.

R
R
{0}
as there isno other ideal between { 0 } R

{ 0 } isthe maximal ideal Ris a field ,

9. gcd ( o ( a ) , o ( b ) )=1ab=ba o ( ab )=o ( a ) o ( b )

10.
'

by Cauch y s theorem , a , b G such that o ( a )=3o ( b )=2

H= a> {e , a , a2 }
6
i ( H )= =2
3

clearly b H as b e , aa2 ; ( if b=a2 b2=a4 e=a )

the only cosets of H G are He=H Hb
G=He Hb=H Hb ={ e , a , a 2 , b , ab , a2 b }

ba=a2 b as ba e , a , a2 .
aba=b
Hence G={ e , a , a2 ,b , ab ,a 2 b } where ba=a2 baba=b

S 3= { e , a , a2 , b , ab , a2 b }= a ,b >
where a= (123 )b=( 12 )
hence G S 3
.
Let G be a finite group and p be a prime.
If p divides the order of G, then G has an element of order p.

Z 2 Z2 ={ e , a , b , ab } where a =b =( ab ) =ea b=ba

if H isa proper subgroup o ( H )=2(prime ); ( o ( H ) 14 )

H= {e , a } , { e , b } , { e , ab }
every proper subgroup of Z 2 Z 2 is cyclic , but Z 2 Z2 is not cyclic

S 3 has proper subgroups of order 23 only

proper subgroups are cyclic hence abelian
but S3 is not abelian .

( 1 ) must be a generator of Z 15
number of generators of Z15= ( 15 )
hence ( 1 ) has ( 15 ) =8 choices .

( 1p )(1 1q )=( p1)( q1)

( pq )= pq 1

..

9 ( 0,1 ) + A= ( 0,0 ) + A= A ( 0,1 ) + A is an element of order 9

: Z Z Z Z2
st ( a , b ) =( b2 a , [ a ]2 )
thenker = ( 2,4 )>
{a=2, b=4 b=2 a

 b2 a=0 [ a ] 2=0 }.
..

SUBRING:
a , b S abab S
..
INFINITE Integral domain with FINITE characteristic: D = Z2 [x]
as 2.1 = 0;

char D = 2;

If 1 has additive order n, then char R is n.

..

dnG isa cyclic group of order n

thennumber of elements of order d =(d ).

.

Normal subgroups: {e}, S3 and H = {e, (123), (132)} as i (H) = o (S 3/H) = 6/3 = 2.
every subgroup of index 2 is NORMAL.

S 3= a , ba3 =e=b 2ba=a2 b>

a=( 123 )b=( 12 )

H= a> {e , a , a2 } i ( H )=2 H is normalS3
subgroups of order 2 are not normal

K= { e , b } , a S3b K a1 ba=ab K .

S 3 : possible subgroups

{ e } , {e , b } , { e , ab } , { e , a 2 b } , { e , a , a2 } , S 3 .
.

Aut (Z8) = Z8x

(or U8)

Z8x = {1,3,5,7}; maximum order of any element is 2;

no element has order 4, hence Z8x is not cyclic. Aut (Z8) is not cyclic even though Z8
is cyclic.
.

..

(1, 0) + < (2,2) > has infinite order , whereas in Z2xZ2 there is no element with
infinite order.
..

a =1,b=4 b = 4a or [b 4a]8 = [0]8

: Z4 Z8 Z8
st ( [ a ]4 , [ b ]8 ) =[ b4 a ]8

thenker =( [ 1 ]4 , [ 4 ] 8)>.

or
Any group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z4 or K4 Kleins 4 group, which are Abelian.
..

H = <2>

+ <2>;

G/H ~ Z2+Z2;

G/K -> order is 4

(1,1) + K has order 4. hence G/K is cyclic and is isomorphic to Z 4.

gcd ( a ,a n1 ) =1a< an1 n>1 ; { for n=1, result is trivial }

a U a 1
n

[ a ] n=[ a n ] =[ 1 ] U a 1
n

a
( n1)
m
if m<n s .t [ a ] =[ 1 ] am 1 mod
a
a

a
a
( m1)
( n1)>
( m1) , whichis impossible as n>m

( n1)

hence o ( a )=n
.
.

An ideal I is a prime ideal if and only if I R, and whenever ab I, either a I or b

I.

if P and Q are both prime ideals, would PQ be a prime ideal? NO

(2) is a prime ideal in Z, because 2 is a prime number. Similarly (3) is prime ideal
(2)(3) = < lcm(2,3) > = < 6 >; as 6 is not a prime number, (6) is not a prime ideal.
.

