Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
ISBN 0-632-02041-5
Acknowledgements
Special acknowledgement is herewith made to the following persons, companies, institutions
and organizations for supplying the information and photographs for the many bridges
discussed in this book: Alaska Department of I lighways, USA; British Railways Southern
Region; Compagnie Fran~aise D'Entreprises Metalliques, France; Compagnie BaudinChateauneuf, France; Dip!. Eng. E. Beyer, Landeshaupstadt Dusseldorf, Germany; Department of Public Works, Hobart, Tasmania; Mr A. F. Gee, Mott, I lay and .'l.nderson, Consulting
Engineers, England; Dr 0. A. Kerensky, Freeman, Fox and Partners, Consulting Engineers,
England; Dip!. lng. H. Thul, Germany; The Institution of Engineers, Australia; Mr A. Zanden,
Rijkswaterstaat Directie Bruggen, Holland; Mr J. \'irola, Consulting Engineer, Finland; lng.
J. J. 1\1. Veraart, Holland; Quebec Iron and Titanium Corporation; .\lr Arvid Grant and
Associates, Inc., Consulting Engineers, USA; Modjeski and Masters, Consulting Engineers,
USA; Dr P.R. Taylor, Buckland and Taylor Ltd, Civil and Structural Engineers, Canada.
I am especially grateful to the American Society of Civil Engineers li1r permitting me to use
excerpts of the paper 'Tentative Recommendations for Cable-stayed Bridge Structures'.
Contents
Vll
Introduction
Historical review
Basic concepts
Arrangement of the stay cables
Positions of the cables in space
Tower types
Deck types
Main girder and trusses
Structural advantages
Comparison of cable-stayed and suspension bridges
Economics
Bridge architecture
References
1
2
19
20
21
24
25
26
29
31
34
36
39
Two-plane bridges
One-plane bridges
Inclined tower bridges
Railroad bridges
Combined railroad-highway bridges
Pipeline bridges
Pontoon bridges
References
42
69
91
95
99
103
105
108
iv
COl\TE:'\TS
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
114
139
143
144
Introduction
Composite cable-stayed bridges
References
147
148
154
Introduction
Cable-stayed pedestrian bridges
References
155
155
173
175
176
180
185
191
191
195
195
198
203
211
213
217
221
Introduction
Linear analysis and preliminary design
Nonlinear analysis
Dynamic analysis
Application of computers
References
223
223
224
227
229
230
CONTENTS
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
231
233
236
237
238
240
240
241
245
247
247
251
261
265
269
272
Methods of analysis
The flexibility method
Force-displacement method
Reduction method
Simulation method
Stiffness method
Finite element method
Torsion of the bridge system
Analysis of towers
References
273
274
282
297
309
317
323
328
345
361
Introduction
Basic concepts
Planning
Static similitude conditions
Sectional properties and geometry of the model
Design of the model
Determination of influence lines
Nonlinear behavior
Post-tensioning forces in cables
References
364
365
366
370
374
375
376
392
397
401
vi
CONTENTS
Chapter 11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
Introduction
Wind forces
Static wind action
Dynamic wind action
Vibrations
Vertical flexural vibrations
Torsional vibrations
Damping
Wind tunnel model tests
Prevention of aerodynamic instability
Conclusions
References
Chapter 12
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14
12.15
Introduction
Loads and forces
Design assumptions
Pylons
Analysis
Cables
Saddles and end fittings
Protection
Camber
Temperature
Aerodynamics
Fatigue
Fabrication
Erection
Inspection
References
450
450
451
452
452
453
454
455
455
455
456
456
457
457
458
459
Author Index
460
Subject Index
463
Since the first edition of this book was published a decade ago, there has
been considerable development in the state of the art of cable-stayed
bridges. In this second edition, the contents have been revised to reflect
recent developments in research, analysis, design and construction of
new structures. Although much of the data of the first edition has been
retained, the arrangement of material has changed, chapters have been
expanded and new ones have been added.
For the convenience of the users, the following changes and additions
were made in the contents of the second edition. The first edition
contained seven chapters, while the second edition consists of twelve
chapters, as follows:
Chapter 1, The Cable-stayed Bridge System has an additional discussion
on the problems of economics and aesthetics.
Chapter 2, Typical Steel Bridges contains additional data on new steel
single and two-plane bridges, as well as pipeline and pontoon
bridges.
Chapter 3, Typical Concrete Bridges contains additional data on new
concrete structures.
Chapter 4, Typical Composite Bridges describes new deck types of cablestayed bridges.
Chapter 5, Typical Pedestrian Bridges presents additional types of pedestrian bridges.
Chapter 6, Structural Details provides additional structural details.
Chapter 7, Methods of Structural Analysis presents a discussion on the
structural behavior of bridges and methods of analysis.
Chapter 8, Approximate Structural Ana(ysis treats methods of preliminary
analysis.
Chapter 9, Exact Methods of Structural Analysis presents additional
methods.
Chapter 10, Model Analysis and Design discusses experimental methods of
design.
Chapter 11, Wind Action and Aerodynamic Stability provides expanded
treatment considering aerodynamic action.
Chapter 12, Abbreviated Tentative Recommendations for Design of Cablestayed Bridges is a new addition.
Every effort was made to correct some errors detected in the first edition.
To my wife Tania
Chapter 1
1.1
Introduction
During the past decade cable-stayed bridges have found wide application, especially in Western Europe, and to a lesser extent in other parts of
the world.
The renewal of the cable-stayed system in modern bridge engineering
was due to the tendency of bridge engineers in Europe, primarily Germany, to obtain optimum structural performance from material which
was in short supply during the post-war years.
Cable-stayed bridges are constructed along a structural system which
comprises an orthotropic deck and continuous girders which are supported by stays, i.e. inclined cables passing over or attached to towers located
at the main piers.
The idea of using cables to support bridge spans is by no means new,
and a number of examples of this type of construction were recorded a
long time ago. Unfortunately, the system in general met with little success, due to the fact that the statics were not fully understood and that
unsuitable materials such as bars and chains were used to form the inclined supports or stays. Stays made in this manner could not be fully
tensioned and in a slack condition allowed large deformations of the deck
before they could participate in taking the tensile loads for which they
were intended.
Wide and successful application of cable-stayed systems was realized
only recently, with the introduction of high-strength steels, orthotropic
type decks, development of welding techniques and progress in structural analysis. The development and application of electronic computers
opened up new and practically unlimited possibilities for the exact solution of these highly statically indeterminate systems and for precise
statical analysis of their three-dimensional performance.
Existing cable-stayed bridges provide useful data regarding design,
CABU:-SfAYED BRIDGES
fabrication, erection and maintenance of the new system. With the construction of these bridges many basic problems encountered in their
engineering are shown to have been successfully solved. However, these
important data have apparently never before been systematically presented.
In summary, the following factors helped make the successful development of cab:e-staycd bridges possible:
( 1) The development of methods of structur al analysis of highly statically indeterminate structures and application of electronic computers.
