Chapter 8 1.1

unit two
Plant Structure,
Chemistry, Growth,
Development, Genetics,
Biodiversity, and Processes
6 Structure of Higher Plants
7 Plant Growth & Development
8 Plant Chemistry & Metabolism
9 Genetics & Propagation
10 Cultivated Plants:
Naming, Classifying, Origin,
Improvement & Germplasm
Diversity and Preservation
11 Photosynthesis & Respiration
12 Water Relations
13 Mineral Nutrition
Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism
KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
List the major biochemicals found in plants.

Explain how some of those chemicals are formed
and some of their uses.
Describe how carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur combine to create structures
or perform functions required for plant growth
and development.
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Practical Horticulture 5th edition

By Margaret J. McMahon, Anton M. Kofranek and Vincent E. Rubatsky
2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
Metabolites are molecules

that make up the plant.
Basis for plant nutritional needs
Part of plant structures or
involved in plant processes.
Can be primary or secondary
Chlorophyll a
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It all starts (and depends) with photosynthesis

Plants depend on carbohydrates (from photosynthesis) for structure & energy storage
CO2 + H2O + Light + Chlorophyll = Carbohydrate
Lots of steps in between
Limiting growth factor
Carbo carbon
hydrate water
General formula: C(H2O)
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are classified into

different structural groups.
B
Figure 8-1 Example of an (A) aldehyde group and (B) keto group.
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates structural groups:
Monosaccharidessingle carbohydrate molecules falling
into two general categories: aldoses & ketoses.
Disaccharidestwo carbohydrate molecules linked
together.
Oligosaccharidesmore than two molecules, but less
than seven molecules linked together.
Polysaccharidescombinations of seven or more
molecules linked together.
The smallest molecules considered carbohydrates are three-carbon
molecules such as glyceraldehyde.
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Carbohydrates
Three structural forms of glucose allow it to take on a lot of roles in the plant.
Glucose is in the hexose family of carbohydrates
Hexose = 6-carbon
Figure 8-1 Illustration of the ring and planar structures of glucose. Note the difference between theandforms.
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Carbohydrates
Carbon atoms in the molecule are numbered according to a set of rules
IUPAC nomenclature system
Vertical lines in the ring structure represent the hydroxol (OH) groups.
Figure 8-1 Illustration of the ring and planar structures of glucose. Note the difference between theandforms.
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Carbohydrates
More about carbohydrates:
Position of OH groups determines structure and chemical
properties.
Ring structures differ only by position of OH at carbon 1.
Greek letters alpha () and beta () are used to
distinguish between the two
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Carbohydrates
The pentose ribose

Ribonucleic acid
Deoxyribonucleic acid
Figure 8-3 Oxygenated & deoxygenated forms of the sugar, ribose.
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Carbohydrates
Glucose and ribose are important, but there are others.
Figure 8-4 Ring structures of sorbitol, alpha-glucosamine, and alpha-galacturonic acid.

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Carbohydrates
Starch vs. cellulose
The general structure of starch.
The general structure of cellulose.
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Carbohydrates
and s properties are very different.
Starch is slightly water soluble, can be broken down to glucose
Cellulose is insoluble in water, assembled into fibrils, provides rigidity required for cell walls.
starch
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cellulose

Carbohydrates
Sucrose, the most common
form of carbohydrate used in
carbon transport in plants.
A dissacharide comprised of a
glucose & a fructose molecule
Figure 8-5 Ring structure of sucrose. Sucrose is made up

of a glucose sugar attached to a fructose sugar.
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Lipids
Fatty acids & lipids are compounds derivative
of glycerol.
Important in cell membrane structure and for energy storage
especially in seeds.
FAs and lipids are hydrophobic (not soluble in water) but are soluble in
fats.
Glycerol
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Lipids
A wide variety of fatty acids play a role in plants
The general structure:
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Lipids
Fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated.
Unsaturated refers to the presence of C=C double bonds,
instead of CC single bonds.
Stearic acid acid is saturated
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Lipids
Fatty acids are saturated or unsaturated.
Unsaturated refers to the presence of C=C double bonds,
instead of CC single bonds.
Oleic acid is unsaturated
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Lipids
Lipid molecule = fatty acid + glycerol
a triglyceride molecule
Includes fats, waxes, and oils
Glycerol group
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Lipids
Membrane lipids are phospholipids
Phosphate group replaces fatty acid on glycerol molecule
Figure 8-7 A phospholipid molecule is comprised of two fatty acids and a phosphate group
attached to a glycerol molecule.
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Lipids
Another chemical group is almost always attached
to the phosphate group.
Allows for variety of functionality
Figure 8-8 Structure of phosphatidyl choline.
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Lipids
In the membrane, the phosphate & attached group
are oriented to give two different chemical surfaces:
The phosphate & other attached group are charged
and hydrophilic.
The long hydrocarbon chains of the fatty acids are
hydrophobic.
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Lipids
Phospholipids arrange in a double layer
mutual attraction among the hydrophobic hydrocarbon
chains.
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Lipids
Membrane fatty acids affect ability of plants to
withstand cool temperatures.
More unsaturated fatty acids in cold-tolerant plants.
Saturated fatty acids start to solidify in cool

temperatures, often at or below 55 F.
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Lipids
Sterols increase membrane stability
Up to 50% of membranes in some plants.
Similar to cholesterol
Figure 8-9 Structures of cholesterol and beta-sitosterol.