In Z, prime ideals correspond to the ideals < p > generated by prime

numbers.
as Z is a PID, prime ideal if maximal ideal.
p >=Z p
Z

Z , maximal ideals ( prim e ideals ) are< p> where p is prime .

..

..
Theorem: Let G be a group such that every
element of G other than the identity has order 2.
Then G is abelian.

..

Aut (K) ~ S3
a->a, b->b, ab->ab
a->a, b-> ab, ab->b
..
a->b, b->a, ab->ab

a->b, b->ab, ab->a

..
a->ab, b->b, ab->a
a->ab, b->a, ab->b
..
similarly for Z2+Z2
Aut (Z2+Z2) ~ S3
..

G= a , ba2 =b2=( ab )2=e ; ab=ba> K 4

Aut ( K 4 ) S 3
Z
K
Aut ( 4) S3 .
Aut ( 2 Z 2)
as Z 2 Z 2 K 4
..

number of Automorphism on Z 9Z 16
Zm Zn Zmn when m and n are relatively prime
Z9 Z16 Z144
Aut (Zm Zn) Aut (Zmn) = Umn

..
Aut (G H) Aut (G) Aut (H); when G and H are finite groups of relatively prime
order
Aut (Zm Zn) Aut (Zm) Aut (Zn), whenever m and n are relatively prime.


..

( p1 )

( n ) =n 1

prime factorize n= p1a p 2b p3c ...

..

:G1 G2

G1 G 2

H K

st ( x , y )= ( Hx , Ky )
Then Ker =H K .

..
If G is cyclic then Aut(G) is cyclic?
No, consider Z8

G=Z 8
Aut ( G ) =Aut ( Z 8 )=U 8={ 1,3,5,7 } mod 8
but U 8 is not cyclic as there is no element of order 4.

..

If G is abelian then Aut(G) is abelian?

No

let G=Z 2 Z 2Klein ' s 4 group

Gis abelian
Aut ( G ) =Aut ( Z 2 Z 2 ) S3 , which is not abelian .
.

U n iscyclic iff :
1 n=1, n=2, n=4
k

2 n= p n=2 p where p is any odd prime i . e p=3, 5,7 .k N .

if p is prime U p is a cyclic group withorder ( p )= p1

U p Z p1 .

I = 6Z, E = 2Z
E/I = {0+6Z, 2+6Z, 4+6Z} is group with order 3(prime)
Hence E/I is cyclic group with order 3
any cyclic group of order 3 is isomorphic to Z3
Hence E/I Z3

Even though M is maximal ideal, R/M is not a field because R is not

a commutative ring.

ONLY in a commutative ring R

M is maximal

R/M is a field.

Let f ( x ) Z [ x ] . Let p be a primelet f p ( x ) be the reductionof f ( x ) mod p

If f p ( x ) is

f ( x ) is

irreducible
deg f p ( x )=deg f ( x ) , then
Zp

irreducible
Q

as deg f p ( x )=deg f ( x ) ; p should not divide theleading coefficient of f ( x )

f 2 ( x ) is

irreducible
irreducible
f ( x ) is
Z2
Q

any Isomorphism maps anidentity element an identity element

characteristic of a ring is the additive order of the identity element (1, 1)

f ( x ) Z [ x ].
If f ( x ) is

irreducible
irreducible
,then f ( x ) is
Z
Q

..
if I is a maximal ideal of R, then I[x] need not be a maximal ideal of
R[x].
I = 2Z, R = Z; R/I Z2, a field. Therefore I is maximal ideal of R
R[x]/I[x] R/I [x] Z[x]/2Z[x] Z/2Z[x] Z2[x], which is not a field.
Hence 2Z[x] is not a maximal ideal of Z[x], even though 2Z is a maximal ideal of Z.

If I is a prime ideal of R <=> I[x] is a prime ideal of R[x].

..

I = f ( x ) >is a principal ideal .

if I = f ( x ) >is maximal ideal of Z [ x ] ,then
f ( x ) is

irreducible
Z

take any prime p which doesnot divide the leading coefficient of f ( x )

deg f p ( x )=deg f ( x ) where f p ( x ) is obtained by taking modulo p of coefficientsof f ( x )
since f ( x ) is

irreducible
irreducible
f p ( x ) is
Z
Zp

< p , f ( x ) >is a maximal ideal of Z [ x ]

f ( x ) >< p , f ( x )>
hence I = f ( x ) > cannot be a maximal ideal
no principa l ideal< f ( x ) >can be maximal .
.

f p ( x ) > which is a field

Z [x ]
p , f ( x ) > p
Z [x]

 p , f ( x ) >is a maximal ideal of Z [ x ]

f p ( x ) should be

irreducible
Zp

R has only one maximal ideal i.e. {0}.

maximal ideals of R x R : {0} x R and R x {0}.