(2) The development of orthotropic steel decks.
(3) Experience with previously built bridges containing basic clements
of cable-stayed bridges.
(4) Application of high-strength steels, new methods of fabrication and
erection .
(5) The ability to analyse such structures through model studies.
Fig. 1.1
Egyptian sailing
sail beam
The history of stayed beam bridges indicates that the idea of supporting
a beam by inclined ropes or chains hanging from a mast or tower has been
known since ancient times. The Egyptians 1 applied the idea for their
sailing ships as shown in Fig. 1.1.
In some tropical regions of the world primitive types of cable-stayed
bridge, such as shown in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3, were builrl. Inclined vines
attached to the trees on either bank supported a walk which was woven
of vines and bamboo sticks.
Fig. 1.4 Bamboo bridge with bamboo stays O\'Cr Serajoc Ri,er 10 Ja,a,
Indonesia
t HI I \
Like all bridge designs of this epoch, it exhibits many departures from
what .a structural analysis would dictate; nevertheless, it contains the
main features and basic principles of a metal suspension bridge stiffened
by stays.
In 1784, a German carpenter, Immanuel Loscher4 in Fribourg
designed a timber bridge of I OS ft (32 m) span consisting of timber stays
attached to a timber tower (Fig. 1.6).
In 1817, rwo British engineers, Redpath and Brown, built the King's
,\leadows Bridge5 , a footbridge in England which had a span of approximately II 0 ft (33.6 m), using sloping wire stay cable suspension members
attached to cast iron towers (Fig. 1.7).
Fig. 1.6 All-timber bridge stiffened by inclined timber stays, designed by
Loschcr in Germany, 1784.
Fig. l.i
Fig. 1.8
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The system of inclined chains was adopted in a bridge built at Dry burgh
Abbey across the Tweed River 6 in 1817. It had a 260ft (79.3 m) span,
and was 4ft ( 1.2 m) wide (Fig. 1.8).
It was observed that the bridge had a \'ery noticeable vibration when
crossed by pedestrians, and the motion of the chains appeared to be easily
accelerated. In 18 18, six months after the completion of the bridge, it was
destroyed by a violent gale.
Around 1821, the French architect Poyet7 suggested hanging the
beams up to rather high towers with wrought iron bars. Jn this system he
proposed using a fan-s haped arrangement of the stays, all being anchored
at the mp of the tower (Fig. 1.9).
Poyct's idea was further developed by the famous French engineer
Navier who, in 1823, stud ied bridge systems stiffened by inclined chains8
(Fig. 1.1 0).
By comparing both the weights of the deck and the inclined chains,
Navier found that for a given span and height of the towers, the cost of
both systems was approximately equal.
Fig. 1.9
l'
II
CABL-STAYED BRIDGES
Fig. Lll
"(EJ
-~ -
Fig. 1.13
=="'
In 1824, a bridge was erected across the Saale River at Nienburg, Germany, with a 256ft (78.0 m) span and having the main girder stiffened by
inclined members 9 . However, this bridge had excessive deflections under
loading and the foUowing year it collapsed under a crowd of people
because of failure of the chain-stays (Fig. 1. 11).
1837 Motley 10 built a bridge at Tiverton, England, a highly redundant double cantilever with straight stays (Fig. 1.12).
The other type of stay arrangement, with parallel stays, now called
harp-shaped, was suggested by Hatley 11 in 1840 (Fig. 1.13). He mentioned that this system provided less stiffness than the fan-shaped one.
One interesting structure of the inclined-cable type is presented by the
bridge over the Manchester Ship Cana.l 12 in England (Fig. 1.14). And in
1843, Clive 13 proposed an original system of a cable-stayed bridge, shown
in Fig. 1.15.
Fig. 1.14 The Manchester Ship Canal Bridge, England
;,. ___
-- ----------)+<(-- ---
'
'
--~
10
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Fig. 1.16 The Franz joseph Bridge over the Moldau River in Prague,
Czechoslovakia, 1868
In 1868 the Franz Joseph Bridge, designed by Ordish and LeFeuvre 1.\
was built over the Moldau R iver at Prague, Czechoslovakia (Fig. 1.16).
This bridge actually represents a combination of a cable-stayed and a
classical suspension bridge.
A new form of suspension was introduced in this bridge, using sloping
rods running directly from the panel points of the floor system to the
tops of the towers, the direct tension members being supported and held
in position by catenary cables between the towers. These have no other
purpose than to sustain the weight of the direct tension bars. Here is a
very interesting idea of supporting an intermediate joint by an inclined
bar which transfers the tension to the longest stay of the other half of the
span.
The Albert Bridge 1 5 over the Thames at Chelsea with a main span of
400ft (122 m) and dating back to 1873, was built by Ordish, using his
system (Fig. 1.17). In this bridge the suspension system comprises tie
Fig. 1.17 The Albert Bridge over the River Thames, England, 1873
11
members converging at the top of the towers. There are three sloping
tie members on each side of the center span and four on each side of the
end spans.
The short historical review presented here indicates that the idea of
the stayed beam bridge is very old. However, it was not successfully
applied until the twentieth century. The reasons for such slow progress
have to be found in the collapse of several of the first built cable-stayed
bridges.
Inclined stays were first introduced in England and widely used there
in the early part of the nineteenth century. However, a number of suspension bridges with such stays failed, on account of insufficient resistance
to wind pressure, and this led to the partial abandonment of that type in
England.
It should be noted that in many cases these early cable-stayed bridges
actually possessed structural defects which led to their destruction. This
was mainly due to the misunderstanding on the part of the designers
of the actual structural behavior of such bridges and of the defects in
their construction. Cables, for instance, were usually of an insufficient
cross-section and were not tightened during erection. Consequently,
cables performed their proper function only after substantial deformation
of the whole structure under the action of the load. This aspect of their
behavior led to the opinion that cable-stayed bridges were exceptionally
flexible and not safe. It was Navier who reported on these failures and
suggested using suspension bridges instead of cable-stayed bridges.
Navier's statement led bridge engineers to prefer the suspension-type
bridge.
In the second half of the nineteenth century inclined stays were reviewed in America by the famous bridge engineer Roebling. In connection with the stiffening truss, introduced by Roebling, and efficient
lateral bracings, inclined stays proved more effective.
The cables in suspension bridges designed by Roebling were always
assisted by stays 16 . A network of diagonal stays occupied the same inclined plane as that of the cables. The purpose of these stays was twofold.
They not only assisted the cables greatly in the support of the bridge, but
they also supplied the most economical and efficient means for stiffening
the floor against cumulative undulations that may be started by the action
of the wind.
In 1855 Roebling built the first successful railroad suspension bridge
in the world across the Niagara River (Fig. 1.18). The total load was
divided between the cables and an extensive system of radiating stays.
The application of a system of stays provided all the stiffness required for
the passage of trains at a rapid rate, as well as stability against the wind
action.
