ( f + g )( x) = f ( x) + g ( x) ; ( f g )( x) = f ( x) g ( x)

( f i g )( x) = f ( x)i g ( x) ; ( f / g )( x) = f ( x) / g ( x), g ( x) 0
Domains:: D( f ( x)) D( g ( x))
Domain (usable xs)
Asymptotes: (vertical)
Watch for problems with
Check to see if the
zero denominators and with denominator could ever be
negatives under radicals.
zero.
x
f ( x) = 2
Range (ys used)
x + x6
Difference Quotient
Vertical asymptotes at
f ( x + h) f ( x )
x = -3 and x = 2
h
terms not containing a mult.
of h will be eliminated.

Complex and Polars:

DeMoivres Theorem:

Asymptotes: (horizontal)
x+3
1. f ( x) = 2
x 2
top power < bottom power
means y = 0 (z-axis)
4 x2 5
2. f ( x) = 2
3x + 4 x + 6
top power = bottom power
means y = 4/3
(coefficients)
x3
3. f ( x) =
None!
x+4
top power > bottom power

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Cramers Rule:

ax + by = c
dx + ey = f

a b f
d e
1

b a
,
e d

Also apply Cramers rule to 3 equations with 3

unknowns.

Trig:

Reference Triangles:

o
a
o
sin = ; cos = ; tan =
h
h
a
h
h
a
csc = ; sec = ; cot =
o
a
o

BowTie

Analytic Geometry:
Circle

Ellipse

( x h) 2 + ( y k ) 2 = r 2
Remember completing the square process
for all conics.

Parabola

( x h) = 4a ( y k )
( y k ) 2 = 4a ( x h)
2

Polynomials:
Remainder Theorem:
Substitute into the
expression to find the
remainder.
[(x + 3) substitutes -3]

Descartes Rule of
Signs
1. Maximum possible #
of positive roots
number of sign changes
in f (x)
2. Maximum possible #
of negative roots
number of sign changes
in f (-x)

vertex to focus =
a, length to
directrix = a, latus
rectum length
from focus = 2a

( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
+
=1
a2
b2
larger denominator major
axis and smaller denominator
minor axis

Hyperbola

( x h)
( y k)

=1
2
a
b2
2

Latus length from focus b2/a

c focus length where

major length is hypotenuse
of right triangle.
Latus rectum lengths from
focus are b2/a
atransverse axis
bconjugate axis
cfocus where c is the
hypotenuse.
asymptotes needed

Synthetic Division
Mantra:
Bring down, multiply
and add, multiply and
add

Depress equation

[when dividing by (x - 5),

use +5 for synthetic
division]

(also use calculator to

examine roots)

Analysis of Roots
P N C Chart

Upper bounds:
All values in chart are +
Lower bounds:
Values alternate signs
No remainder: Root

* all rows add to the

degree
* complex roots come in
conjugate pairs
* product of roots - sign
of constant (same if
degree even, opposite if
degree odd)
* decrease P or N entries
by 2

b b 2 4ac
x=
2a

Sum of roots is the

coefficient of second
term with sign changed.

Eccentricity:
e = 0 circle
0 < e < 1 ellipse
e = 1 parabola
e > 1 hyperbola

Induction:

Find P(1):
Assume P(k) is
true:
Show P(k+1) is
true:

Rate of Growth/Decay: y = y0 ekt

y = end result, y0 = start amount,
Be sure to find the value of k first.

Far-left/Far-right Behavior of a Polynomial

The leading term (anxn ) of the polynomial determines the
far-left/far-right behavior of the graph according to the
following chart. (Parity of n whether n is odd or even.)
LEFT-HAND BEHAVIOR
n is even
n is odd

anxn

(same as right)

an > 0
RIGHTHAND
always positive
BEHAVIOR
or

(opposite right)

negative x < 0
positive x > 0

Leading
Coefficient Test

Product of roots is the

constant term (sign
changed if odd degree,
unchanged if even degree).

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an < 0

always
negative

positive x < 0
negative x > 0