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Proteins
Amino acids all have a common structure consisting of N, H, C,
and O.
But differ by a wide variety of chemical groups attached to the common
structure.
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Proteins
Amino acids are synthesized when ammonium and
carbon combine to form glutamate (transamination)
Figure 8-10 Incorporation of ammonium into the amino acid glutamate by two reactions. Ammonium may be a product of
more than one process, but incorporation in biologically important compounds is almost entirely by this route.
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Proteins
20 amino acids, 8 are essential
Essential = cannot be synthesized by animals
methionine*, valine*, leucine*, isoleucine*,

threonine*, phenylalanine*, tryptophan*, lysine*
The eight essential amino acids
glycine, alanine, serine, cysteine, aspartic acid,

asparagine, glutamic acid, glutamate, tyrosine,
histidine, proline, arginine
All the others
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Proteins
Proteins long chains of linked amino acids that
create complex three-dimensional molecules.
Can be: structural, storage units for N, catalysts,
(enzymes)
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Proteins
Amino acids are linked together between the
carbon of one amino acid & the amino (NH) group
of another amino acid to form the peptide bond.
Amino acid order forms primary structure
Figure 8-11 Linkage of one amino acid to another to provide the primary structure of proteins.
R1, R2, R3, etc., indicate side groups on different amino acids.
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Proteins
Secondary structure: An helix or a pleated sheet.
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Proteins
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Tertiary structure: helix and pleated sheets fold again
Canchange conformation depending on conditions in the cell.


Proteins
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Quaternary structure: two or more of the tertiary structures (or

subunits) combine in a specific way
Mostly enzymes


Proteins
All enzymes have an active
site where the substrate
molecule is bound, and
altered to some other
chemical structure.
The altered structure is
what determines how
a biochemical reaction
will proceed.
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Figure 8-13 Schematic representation of an enzymatic protein and an active site on the enzyme. The active site
is the point at which the substrate is bound and the chemical reaction takes place to form the
product.

Proteins
Seeds contain various storage protein structures.
Usually between 5% and 25% of dry weight.
In plants, N needed for proteins is the nutrient taken

up by the roots in the largest quantities.
It is often deficient & must be supplied by fertilizer.
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Nucleosides, Nucleotides, and Nucleic Acids

Nucleosides are comprised of the sugar ribose
coupled to an N-containing organic base.
Ribose:
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Organic bases important in metabolism are derivatives
of compounds known as purines or pyrimidines.
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Purine
Pyrimidine
Figure 8-14 Structures of the organic base.

(A) Purine; (B) Adenine, a type of purine, the organic
base.


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Purine
Adenine
(6-amino purine)

(A) Purine; (B) Adenine, a type of purine, the organic
base.


Pyrimidine

(C) Pyrimidine; (D) Cytosine, a type of pyrimidine.
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Cytosine

Organic acids also function in

nucleic acids.
RNA and DNA are chainlike

molecules with a ribose +
phosphate backbone.
Figure 8-16 Structure of ribonucleic acid (RNA)

showing its chain-like configuration.
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In DNA and RNA, one of four organic bases is
attached to each ribose at carbon 1.
Adenine, guanine, thymidine, or cytosine.
Long chain DNA molecules make up chromosomes

in a cell nucleus, and carry genetic information to
create the proteins to build & maintain the organism.
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Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Ribose + organic base + tri-phosphate
High energy
Mobile
Figure 8-15 Structure of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

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Secondary Products
Secondary metabolites are not part of the main
processes of metabolism in plants
Plants will not die immediately without them
Plant defense, pollinator attraction
A lot of what we use medicinally
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Secondary Products - Alkaloids

Morphinethe first alkaloid identified, synthesized &
extracted from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum).
Long used as a pain killer, but can lead to addiction.
Cocaineproduced by the coca plant (Erythroxylum

coca), from the Andes mountains of South America.
Relatively harmless in small doses, but concentrated,
purified cocaine is strongly addictive and dangerous.
Nicotinefrom Nicotiana tabacum.

Toxic when consumed in large quantities, it constricts
blood vessels when consumed in small doses via smoke.
Caffeineobtained from (Coffea arabica), the coffee

plant, common in many popular beverages.
Acts as a stimulant in warm-blooded animals.
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Secondary Products - Alkaloids

Most alkaloids are formed rapidly from precursors
upon wounding of the plantas when the plant is
attacked by a chewing insect or grazed by animals.
Most of these compounds have a bitter taste and act as
deterrents or protective chemicals.
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Secondary Products - Phenolics

The term phenolics comes from the presence of the
phenol molecule in some form in these compounds.
The most important : lignin

Lignin is deposited in many cell
walls to provide rigidity & strength.
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Secondary Products - Phenolics

Other important phenolics are flavonoidswhich act
as pigments in flowers to attract insects and birds.
Flowers produce flavonoid pigments that absorb (UV) light.
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Terpenoids
Rubber is a terpenoid,
from latex.
Latex is obtained from the
tropical tree Hevea
brasiliensis.
Some terpenoids are

poisonous
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unit two

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

List the major biochemicals found in plants.

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Metabolites are molecules

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

It all starts (and depends) with photosynthesis

General formula: C(H2O)

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Carbohydrates are classified into

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

The pentose ribose

Figure 8-3 Oxygenated & deoxygenated forms of the sugar, ribose.

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Figure 8-4 Ring structures of sorbitol, alpha-glucosamine, and alpha-galacturonic acid.

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

The general structure of starch.

The general structure of cellulose.

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Figure 8-5 Ring structure of sucrose. Sucrose is made up

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Stearic acid acid is saturated

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8 - Plant Chemistry and Metabolism

Oleic acid is unsaturated

methionine, valine, leucine, isoleucine,