Roebling also provided a generous system of inclined stays in the
)2
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
construction of the Ohio Bridge (Fig. 1.19). Nearly one-half of the total
weight of the roadway and the live load was carried by diagonal stays of
wire rope, running straight from the tops of the towers to successive
points along the floor. The main cables, themselves stiffened by this
arrangement, really had to carry only about one-half of the total weight of
the roadway and load. The stays served effectively to strengthen the floor
and to prevent or check vibration during the passage of heavy loads and
in high winds.
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of the Brooklyn Bridge (Fig. 1.20)
is the system of inclined stays radiating downward from th e tops of the
towers to the floor of the span. Roebling introduced them primarily for
the critical function of adding rigidity to the ~pan, and then ingeniously
took advantage of the additional load-carrying capacity which they incidentally supplied. This contribution to the strength of the bridge was
explained in simple terms by the designer:
The floor, in connection with the stays, will support itself without the
assistance of the cable, the supporting power of the stays alone will be ample
to hold up the floor. If the cables were removed, the bridge would sink in the
center, but would not fall.
As we know today, the designers of the old days had not yet been able
to calculate the forces in the inclined cables correctly, and they also underestimated the influence of hyperstat:ic behavior and of the sag of the stays.
14
16
CABLE-STAYED BR IDGES
s.oo
't.
...
fo,OO
0
0
.,0
127' -1 1"
'
511' -10"
830. -0"
!6 "'"'1-~3' /,4~.~~~~~3~6~7'~-0'~'~~~~~~,~66'-3'1
~~.~.~~----~~--------~
~99.
-6"
,j
17
18
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
1-JI~ ~I,.:I
I 298.6'
298.6
344.4'
I'
1033.2'
1033.2
1344.8'
298. 6'
I 298.6' I
298.6' I
...
~,
..
. ,.
.. ..
"':
19
1.29).
After the first two cable-stayed bridges of modern design had proved
to be very stiff under a traffic load, aesthetically appealing, economical
and relatively simple to erect, the way was open for further wide and
successful application. The new system became rapidly popular among
German bridge engineers and, about ten years later, in several other
countries, too. It is now increasingly applied by designers all around the
world.
The technical literature contains references to more than 50 bridges
that have been built since 1955 or are being contemplated, incorporating
the system of cable stays. Approximately one-third have been built in
Germany and others are located throughout the world. A brief review of
the development of cable-stayed bridges may be found in recent publications on this subject24 - 26 .
1.3
Basic concepts
The application of inclined cables gave a new stimulus to the construction of large bridges. The importance of cable-stayed bridges increased
rapidly and within only one decade they have become so successful that
they have taken their rightful place among classical bridge systems. It is
interesting to note how this development which has so revolutionized
bridge construction, but which in fact is no new discovery, came about.
The beginning of this system, probably, may be traced back to the
time when it was realized that rigid structures could be formed by joining
triangles together. It would be easy to refer to such examples in the history
of bridge building, as shown in Figs. l.l-1.7.
Although most of these earlier designs were based on sound principles
and assumptions, the girder stiffened by inclined cables suffered various
misfortunes which regrettably resulted in abandonment of the system.
Nevertheless, the system in itself was not at all unsuitable. The solution
of the problem had unfortunately been attempted in the wrong way.
the one hand, the equilibrium of these highly indeterminate systems had not been clearly appreciated and controlled, and on the other,
On
20
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
the tension members were made of timber, round bars or chains. They
consisted therefore of low-strength material which was fully stressed
only after a substantial deformation of the girder took place. This may
explain why the renewed application of the cable-stayed system was
possible only under the following conditions:
( 1) The correct analysis of the structural system.
(2) The use of tension members having under dead load a considerable
degree of stiffness due to high pre-stress and beyond this still sufficient capacity to accommodate the live load.
(3) The use of erection methods which ensure that the design assumptions are realized in an economic manner.
The renaissance of the cable-stayed system, however, was finally successfully achieved only during the last decade.
Modern cable-stayed bridges present a three-dimensional system consisting of stiffening girders, transverse and longitudinal bracings, orthotropic-type deck and supporting parts such as towers in compression
and inclined cables in tension. The important characteristics of such a
three-dimensional structure is the full participation of the transverse construction in the work of the main longitudinal structure. This means a
considerable increase in the moment of inertia of the construction which
permits a reduction in the depth of the girders and economy in steel.
1.4
STAY
SYSTEM
BUNDLE
OR
CONVERGING
OR RADIAL
HARP OR
PARALLEL
FAN
STAR
SINGLE
DOUBLE
TRIPLE
MULTIPLE
VARIABLE
~r
~ ~
--4
1.
21
In this system all cables are leading to the top of the tower. Structurally,
this arrangement is perhaps the best, as by taking all cables to the tower
top the maximum inclination to the horizontal is achieved and consequently it needs the smallest amount of steel. The cables carry the
maximum component of the dead and live load forces, and the axial
component of the deck structure is at a minimum.
However, where a number of cables are taken to the top of the tower,
the cable supports or saddles within the tower may be very congested
and a considerable vertical force has to be transferred. Thus the detailing
becomes rather complex.
2.
In this system the cables are connected to the tower at different heights,
and placed parallel to each other. This system may be preferred from an
aesthetic point of view. However, it causes bending moments in the
tower. In addition, it is necessary to study whether the support of the
lower cables can be fixed at the tower leg or must be made movable in a
horizontal direction.
The harp-shaped cables give an excellent stiffness for the main span,
if each cable is anchored to a pier on the river banks as was done for Knie
Bridge at Dusseldorf, Germany.
The quantity of steel required for a harp-shaped cable arrangement is
slightly higher than for a fan-shaped arrangement. The curve of steel
quantity suggests choosing a higher tower which will also increase the
stiffness of the cable system against deflections.
3.
The fan or intermediate stay cable arrangement represents a modification of the harp system. The forces of the stays remain small so that single
ropes could be used. All ropes have fixed connections in the tower. The
Nord Bridge, Bonn, Germany, is a typical example of this arrangement.
4.
STAR SYSTEM
1.5
With respect to the various positions in space which may be adopted for
the planes in which the cable stays are disposed there are two basic
arrangements: two-plane systems and single-plane systems (Fig. 1.31 ).
22
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(c)
(d)
23
Another system is that of bridges with only one vertical plane of stay
cables along the middle longitudinal axis of the superstructure. In this
case the cables are located in a single vertical strip, which is not being
used by any form of traffic.
This arrangement requires a hollow box main girder with considerable
torsional rigidity in order i:o keep the change of cross-section deformation
due to eccentric live load within allowable limits. It is therefore not
necessary to increase the width of the superstructure when using the
central box girder system. This system which was proposed by Haupt 27
can be used if there is a median space to separate two opposite traffic
lanes. In this way, no extra width is needed for the tower, and the cables
at deck level are protected against accidental impact from cars.
The single plane system also creates a lane separation as a natural continuation of the highway approaches to the bridge. This is an economical
and aesthetically acceptable solution, providing an unobstructed view
24
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
from the bridge. In addition, this system also offers the advantage of
relatively small piers, because their size is determined by the width of the
main girder.