RR R
R

R { 0 } R field
{ 0 } R {0 } R

..

let the givenrings be isomorphic

2

x +7> s .t ( x )=n x+ m+ x +7>

Z[ x]
an onto homomorphism : Z [ x ]
where n , m Z

2 x 2 +7 ker ( 2 x 2+ 7 )=0+ x 2+7 >

2 ( x )2 +7 ( 1 )=0+ x2 +7>
2

2 ( nx+ m) +7 0 2 ( n2 x 2 +m 2 +2 nmx ) +7 0. but x 2 7

2

14 n +2 m +7+ 4 nm x 0 14 n +2 m +7 04 nm 0
these equations are not satisfied of any n ,m Z
Thus no onto homomorphism has kernel ( 2 x 2 +7 )

let x , y Z [ i ] y 0
x
let =a+ biwhere a , b Q
y
1
1
c , d Z such that |ac| ,|bd|
2
2
x
= ( ac ) + ( bd ) i+ ( c+ d i )
y
x=( c +d i ) y + [ ( ( ac ) + ( bd ) i ) y ] . { x=t y +r ; t , r Z [ i ] }
sho w N ( r ) < N ( y )
.
2

define N ( a+bi )=a +b

then for any x , y Z [ i ] N ( xy )=N ( x ) N ( x ) as N ( y ) 1 ( N ( y )> 0 )

N ( x ) N ( x ) N ( y)
..
Z [ 5 ] , 2 isirreducible but not prime .

4=( 1+ 5 ) ( 1 5 )
2( 1+ 5 ) ( 1 5 )

but 2 does not divide either

( 1+ 5 )( 15 )

if Z [ i ] , is anirreducible element iff N ( ) is a prime number .

if p Z , pis an irreducible element iff p is a prime number p 3 mod 4
..
3+ 3 isnot an irreducible element Z [ 3]
3+ 3= 3 ( 1+ 3 ) can be expressed as product of nonunits

show that ideal generated by 31+ 5 isnot principal idealZ [ 5 ] . Hence

Z [ 5 ] is not a PID .

is a unit iff N ( ) =1. let Z [ i ] ,

=a+ bi;

N ( ) =a2 +b2 =1;

a=1, b=0

a=0, b= 1
hence the groupof units { 1, i }

..

J =I + 17>, then I J Z [ x ] . 17 J17 I

Let J =Z [ x ] . then1 J , 1=xf ( x )+ 17 b( x )

1=17 b 0 whereb 0 Z

I ={ a+ b 5|a+ bis even }=2,1+ 5>is a maximal ideal

: Z [ 5 ] Z 2

s .t ( a+b 5 )= [ a+ b ] 2
thenker =I

Z [ 5 ]
Z2
I

3
1
+ Z= + Z ;
2
2
R
= { r +Z|0 r <1r R }
Z
define :

R
S
Z

s .t ( r +Z )=ei 2 r
S isa group of complex numbers with unit modulus group

.
.

1 ( x )=x ; 2 ( x )=x .
..

x> Z5
Z [ x ] Z5 [ x ]
I = 5, x >; then

I

show that

Z [x ]
Z5
I

: Z [ x ] Z5

st ( f ( x ) )=f ( 0 ) mod 5 ;
.

H= ( 123 ) > {e , ( 123 ) ,(132)}

( SH )= 63 =2
3

S3
2
= { He , H ( 12 ) }H ( 12 ) =He=H
H
H (12 ) =H ( 13 ) as ( 12 ) ( 13 )1=( 12 ) ( 13 )=( 132 ) H
similarly H ( 12 )=H ( 23 ) . also H ( 123 )=H H ( 132 ) =H

Hence

S3
is a cyclic groupof order 2.
H

..

R
{ z C :|z|=1 }
Z
..

:2 Z 3 Z
( 2 )=3 j ;
4=224=2+2
( 4 )= (2 )2 ( 4 )=2 ( 2 )

> ( 2 ) =2 ( 2 ) .

the only homomorphism between 2 Z3 Z is the trivial homomorphism i. e ( x )=0 x ,

which is neither 11 nor onto .

:2 Z 4 Z
( 2 )=4 j ;
4=224=2+2
( 4 )= (2 )2 ( 4 )=2 ( 2 )
> ( 2 )2=2 ( 2 )
16 j 2=8 j.

1
j= Z .
2
only j=0 is possible . Only homomorphism isthe trivial homomorphism ( x )=0 x ,
which is not isomophic .

I = x 22>
Q [ x]
= { a+bx + I :a , b Q }
I

Q [ x]
Q [ 2 ] such that
I

( a+ bx+ I )=a+b 2
..