It should be noted that all the possible variations regarding the longitudinal arrangements of the cables used with two plane bridges are also
applied to single plane central girder bridges.
1.6
Tower types
I I
uAl
I I
Fig. 1.32 Tower
I Portal tower
2 Twin tower
3 Twin tower
I I
I I
types
4 A-frame tower
5 Single tower
6 Side tower
Portal type towers were used in the design of early cable-stayed bridges,
as in the case of suspension bridges, where the portal type was commonly
used to obtain stiffness against the wind load which the cable transfers to
the top of the towers. However, later investigation of cable-stayed bridges
indicated that the horizontal forces of the cables were in fact, relatively
small, so that freely standing tower legs could be used without disadvantage. The inclined stay cables even give a stabilizing restraint force when
the top of the tower is moved transversely.
With single towers or twin towers with no cross-member, the tower is
stable in the lateral direction as long as the level of the cable anchorages
is situated above the level of the base of the tuwer. In the event of lateral
25
displacement of the top of the tower due to wind forces, the length of the
cables is increased and the resulting increase in tension provides a restoring force. Longitudinal moment of the tower is restricted by the restraming effect of the cables fixed at the saddles or tower anchorages.
There are three different solutions possible regarding the support
arrangement of the towers:
J.
In this case large bending moments are produced in the tower. The
majority of cable-stayed bridges in Germany have, however, been built
with the towers fixed at the base, and it is stated that the advantage of
increased rigidity of the structure thus obtained offsets the disadvantage
of the high bending moments in the tower.
Towers with fixed legs are relatively flexible, and loading and temperature do not cause significant stresses in the structure. In this case,
the main girders pass between the frame legs and are supported on the
transverse beam.
26
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(a)
10
(b)
by box-type ribs possessing a high degree of torsional rigidity.
The orthotropic deck performs as the top chord of the main girders or
trusses. It may be considered as one of the main structural elements which
lead to the successful development of modern cable-stayed bridges. However, it is not intended to discuss the orthotropic system in detail because
the analysis and design of this system have been treated extensively in
the technicalliterature 28 29 .
For relatively small spans in the 200-300 ft (60-90 m) range it is convenient to use a reinforced concrete deck acting as a composite section
with the steel grid formed by the stringers, floor beams and main girders.
An alternative solution is presented by a reinforced concrete deck
acting monolithically with the main reinforced or prestressed concrete
girders.
1.8
The following three basic types of main girders or trusses are presently
being used for cable-stayed bridges:
1. STEEL GIRDERS
Bridges built with solid web main girders may be divided into two types:
those constructed with !-girders and those with one or more enclosed
box sections, as shown in Fig. 1.34.
Plated 1-girders with a built-up bottom flange comprising a number of
cover plates have been used in some bridges. It is considered that in this
way, the required inertia of the section can be made to fit the moment
envelope exactly, that no excess steel is being used, and thus the minimum
weight of steel is attained. It is felt, however, that this arrangement does
not necessarily produce the most economical solution.
27
Arrangement
Twin
1
I==
===-
I===
girder
Single
rectangular
box girder
Central box
girder and
side single web girders
Single twin
Single
trapezoida I
box girder
1
=
t=J
r=
v=
~I
=:::::: s
"'-----/
---===--=-
Twin
rectangular
box girder
=u
u~
Twin
trapezoidal
box girder
==\_j
vl~
Fig. 1.34 Types of main
girder
28
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Type of bridge
Highway
Highway
and
railroad
~~
( project )
Fig. 1.35
Deck supported
by stiffening trusses
Highway
and
railroad
( project )
Highway
and
railroad
( project )
:II:
II
r~
11/~1
!l
:II:
:lt>O<JI:
2.
TRUSSES
During the last decade trusses have rarely been used in the construction
of cable-stayed bridges. Compared to solid web girders, trusses present
an unfavorable visual appearance; they require a great deal of fabrication
and maintenance, and protection against corrosion is difficult.
Thus, except in special circumstances, a solid web girder is more satisfactory both from an economical and an aesthetic viewpoint.
However, trusses may be used instead of girders for aerodynamical
reasons. Also, in the case of combined highway and railroad traffic, when
usually double deck structures are used, trusses should be provided as
the main carrying members of such bridges. In Fig. 1.35, typical bridge
cross-sections incorporating trusses are shown.
Type of girder
I
1
29
Single box
girder
rd
I Wadi Kuf
Bridge, Libya )
i
I
",,
I River Parana
Bridge, Argentina)
~[
Mu Itip le box
girder
( Polcevera Viaduct,
Italy)
3.
"
tJ IT
Twin box
girders
Twin box
girders
,,
J[ Ii
lllr
looWoor
During the last decade a number of cable-stayed bridges have been built
with a reinforced or prestressed concrete deck and main girders. These
bridges are economical, possess high stiffness and exhibit relatively small
deflections. The damping effect of these monolithic structures is very
high and vibrations are relatively small. Such outstanding structures as,
for instance, the Maracaibo Bridge in Venezuela, indicate that this new
bridge system possesses many excellent characteristics. Typical crosssections of this system are shown in Fig. 1.36.
1.9
Structural advantages
30
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The basic structural characteristics and reasons for the rapid development
and success of cable-stayed bridges are as outlined below.
Cable-stayed bridges present a space system, consisting of stiffening
girders; steel or concrete deck and supporting parts as towers acting in
compression and inclined cables in tension. By their structural behavior
cable-stayed systems occupy a middle position between the girder type
and suspension type bridges.
The main structural characteristic of this system is the integral action
of the stiffening girders and prestressed or post-tensioned inclined cables,
which run from the tower tops down to the anchor points at the stiffening
girders. Horizontal compressive forces due to the cable action are taken
by the girders and no massive anchorages are required. The substructure,
therefore, is very economical.
Introduction of the orthotropic system has resulted in the creation of
new types of superstructure which can easily carry the horizontal thrust
of stay cables with almost no additional material, even for very long spans.
In old types of conventional superstructures the slab, stringers, floor
beams and main girders were considered as acting independently. Such
superstructures were not suitable for cable-stayed bridges. With the
orthotropic type deck, however, the stiffened plate with its large crosssectional area acts not only as the upper chord of the main girders and of
the transverse beams, but also as the horizontal plate girder against wind
forces, giving modern bridges much more lateral stiffness than the wind
bracings used in old systems. In fact, in orthotropic systems, all elements
of the roadway and secondary parts of the superstructure participate in
the work of the main bridge system. This results in reduction of the depth
of the girders and economy in the steel.
Another structural characteristic of this system is that it is geometrically
unchangeable under any load position on the bridge, and all cables are
always in a state of tension. This characteristic of the cable-stayed systems
permits them to be built from relatively light flexible elements-cables.
The important characteristic of such a three-dimensional bridge is
the full participation of the transverse structural parts in the work of the
main structure in the longitudinal direction. This means a considerable
increase in the moment of inertia of the construction, which permits a
reduction of the depth of the girders and a consequent saving in steel.
The orthotropic system provides the continuity of the deck structure
at the towers and in the center of the main span. The continuity of the
bridge superstructure over many spans has many advantages and is
actually necessary for a good cable-stayed bridge.
Considering the range of applications in the domain of highway
bridges, cable-stayed bridges fill the gap that existed between deck type
and suspension bridges. Orthotropic deck plate girders showed superiority over other systems in the case of medium spans. For long spans, how-
31
1.10
32
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Bridge system
Span
(m)
Suspension
Cable steel
(tons)
Structural steel
(tons)
7500
23 000
3900
25 000
3600
55 000
1900
94 000
1000
Cable-stayed
Suspension
2000
Cable-stayed
2. DEFLECTION
The deformation characteristics are illustrated by deflection curves
under different loading cases.
Consider a three-span structure having a main span of 3280 ft
(1000 m). For both symmetrical and asymmetrical traffic loadings over
half the length of the main span, the suspension bridge has a greater
deflection at midspan than does the cable-stayed bridge.
However, deflection curves for structures with a 6560 ft (2000 m)
main span for the above loadings indicate that the deflection of the cablestayed bridge tends to becomes somewhat larger than that of the
suspension bridge. This may be another indication that a 6560 ft
(2000 m) main span is too large for cable-stayed bridges.
33
3. DECK
In terms of their structural behavior, cable-stayed systems occupy a
middle position between the girder and suspension type bridges. A
comparison of static performance of the cable-stiffened, bridle type and
self-anchored bridges is shown in Fig. 1.37.
A comparison between the deck performances of suspension and
cable-stayed bridges indicates a negligible difference. The suspension
bridge needs more bending and torsional stiffness, while the cablestayed bridge needs more steel area for the thrust. This thrust of the
cables, creating normal forces in the deck, causes second-order bending
moments due to the deflection, which must and can be kept at a
minimum by using stiff cables and sufficiently deep girders. The stresses
due to second-order moments are of the first order.
4. ANCHORAGES
The outstanding advantage of the cable-stayed bridge can be seen to be
the fact that it does not require large or heavy anchorages for the cables
as the suspension bridge does. The anchor forces at the ends of the
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CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
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Economics
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CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
1.12
Bridge architecture
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
37
The introduction of the cable-stayed system is a true pioneering development in bridge architecture. Existing cable-stayed bridges are masterpieces of steel construction. They are pleasing in outline, clean in their
anatomical conception and totally free of meaningless ornamentation.
This is because the design of cable-stayed bridges was governed not only
by financial, practical and technical requirements, but also, to a great
extent, by aesthetic and architectural considerations. In the design of
modern cable-stayed bridges, one objective is to produce an aesthetically
appealing bridge which blends with its surroundings.
These bridges are truly representative of modern times. They are the
product of engineering science, which is continuously advancing in
iI
38
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
accordance with its own laws and has been given form and substance by
the twentieth century engineer.
In span after span, designers have demonstrated that beauty in cablestayed bridges can be obtained without sacrificing either utility or
economy. The new, slender and elegant bridge forms were created with
steel and mathematics in a combination of strength and beauty.
From an aesthetic point of view, cable-stayed bridges have a pleasing
shape, as they clearly reveal the function of the cables and towers and
because the cables, due to their small perimeter, are very unobtrusive in
the overall appearance of the bridge.
It should be noted that at the present time, the structural system of
cable-stayed bridges in their numerous variants is coming into prominence. The thinking and daring exemplified by these bridges constitute
one of the most important contributions to the development of modern
bridge engineering.
The most striking feature about cable-stayed bridges built during the
last decade is not their technical features, though without them their new
look would not be possible, but their elegant form and the way in which
they have been blended with the landscape. Some of these notable
bridges have been constructed by engineers in close collaboration with
architects and town planners. Each in his own sphere has striven to give
of his best in a joint venture, so that as a team they have been able to
achieve a work which excels that which each would have contributed
individually.
It may be stated that most of the modern cable-stayed bridges generally satisfy the six classical principles of aesthetics set down by Vitruvius 34
as they apply to bridge architecture:
(1) Order-or harmony of scale, material and detail, considering ele-
39
lines of the cables produced by the radial cable arrangement are avoided.
Towers are the most conspicuous part of the bridge, being visible
from many points on land and river. It is therefore important to give
them appropriate aesthetic treatment. The guiding motive usually is
structural simplicity and harmonious proportions. The height is determined by the clear height of the deck above water at the center, the depth
of the deck structure and the selected arrangement and inclination of the
cables.
The surfaces of the towers may be given a pleasing appearance by an
appropriate choice of form and by constructing their sections economically, using only metal required for structural reasons.
Architecturally free standing towers have a pleasant appearance, especially when only two towers are used along the longitudinal center line
of the bridge. This system is particularly attractive because in elevation
there is no intersection of the lines of the cables, and the road user has
an unobstructed view from the bridge on one side.
The aesthetic effect produced by cable-stayed bridges may be better
understood by further analysis of a few outstanding bridges of this new
type of construction.
References
40
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
41
30. Gimsing, N.]., Cable Supported Bridges, Concept and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983, pp. 173-174; 186-194.
31. Taylor P. R., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges and Their Potential in Canada',
Engineering Journal, 52 (11), 15-21, 1969.
32. Thul, H., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges in Germany', Proceedings of the
Conference on Structural Steelwork, The Institution of Civil Engineers,
September 66-81, 1966, London, England.
33. Hamberg, H., 'Progress in German Steel Bridge Construction',
Report on Steel Congress 1964 of the High Authority ofthe European
Economic Community.
34. Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture, translated by M. H. Morgan, Dover Publications, New York, 1960, pp. 13-16.
Chapter 2
Previously built structures and the application of new materials, construction and erection techniques and improved methods of structural
analysis, resulted in the development of the modern cable-stayed bridges
reviewed below.
2.1
Two-plane bridges
2.1.1
Fig. 2.1 View of
Striimsund Bridge, Sweden
In this bridge 1 2 the main girder is continuous over three spans of 245,
600 and 245 ft (75, 183 and 75 m) (Fig. 2.1). The girders are supported
43
Fig. 2.2 Stromsund
Bridge, general
arrangement
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56'
44
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
by groups of prestressed cables passing over the tops of towers on the main
piers. The stay system, in the form of radial cables, consists of two upper
and two lower cables immovably anchored together at the top of the tower.
The towers were built as trapezoidal frames, hinged at the base to allow
rocking movements in the longitudinal direction of the bridge. The cables
are anchored to the main girders by means of double web anchor beams,
with the four cable ends of one set of stays held in one block of cast steel.
The deck structure consists of a reinforced concrete slab supported by
stringers and cross-beams (Fig. 2.2). The depth of the stiffening plate
girders is 10ft 6 in (3.2 m) or
of the span.
ls
2.1.2
This bridge, built in 1958 in Germany, was the first long span cablestayed bridge 3 4 (Fig. 2.3). The river part of this bridge consists of
continuous suspended box girders over three spans of 354, 853 and 354ft
(108, 260 and 108m).