..

solution 1:

I =2 Z

I [ x ] , coefficients belong I =2 Z , i. e coefficients are even

consider J = 2, x >

I [ x]J Z [x]
as 2+ x J but 2+ x I [ x ] J I [ x ]
1 Z [ x ] but 1 J J Z [ x ]
hence I [ x ] is not a maximal ideal .

solution 2:

Z[ x]
Z

[ x ] Z2 [ x ]
2
Z
2 Z[ x]
clearly Z 2 [ x ] isnot a field as x does not possess an inverse .
2 Z [ x ] cannot be a maximal ideal of Z [ x].
solution 3:

show J = 2, x>is maximal ideal of Z [ x ] .

..

I =Z { 0 }
Z Z Z
Z
{0} Z Z
Z { 0 } Z {0 }

: Z Z Z such that
( a , b ) =b
then Ker =Z { 0 }
Z Z
Z
Z {0}
Z is anintegral domainnot a field

Z { 0 } is prime ideal but not a maximal ideal ;

..

we know that Q is field of quotients of Z

all fieldsof quotients of a givenintegral domain D are isomorphic

But QR are not isomorphic since Q is countableR is not countable

Aliter :if R is a field of quotients of Z , then every element of R must be a ratio of two integers

but 2 cannot be expressed as theratio of two integers .

..

field of quotients of a field F is isomorphic to F

Field of quotients of R must be isomorphic R ; but C is not isomorphic R

Let be anisomorphism C R
Then (1 )= ( 1 ) =1

1= (1 )= ( i 2 )= ( i ) >0 which is nonsense

2

( i ) R , ( i ) >0
..

A4 cannot have an element of order 6

A4 S4
we show that S 4 does not have any element of order 6
decomposition into products of disjoint cycles various possiblities

( 4 cycle ) order 4

( 3 cycle ) ( 1cycle ) order 3

( 2 cycle ) ( 2cycle ) order 2

( 2 cycle ) order 2
( 1 cycle ) order 1
S 4 has elements of orders 1,2, 3, 4
S 4 has no element of order 6 A 4 has no element of order 6

..

There is no subgroup of order 6 in A4

Let H be a subgroupof order 6 H must be isomorphic either Z 6S3

as A 4 does not have any element of order 6, H cannot be isomorphic Z 6
hence H S 3
S 3 has 3 elements of order 2 ( 12 ) , ( 13 )(23)
A 4 has only 3 elements of order 2 ( 12 ) ( 34 ) , ( 13 )( 24 )( 14 )( 23 )
as H S 3 , H should also contain 3 elements of order 2 ;H A4
order 2 elements of A 4 must be H
But elements of order 2S 3 donot commute where they commuteH
hence H S 3
as H is neither isomorphic Z 6 nor S3 , H doesnot exist
A 4 doesnot have an subgroup of order 6 .


..

6o ( A4 ) but A 4 doesnot have an subgroup of order 6

converse of Lagrange' s theorem is not true .

Let p be a prime numberG be a group of order 2 p

thenG is cyclic ( i . e G Z 2 p ) G D p
where D p= {a , b| a p=e=b2aba=a }
D 3 S3 :a ( 123 ) b (12) .

any group of order 6 (2 3 ) is isomorphic Z 6D 3( S 3)

..

let f : R S be an i somorphism
: R[x ]S[ x]
s .t ( r 0 +r 1 x+ r 2 x 2 + ) =f (r 0 )+ f (r 1 )x + f (r 2 ) x 2 +
..

G H is abelianiff GH are abelian

As S3 is not abelian , S 3 Z 2 is not abelian .

S 3 Z 2 has elements of order 6, whereas A 4 do not have an element of order 6

( ( 123 ) ,1 )S3 Z 2 order =lcm ( 3,2 ) =6.

a=2,b=1, c=2

a=2 b , c=2 ba2b=0, c2 b=0 ;

for ker
;

( 3,1 )> Z .
Z Z

..

let mbe the least positive integer s .t a H <a > H

let b H ,then b G= a> b=ak
k =mq +r where r=0r <m

if r 0 r <m
q

r=kmq ar =ak amq ar =b ( a m ) H

r

a Hr <m contradiction
hence r =0 k=mq ak =amq
q

b=( am ) < am >

H <am >

H = a >

n
Z n , for each kn ,< >is a unique subgroup of order k
k
..
if dn ,thena cyclic group of order n , number of elements of order d is (d)

Let b Gb H , if o ( b )=1then b=e H o ( b ) 1

o ( b ) 5 as otherwise K = b> would be another subgroup of order 5
hence o ( b )=25, G= b>.
.

ax1> R [ x ] i. e 1 < ax1>

an =0 1=1an x n .
.