The cables, in a harp configuration, are in two planes supported by
single towers 134ft (40.9 m) high, which are built into the deck structure.
The tower saddle for the center cable is fixed, but the saddles for the
upper and lower cables are supported on rocker type bearings.
--"'
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2.1.3
46
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9.8'
I 7 . 4'
62 . 3'
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48
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
sections anchored in concrete at the bottom and rigidly joined at the top.
Inside, the boxes are reinforced by a system oflongitudinal and transverse
stiffeners.
The suspension spans are composed of 45 sections varying in length
from 47 to 53ft (14.3~ 16.2 m). The box girders and deck for each section
were shop-welded.
2.1.4
The first major cable-stayed bridge in Britain was the George Street
Bridge over the Usk River 1 0 11 opened to traffic in 1964 (Fig. 2. 7).
The 500ft (152 m) steel central span is supported from hollow reinforced concrete towers, by wire ropes which pass over rollers within the
towers, and which are anchored at the concrete side spans on piers at a
55ft 6 in (16.9 m) spacing. The weight of the concrete anchor spans thus
serves to counter the live and dead loads on the steel center span.
The reinforced concrete towers, each 170ft (52 m) above high water,
taper upward from a 13ft 6 in by 14ft (4.12 by 4.27 m) base section to
10ft by 7ft (3.05 by 2.14 m) at the top. The wall thickness varies from
18 in (0.46 m) at the base to 6 in (0.15 m) at the top. Since the stresses are
wholly compressive, concrete was chosen for the towers. The provision
of three levels of support points in each tower leads to considerable
economy in the cable length required for the structure.
In order to provide the required clearance, the main span is a cellular
steel box design of shallow construction. The cable layout presents a welldistributed support for the steel box deck, thus minimizing longitudinal
bending stresses.
In cross-section, the deck consists of two steel edge boxes 38 ft 4 in long
by 5 ft wide by 3ft 10 in deep (11.68 by 1.52 by 1.17 m), with infilling
transverse boxes. The top and bottom flange plates of the deck are
stiffened by welded closed type ribs running longitudinally (Fig. 2.8).
The design of the top deck plate presented an unusual problem in that
it had simultaneously to sustain longitudinal and lateral compressive
forces, and heavy wheel loads at any position. A 4 in (0.10 m) thick
reinforced concrete slab is provided over this deck plate.
The theoretical dead load tensions required are not the same as the
actual rope tensions set in the computed bridge. The reason for the
difference is that the rope tensions have been adjusted to produce beneficial post-stressing in the steel-box structure, after completion. By this
method, it has been possible to produce a reasonably even stress envelope
for all loading conditions-that is, the maximum longitudinal bending
stresses at midspan are approximately the same as the maximum combination of direct and bending stresses which occur elsewhere in the steel.
t-
29'-9"
19' -II"
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49
Fig. 2.11
2.1.6
This bridge, built near Rees in I 967, has a multi-cable system supporting
the main span of 837 ft (255 m) and side spans each 341 ft (104 m)
long14. 15. 16 (Fig. 2.11).
The cables are formed in two planes outside the roadway and are
supported from single towers built into the piers. The cable stay system is
51
;:...
'
fig. 2. 13
52
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
in the form of a multi-stringed harp, having ten stays, one above the other,
on each side of the tower.
This arrangement is a result of the desire to achieve structurally simpler
transmission of the forces acting in the cables to the main girder. The
latter is thus no longer suspended at a few isolated points but, instead, has
something very much like a continuous elastic support from the stay
system.
The cross-section consists of two main plate girders, 11!ft (3.5 m) deep,
and spaced 62ft (18.9 m) apart, spanning between which is an orthotropic
roadway deck (Fig. 2.12).
The stiffening in the deck is of interest in that so-called 'tension bands'
are introduced transversely between the normal T -section transverse
stiffeners, and a more effective transverse distribution oflocal wheel loads
is thereby achieved.
2.1.7
26' -3"
11'-2"
Fig. 2.14
-1
11'-lQII
54
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
2.1.8
The Knie Bridge at Dusseldorf spans the Rhine with a single long span of
1050 ft (320 m/ 9 20 21 (Fig. 2.15).
Five shorter spans, 160ft (48 m) each, comprise the approach on the
left bank. An asymmetrical scheme was chosen largely because of site
conditions.
The towers, which are 312ft (95 m) high, each support four parallel
cables rigidly anchored at each of the four flood. span piers._ The cable
anchorages on both the side and main spans are formed from sloping box
structures which cantilever out from the webs of the two main plate
girders. The towers are of reinforced concrete, having dimensions of28 ft
by 21 ft 4 in (8.54 by 6.50 m) at the base, and 10ft 10 in by 9ft 2 in (3.30
by 2.80 m) at the top.
The anchorages for all four cables are placed outside the main girder
webs, while the cables are supported in saddle bearings which allowed
limited movement during erection, but were fixed when completed.
The cables on the rear side of the two single towers anchor to the
approach span girders at pier locations, while on the other side they connect to the main span. In order to eliminate any uplift in the short span, the
girders are fixed to the piers, so, in effect, the cables are also connected to
fixed points.
The aerodynamic stability of the towers was checked in the wind tunnel
at the National Physical Laboratory, London, both for the various stages
of erection and in the final form. With this bridge, additional components
Fig. 2.16
1I
i1
55
TI
56
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
To help with the calculations for the structure, certain very exacting
aerodynamic investigations were undertaken, with wind-tunnel testing
being conducted. These investigations showed that despite the streamlined shaped of the box girder, it was possible that, for certain wind
velocities, mostly quite moderate movements could be set up, which
might cause some qualms for those using the bridge; and that the fitting
of deflector plates for those part lengths of the deck structure
considerably reduced this effect, so that these fins were added to the
structure.
A carriageway paving, to a thickness of 6 em (2 1/z in) of special composition for orthotropic decks was laid.
Regarding the hollow-deck units, the method of assembly was the
same, whether for the 52 ft 6 in (16 m) lengths of the main central span
or for those of 518 ft (15 8 m) for the two approach spans. The work
was started on fixed templates, where 16ft 6 in (4.5 m) lengths of the side
parts were spot-welded together. These included the footway and the
upper and lower side-plating, with diaphragms at 13 ft: (4 m) centers.
The welds were then run to full-length, and to full-section on a tilting
framework. These assembled units were then welded to bottom plates,
mounted, for this purpose, onto a gantry and adjusted to the required
camber. Finally, they were butt-jointed end-to-end, to give their 314 ft
10 in (158 m) lengths. The work was then completed by inserting
additional diaphragms and fixing the deck-plating.
Much thought has been given to the surface protection of the
structure, and a method was found which promised 10-years' resistance
to the aggressive Atlantic atmosphere.
Inside the box girders, the treatment consisted only of zinc-based
paint on previously shot-blasted steel plate. Externally, the priming coats
were of zinc-rich paint, followed by an undercoat which was epoxy-resin
based, and then an acrylic finishing coat. The footways were surfaced
with a screening of epoxv-silicon
composition, _!_
in (1.6 mm) thick laid
16
onto a course of epoxy pitch .
.The towers set up on the main piers appear as inverted V-shapes
having a height of 223 ft (68 m) above the piers. The tower legs have a
cross-section of 8.2 X 6.6 ft (2.5 X 2.0 m) in welded plate, adequately
stiffened. The vertical extension above the two box-section legs of the
tower is fitted with steel gusset plates, for attaching the stay cables (Fig.
2.18). The stay cables, arranged in sloping planes, are attached at the top
to thick steel gusset plates, fixed to either side of the top length of the
towers. At the top as well as at the lower ends, forked roller bearings
form hinged connections between the stays and their fastening points.
The steel wire ropes of locked-coil type have a core of round strands
with three or four enclosing layers of z-shaped strands, the two other
layers being galvanized. These cables vary in diameter from 2 ~ in
57
58
CABLE-STAYED URIDGES
high , having a top chord 57ft 5 in (17.6 m) wide and a bottom chord 19ft
7 in (5. 98 m) _wide. Its orthotropic deck consists of steel plate, having a
thickness of TI in (12 mm) at its roadway, and 1. in (9.5 mm) at both of
its sidewalks.
x
The deck-plate is stiffened by longitudinally trape~oidall) -shaped
ribs, 5 t in (143 mm) high, and its wall thickness is TI in (5.6 mm).
Cross-beams arc spaced apart ar 6ft 5 in (1.95 m) and 7 fr (2.13 m). The
deck surfacing consists of 2 ~ in (70 mm) thick asphalt.
Two towers ha\'e the A-shape and two trans\'erse beams. The ends of
the cables are connected to the upper straight parts of the towers (Fig.
2.20). The ca~les arc of patent type \\ith diameters ranging from 2* in
(5-t mm) to -t-17; in (110 mm) and a strength of 120 kp mm 2.
2.1.11
The na,igablc part of the RiYcr Dncpr in KicY17 is spanned with a cableSta) ed bridge ha,ing a central span of 98-t ft (300 m), a single tower and
fan-shaped double-plane bracing system (Fig. 2.21).
59
319 1 -0 11
1705'- 8"
57' -5"
52'- 6"
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2.1.12
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The main \Varren trusses are continuous over three spans and
supported by the fan-type arranged cables. Both upper and lower steel
deck plates bonded to the chord members of the main truss act as part of
its flange and participate in CarlJ~ng the bending moments in the main
truss. The deck plates arc supported only on cross-girders with a spacing
of 8ft 2in (2.5 m). The cross-girders are rigidly connected with the steel
deck, and arc supported as simple girders on the chord members.
Because the steel plate decks act as the top and bottom flanges of the
main truss and provide a large sectional area, the following problems
were investigated:
(I) Shear Jag phenomena in the orthotropic plates have been taken into
account for not only the overall bending of the truss but also for the
local bending of chord members as continuous beams over
equidistant supports.
(2) The axial forces transmitted from the cables and the diagonal
members were distributed through the orthotropic plat~s. F rom the
results of the above investigation the effective widths of the
orthotropic plates were determined for both overall and local
bending.
Each pylon has a modified H -shape \\~th a pair of legs spread towards
the supports. The cross-section is a 6ft 7 in X 7 ft 2 in (2.0 X 2.2m) box
with a maximum plate thickness of32 mm. The upper parts of the pylons
are designed to have the same transverse distance in between as the top
chord members in order to have the cables inclined transversally. The
pylons are simply supported on the shoes, fixed at intermediate piers, so
62
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
197'
Port of Kobe
295'
722'
295'
197'
623'
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The trapezoidal box girder has an orthotropic deck stiffened by box
type ribs. The concrete towers are 394ft (114.5 m) high above river level
and are of variable rectangular hollow section and were built using
sliding forms. They arc composed of two columns linked together by a
reinforced concrete girder at deck level and a steel cross at the top.
Between the bridge deck and the reinforced concrete girder of each
tower, there are hydraulic dampers allowing longitudinal movement,
which operate as sliding bearings for slowly-applied loads and as fixed
bearings for rapidly-applied loads. At the same level there are also sliding
compressible bearings controlling transverse movements without
restricting longitudinal movements.
,I
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64
CADLE-STAYED BRIDGES
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51.7'
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11,9'
27.9
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Section B. B
66
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
North E.
Navigational clearance
only at supports
77.15'
67
Cable stays are in two planes in line with the tower legs. Three groups
of stay cables arc attached to the top of each tower in a fan arrangement.
The cables are rigidly connected to the cross-girders and to the tower
tops. Each stay consists of two or four cables arranged about 2 ft (0.6 m)
apart. Each cable is a bundle of ~ in (6 mm) diameter steel wires placed
inside a polyethylene tube to protect against corrosion during slipping
and erection. Once the full dead load was in place, the tubes were filled
with a special cement grout as further protection.
2.1.16
This cable-stayed steel bridge spanning the M ississippi River in the delta
area near New Orleans, at Luling, was opened for traffic in 1983 3u s.
This stretch of the river is navigable by ocean-going vessels requiring a
horizontal clearance of 1200 ft (366 m) and a vertical clearance of 133 ft
(40.5 m). The main span of the bridge was set as 1220 ft (372 m) and
side spans of 508 ft (155 m) and 495 ft (151 m) together with adjacent
spans of 259 ft (79 m) (fig. 2.29).
\ 'iew of the
Luling 13ridge, USA
rig. 2.29
The deck carries four traffic lanes and a 2 ft 6 in (0. 7m) median
barrier for a total width gutter to gutter of 79 ft (24 m). A steel
orthotropic deck is supported by two longitudinal trapezodial box girders
spaced 39 ft (I 1. 9 m) apart.
The metalwork is high-strength weathering steel. The wearing surface
is 2 in (57 mm) of epoxy asphalt. To eliminate the possibility of vortex
shedding and to improve aerodynamic stability in steady wind, a fairing
plate was added to the main span.
The towers are internally stiffened box members with dimensions of 5
ft 3 in (1.60 m) in the transverse direction and 7 ft 3 in (2.20 m) in the
longitudina l direction of the bridge, rising 138 ft (42 m) above the bridge
deck (Fig. 2.30).
68
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
85'
The cables are galvanized spiral bridge strands with maximum cable
forces from 738 k (3280 kN) to 497 k (2210 kN), requiring a diameter up
to 3.96 in (101 mm). At lower cable anchorages the vertical cable
components are carried by cantilevers of the cross-girder. The horizontal
cable components are carried by horizontal cantilevers at the level of the
deck plate.
2.1.17
This bridge, with symmetrical multi-cable fans and displaced end piers,
was erected in 1985 35 - 38 , with a central span of951 ft (289m) and two
i.