( n ) =n+ I where I = 2i 3>

onto : a+b i 3+ I =a+2 b+ I = ( a+2 b ) as i 3 2

7> Ker Ker <7>.

a field , every nonzero element is a unit every field is a UFD

UFD :any nonzero element R is either aunit can be written as a product of finite number
of irreducible elements of R .

.
Why is Z [ n ] not a UFD n 3
It can be easily show that 2is irreducible .

If n iseven ,then 2( n ) =n
but 2 does not divide

n , so 2is a not a prime element

but 2 isirreducible element .

a UFD , all irreducibles are prime , so this shows Z [ n]is not a UFD .
.

if n is odd , then2(1+ n)(1 n)=1+n=even

without dividing either of the factors , so again 2is a not a prime element .

Thisargument works equally well for n=3greater

but fails for n=1,2

Z! [ 1 ] Z [ 2 ] areUFDs

Show that Z [ 2 ] is a PID

simply show Z [ 2 ] is a Euclidean Domain
ED PID UFD .

show that 2 isirreducible

let 2=( a+ b n ) ( c +d n )

4=( a2 +n b2 ) ( c 2 +n d 2 )
as a ,b areintegers ( a2+ n b2 ) 2, ( c 2 +n d 2 ) 2
hence either ( a+b n )( c + d n ) is a unit
2is irreducible ..

..

Consider theideal J = 2,1+ 5>< > for some Z [ 5 ]

2 J 2= N ( )N (2 )=4
1+ 5 J 1+ 5= N ( )N ( 1+ 5 )=6

N ( ) gcd ( 4,6 )=2

N ( ) =12.
N ( ) 2hence N ( )=1 =1 J = 1>
but this is nonsense . show by writing 1 as a combination of 21+ 5
Then takemod 2.

gf Z [ x ] f =g q , where q Z [ x ]
g=c g0 where c=c ( g )g0 is primitive
q=d q0 where d=c ( q )q 0 is primitive
but Gauss Lemma , g 0 q 0 is again prim itive
f =cd g0 q0
cd=1 c= 1as c Z .

..
Gauss Lemma
1 product of two primitive polynomials is primitive

2 if f ( x )

irreducible
irreducible
,then f ( x ) is
.
Z
Q

an even cycle is odd permutation

an odd cycle iseven permutation

..

60=4 3 5 as 4, 35 arerelatively prime

U 60 =U 4 U 3 U 5 Z 2 Z2 Z 4
U 4 is cyclic group of ( 4 )=2 U 4 Z 2
U p iscyclic iff p is prime U p Z p1 as o ( U p )= ( p ) =p1
U 3 Z 2U 5 Z 4 .


Z 2 Z 2 Z 4 is not cyclic as there is no element of order 16
the greatest order possible is lcm ( 2,2,4 ) =4.

Group of order 4 is isomorphic to Z4 or K4

Let G be a group of order 4; by Lagrange theorem, any element of G has
order 1, 2 or 4.
If G has an element of order 4 then G is cyclic.
Assume G has no elements of order 4, then G has 3 elements of order 2.
Then G is Abelian.
So G is Abelian and has 3 elements of order 2 and 1 element of order 1 (the
identity), it follows that G is isomorphic to the Klein four group.
both Z4 or K4 are abelian any group of order 4 is always abelian
D2 K 4 Z 2 Z2

o ( a )= p ; o ( b )=q ;

( p , q )= 1ab=ba
gcd
Then o ( ab ) =o ( a ) o (b).

if G is an abelian group of order pq, where p and q are distinct prime

numbers, then G is cyclic.
o ( G )= pq a , b G s .t o ( a ) =p ,o ( b )=q

now G isabelian ab=ba

( o ( a ) , o ( b ))=1gcd ( p , q ) =1
gcd
o ( ab )=o ( a ) o ( b )= pq
G= ab >.

.
Abelian group of order 6 is cyclic and isomorphic to Z6.
non-Abelian group of order 6 is isomorphic to S3.
any group of order 6 is isomorphic Z6 D3 S3

case1 : G1 x G2 is abelian as G1 and G2 are abelian (as they are cyclic)

case 2: Let G1 G 2 be cyclic , generated by c= ( a , b )o ( c )=mn
let gcd ( m, n )=d >1

mn
d

mn
d

n
m d

m
n d

consider c =( a , b ) = ( a ) , ( b ) =( e 1 ,e 2 )

mn
<mn as d >1
d

this is a contradiction as mn is the least positive integer s . t cmn =( e 1 , e 2 )

d=1gcd ( m, n )=1

D 3= {a ,b| a =e=b ; aba=bba=a b }={e , a , a , b , ab , a b }

S 3= {i d , ( 12 ) , ( 23 ) , ( 13 ) , ( 123 ) , ( 132 ) }
a (123 )b (12 )
Then S 3 D3

..
A non-empty subset S of R is a subring if a , b S ab Sab S .
S is closed under subtraction and multiplication.
..

Z 3= { 0 ,1, 2 }
squares= {0, 1 }
a2 +b 2=0+0, 0+1, 1+0, 1+1
a2 +b 2=0 a=0b=0

Z 7 squares : { 0 , 1 ,2 , 4 }
2

a can be 0, 1, 24. Similarly for b

a2 +b 2=0 iff a=0b=0 ;

Z 5 squares : { 0 , 1, 4 }
a2 +b 2=0 even when a2 =1b2 =4

A= 1 2 doesnot have an inverse as det A=12 +22=5=0

2 1

s .t ( a+bx +c x 2+ .. ) =[ a ] 4 + [ b ] 4 x + [ c ] 4 x 2+
can be easily show that isan ontohomomorphism
Ker = 4 > 4 Z [ x ] = { 4 f ( x )| f ( x) Z [ x ] }

Z [x]
=Z 4 [ x ]
4Z [ x]
Z [x ]

4 >=Z 4 [ x ]

..
Think of

as a 2-dimensional vector space.

Then, Aut ( Z

transformations from

) can be thought as the vector space of all linear

to itself whose determinants are

nonzero.
i.e. think of these linear transformations as 2 x 2 matrices.
only 6 of them have nonzero determinant. They are

(10 01) ,(11 01) ,(10 11) ,( 01 10) ,(11 10) ,(01 11)
Now, there are only two groups of order 6:

(abelian) or S3 (non-

abelian). Since it may be checked quickly that the matrix multiplication

among these elements is NOT commutative, we have one conclusion: Aut
( Z
x Z ) is isomorphic to S .
2

(10 11) implies that (1,0 ) ( 1,0)( 0,1) (1,1)

.
Z 2 Z 2= { ( 0,0 ) , ( 1,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) , ( 1,1 ) }
any automorphism is determined by values of ( 1,0 ) ( 0,1 )
always ( 0,0 )=( 0,0 )
hence (1,0 ) has 3 choices
after choosing ( 1,0 ) , ( 0,1 ) is 2choices
6 automorphisms are possible

1: (1,0 ) ( 1,0 ) ; ( 0,1 ) ( 0,1 )

 2 : ( 1,0 ) ( 1,0 ) ; ( 0,1 ) ( 1,1 ) .

3 : ( 1,0 ) ( 0,1 ) ; ( 0,1 ) ( 1,0 )
4 : ( 1,0 ) ( 0,1 ) ; ( 0,1 ) ( 1,1 ) similarly 5, 6
but 2 3 3 2. Aut ( Z 2 Z2 ) is not abelian
any group of order 6 is isomorphic either Z 6 S 3
Aut ( Z 2 Z 2 ) S3 .
..
S.t every group G of order 4 is isomorphic to either Z4 or K4.
let x G o ( x ) o ( G ) o ( x )=1, 24
if o ( x )=4,then G= x> is cyclic
if o ( x ) 4 o ( x ) =2 x e G is abelian
the only noncyclic abelian group of order 4 is K 4
G K 4 Z 2 Z 2

S3
Z as S 3 / A 3 has only 2 elements .
A3 2

K 4 ={ e , a , b , ab } where a =b =e ; ab=ba , ( ab ) =e

: K 4 Z 2 Z 2 , st

 ( e )=( 0,0 ) , ( a )=( 1,0 ) , ( b )=( 0,1 ) , ( ab )=( 1,1 )

( ab )= ( a ) + ( b ) .
K 4 Z 2 Z 2
..
also K4 can be defined as
K 4 ={ e , a , b , c } where a2=b 2=c 2=e
ab=c ,bc=a , ca=b .

( 1,2 )=( ( 1 ) , (2) )

( ( 1 ) , (2 )) =(1,2)

( ( 1 ) , (2) )=(2,1)

Z 2 has order 2 is subgroup of Z 6

subgroup of Z6 that has order 2is 3 Z 63> .
.

as Wis subspace :u , v W au+ bv W for any scalar a , b

a,bR
1
5xx W ( 5x + x ) W 1 W .
5

Ker f = {c 1+ c 2 ex|c 1 , c 2 R }=span ( 1,ex )

1ex are linearly independent basis
dim( Ker f )=2.

..

B=P1 AP where A=[ T ] EB=[ T ] s

Pis change of basis E S

if S= {u 1, u 2 } P=[ u 1u 2 ]
diagonalize A get D=P1 AP P get thebasis S={u 1,u 2 }

hence u 1= (2, 1 )u 2=( 3, 1 ) give the required basis vectors

.

..

( 1 ) should be anidempotent ( 1 )=0 ( 1 )=1

( n ) =0 ( n )=n

..

Let G1 G2= ( a , b ) >, o ( a ,b )=mn .

Let gcd ( m , n )=d>1
mn

( a , b ) d =( e1 , e 2)

but

mn
<mn , which is a contradiction as mnis the least positive integer .
d

..
The only homomorphisms from a Field F to any ring R are zero
homomorphism and injective homomorphism.
: F R is any homomorphism
Keris ideal of F Ker= {0 }Ker=F
is 11 ( x )=0 x F .

..
R[x] is an integral domain if R is an integral domain
Let f(x) = a0 + a1x + + an xn

g(x) = b + b x + + b x .
0

If these are not 0, then we can assume an, bm 0.

Thus the highest-degree term of fg is anbm xm+n 0, so fg 0.
Thus R[X] has no zero divisors.

Q= { 1, i , j , k } , N =Z ( Q )= {1,1 }
Q
= { N ,, Nj , Nk }
N
as N (i ) ={ i }
( )

=N i 2=N (1 ) =N

o ( ) =2=o ( Nj )=o ( Nk )
Q
Z Z 2 .
N 2
.

:C R be any isomorphis m
( 1 )=1 (1 ) = ( 1 ) =1
1= (1 )= ( i 2 )= ( i )

 ( i ) R ( i )=x , x is some real number

1=x 2 , where x is some real number
this isimpossible x R .

I = 2,1+ 5>
: Z [ 5 ] Z 2

st ( a+ b 5 ) =[ a+b ]2

..

o ( ) cannot be 13
if o ( )=3 3 =1 o ( 3 ) =1 whichis not possible
again o ( ) =21not possible
if o ( )=21
then =( 21 cycle ) ( 3 cycle ) ( 7 cycle )
thus only possibility is o ( )=7.

 :2 Z Z 4
st ( 2 n )=[ n ]4
if 2 n ker ( 2 n )=[ 0 ] [ n ]4 =[ 0 ] 4

nis a multiple of 4
2 n is a multiple of 8 2 n 8 Z

ker =8 Z

If Gis a group s . t

1 ab=ba
2 o ( a )=m, o ( b )=n , gcd ( m , n )=1
Then o ( ab ) =o ( a ) o ( b )
Proof :

let A= a> B= b>

as| A||B|are relatively prime A B= {e }
let c=abo ( c )=i

c =( ab ) =a b =e as ab=ba
ai=bi A B={e }
ai=e m|i. similarly n|i
hence lcm ( m , n )|i mn|i
mn

mn

c =( ab ) =e imn
i=mn

o ( c )=mn
o ( ab )=o ( a ) o(b) .

..

o ( a n )=

o ( a)
o()
o ( 2 )=
=15
gcd ( n ,o ( a ) )
gcd ( 2 , o ( ) )

o ( 2 )=lcm ( 5,3 ) =15

gcd ( 2 , o ( ) )=12 o ( )=1530

o ( )=30 is not possible S9

o ( )=15 15=e 16=
2 8

=( ) =( 13579 ) ( 268 ) = (17395 )( 286 )

as ( 13579 ) ( 268 ) are disjoint , they commute .

finite non-commutative ring.

infinite non-commutative ring without unity

M 2(2 Z )
..

finite noncommutative ring without unity

M 2(2 Z8)

..

M n ( R ) , the set of all n n

matrices
, is a noncommutative ring
R

if R has unity 1, then M n ( R ) alsohas unity I n

if R doesnot have unity , then M n ( R ) alsodoesnot have unity
if R is finite , M n ( R ) is finite
if R isinfinite , M n ( R ) isalso infinite .
.
Show that every group of order 15 is cyclic
by cauch y ' s theorem, elements ab of order 35
A= a> B= b>
ab e , ab a , ab a2 .
clearly ab Aab B
'

Now abis not either AB . Hence order of ab ca n t be 1, 3,5.

Hence order of ab is 15.ab generates the group ..

..
if G is an abelian group of order pq, and p & q are distinct primes, then G is
cyclic.
p|ord ( G )q|ord ( G )

'

by cauch y s theorem, elements ab of order pq

ab=ba ( o ( a ) , o ( b )) =1 o ( ab )=o ( a ) o ( b )= pq
hence G= ab>.

Any group of order 15 is cyclic.

A5 has no element of order 15, since maximum order of any element in A5 is
5.
Hence A5 has no subgroup of order 15
.
similarly A5 has no subgroup of order 30 as this subgroup contains an
element of order 15
.

o ( a 2 )=

o (a )
=o ( a ) gcd ( 2, o ( a ) )=1
gcd ( 2 , o ( a ) )

o ( a )=odd .
.
Let G be a groupof order pq , for some primes pq ,
p<q p q1

thenG is cyclicG Z pq Z p Z q
..

R , every element ( e ) has infinite order .There is no element having order 2

R , however (1 ) has order 2.

Z = 1> , whereasQ is not cyclic

let Q be cyclic Q= a> { na , n Z } , as we areadditive group
a
a
Q , but < a>
2
2
hence Q cannot be cyclic .

..

if f :G H is an isomorphism
F : Aut (G ) Aut (H)

st F ( )=f f 1 where :G Gis an isomorphism

f f 1 is an automorphism H H .
..

show F isbijective just find an inverse function

: Aut ( H ) Aut ( G )
F
( )=f 1 f
st F

then F F=I

F is invertible oneoneonto.

every group G of order 2 p is either cyclicdihedral

i. e G Z 2 pG D p
ex :any group of order 6 is isomorphic Z 6D 3
any group of order 4 is isomorphic Z 4 D2 K 4 Z 2 Z2 (hence abelian).

note :

D p= { a ,b|a p=e=b2aba=b }

( groups of order 4,6,10,14 ) are either cyclicdihedral

if p>q are primesq does not divide p1 ,then every groupof order pqis cyclic
group of order 15 is cyclic (5.3)
.

I J F [ x ]
as F [ x ] is a PID J = f ( x )>
p ( x ) I J = f ( x )>

 p ( x )=f ( x ) g ( x )
p ( x ) isirreducible either f ( x )g ( x ) has degree 0
case 1 :deg f ( x ) =0 f ( x ) =c wherec F
as F is a field every nonzero element is aunit

c is a unit of F , hence unit of F [ x ] also

c J J=F [ x ]
case 2:deg g ( x )=0 g ( x ) =d where d F
p ( x )=d f ( x ) < p ( x ) >< f ( x )>
I =J

R :ring of continuous ,realvalued functions on unit interval [ 0,1 ]

: R R s . t ( f ( x ) )=f

let a R then a=a

let I =ker = { f ( x )|f

then

( 12 ) ; is an onto homomorphism

( 12 )+ a2 = (ax + a2 ) ;

( 12 )=0 }

R
R
I

..

similarly : R R s . t ( f ( x ) )=f

let J =ker = { f ( x )| f

then

( 13 )=0 }

R
R
J

R R
but clearly I J
I J

1
x I but doesnot belong J .
2
..

( 13 ) ; is an onto homomorphism

if is a unit Z [ i ] s .t =1
N ( )=1 N ( ) N ( )=1
as N ( ) is an i ntegerN ( ) >0 N ( )=1

if p 1 mod 4 m , n Z s .t p=m 2+ n2=( m+ ) ( m )

neither of the factors is a unit as Norm is greater than1
Thus p is ucibleZ [i].

p 3 mod 4
let p be reducible p=( m1 +in 1) ( m2 +i n2 )
neither factor is a unit norm> 1 ( m21+ n21 ) >1( m22+ n22 ) >1.
taking norm both sides

p2=( m21 +n21 )( m22 +n 22)

p=( m21 +n21 ) =( m22 +n 22)
'

by Ferma t s theorem p 1 mod 4, whichis a contradiction

.

o ( G )= p k m where p m, p is prime
number of Sylow psubgroups=n p , then

n p 1 mod pn pm
particular case : o ( G )= pq , where pq are distinct primes
n p 1 mod pn pq
nq 1 mod qn q p .

s pqs p 1 mod p
s q ps q 1 mod q .

class equation |G|= pn Z ( G ) { e }

also Z ( G ) G o ( Z ( G ) ) o ( G ) .
.

let d=gcd ( a ,b )
show a Z+ b Z=d Z a>+ b> <d >

step 1 :d=ax +by < a>+ b>

d ><a >+ b>

step 2 :let l < a>+ b>

l=ia + jb , d=gcd ( a ,b ) d|ad| b
a=mdb=nd
l= d+ jnd dl l< d>
a>+ b> <d >.

Z [ n ] not aUFD n 3
.

be a non identity permutation s .t ( i )= j ; i j

as n 3 k i, j
let =( j k ) S n
( i )= ( j )=k ( i )= ( i )= j

hence for every nonidentity permutationSn , there some element not comm uting with it

 Z ( S n ) must be trivial