TYPIC\L STEEL BRIDGES
69
side spans each of 394ft (120m) (Fig. 2.31). The end pier is positioned
under the anchor point of the second cable, 52 ft 6 in (16 m) from the
end of the fan. Thus, the three outer cables of the side span can be
regarded as forming the anchor cable.
The steel deck has a box-type cross-section of trapezoidal form 73 ft: 6
in (22.4 m) wide at the top and of height 11.50 ft (3.5 m) reinforced by
longitudinal box-type stiffeners. Both pylons are made of reinforced
concrete, romboidal in shape. The pylon legs have a hollow cross-section
and a hexagonal cross-section at the pier junction.
70
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
rigidity of the closed box section, resulting in cable economy over a dualcable system.
The chief structural element of the bridge structure, apart from its
cables, is the central box girder, chosen for its great torsional strength and
rigidity.
It should be noted that the idea of applying a middle type main carrying
system to bridges originated with Haupt, a German engineer. He proposed similar systems in 194839-42 .
2.2.1
In 1962, the North Elbe Bridge, the first bridge with single-plane cables,
was built over the Elbe River in Hamburg. The central span is 565 ft
(172 m) long and the flanking spans each measure 210 ft (64 m) 43 - 51
(Fig. 2.32).
The central towers standing 174 ft' (53 m) above the deck support a
star-shaped configuration of cables which gives the bridge an interesting
appearance. Although the configuration cannot be justified from a purely
economical viewpoint, a visually satisfying solution has been achieved,
which is complemented by the increased height of the tower above the
cable saddles.
The bridge has a cross-section with a central box girder and two single
web girders, one on each side, which are joined at about 72 ft (22 m)
centers by transverse beams (Fig. 2.33). In the side spans, the bottom
flange of the central box is replaced by diagonal bracing. The central box
and side girders are about 10ft (3 m) deep, and the central box web and
plate girder webs are equally spaced at 25.6 ft (7.80 m) centers.
32 Two views of
Germany
72
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
37.8'
Ill
37.8'
I I
5. 8'
I
2.2.3
25.6'
I 25.6'
25.6' ... I
This bridge, erected over the Rhine at Leverkusen in 1965, has a single
twin cellular box girder from which sloping struts, which support the
deck, cantilever out 54-56 . The river part of this structure comprises a
continuous suspended box girder over three spans of 347, 920 and 347ft
(106, 281 and 106m) (Fig. 2.36).
Support is provided to the deck by a single-plane system of two sets of
parallel cables dividing each of the side spans into two equal lengths and
the center span into five parts.
The towers rise 147ft (44.8 m) above the bridge deck, and are of rather
unusual design in that they taper towards the base which is built into the
deck structure and is supported on a hinged bearing. By tapering the
tower, a reduction in the required width of the median strip is obtained,
thus providing a substantial saving in cost.
The steel roadway deck is stiffened with triangular shape box ribs, and
the walkway is of reinforced concrete (Fig. 2.37).
2.2.4
The cable-stayed portion of the Wye River Bridge, built in 1966, consists
of a 770 ft (235 m) central span and two 285 ft (87 m) side spans 57 58
(Fig. 2.38). At each end of the central span a single box-section tower,
96 ft (29.3 m) high and pivoted at road level, supports a staying cable,
anchored to the box girder 255 ft (78 m) either side of the tower. The cable
passes into the box girder through a 13ft (3.96 m) wide median strip between the two lanes and is anchored into a system of diaphragms.
73
74
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
223'-10"
532'-6"
2.2.5
This bridge over the Rhine at Bonn, completed in 1967, has a stay system
in the form of a multi-stringed harp comprising twenty cables strung one
above the other S<J,r,o (Fig. 2.40). A multi-cable single plane system is
75
,1
I
I
L:f::: ~ ~--~ f~
Q.....
~ 320'
347'
920'
347 '
I 320'
76
C \Bl.F.-ST:\YED URIIXiES
260'-0"
1340'-0"
II' -6"
16'-0"
employed to support the main and side spans of 920ft and 393 ft (280 m
and 120m) respectively.
A very striking appearance is given to the bridge by the 20 cables supported from each tower, which, perhaps because of their small size, do not
appear obtrusive, and thus an overall impression oflightness is achieved.
The cables are formed from single strands varying in diameter from 156 to
in (7.94 to 11.90 mm) and are fixed immovably in the tower top. The
tower itself splays out below deck level, and is rigidly fixed to the pier with
prestressed anchor rods.
78
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The deck structure consists of a single box girder from which cantilever
out sloping struts that support the floor (Fig. 2.41).
2.2.6
1 -: - - 1_
_:_c39:_::_3_'
- :__7
"_
393'-7"
1705'-6"
41 1 -4 11
-I
79
80
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
2.2.7
2.2.8
This bridge, completed in 1970, is currently one of the longest cablestayed bridges in the world 66 67 with a main span of 1148 ft (350 m), and
is the first of its size to be welded throughout (Fig. 2.46). A central
81
~~-'
I ,,.
I
790'
295'
1380'
r.,
4'1 1 ~'11"
E~::::,II.EI::vJ
~
44 I -8"
17 1 -0"
17 1 -0" ~
44 I -8"
82
2.2.9
The Massena Bridge, finished in 1971, is one of the largest and most upto-date cable-stayed bridges in France68 - 71 . It crosses the railway lines
coming from the Austerlitz Station in Paris (Fig. 2.48).
This bridge has an overall length of 1615 ft (493 m) and comprises three
spans of length 266,530 and 265ft (81.1, 161.6 and 80.8 m).
The 118ft (36.0 m) wide deck carries a 13ft (4.0 m) central section, two
46ft (14.0 m) roadways and two 6ft 6 in (1.98 m) walkways. The stiffening
83
2549'-1 1"
119 '-0"
I
qtQI I
2'3''
r-- II
12 . 2.. ,
41
10' '
27'8"
lt l' -QII
I"
39;4"
2'3''
9IQI I
12'2"
II
27'8"
lQII
84
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
118'
~-18_'6_"-1-1_16_'_5'~'+----42' 7"
16'5"
18~~'--1
2.2.10
The Erskine cable-stayed bridge over the River Clyde west of Glasgow,
Scotland, finished in 1971, is a continuous, all welded steel box girder
with a cable-stayed main span of 1000 ft (305m) and side spans each 360ft
(110 m) long 72- 75 (Fig. 2.50).
A single all-welded steel box girder that runs the whole length of the
bridge carries the dual24 ft (7.3 m) roadway, cycle tracks and footpaths.
The southern abutment provides a fixed anchorage for the deck girders.
There is a single cable over each steel tower above the main piers and
anchored in the median between the roadways. The stays are 2~ in (63.5
mm) wire strands arranged in two groups anchored to the deck steelwork
85
in the central section between traffic lanes and passing over the tops of
125ft (38.1 m) high steel towers directly above the main piers. The box
girder is shaped rather like an airplane wing in cross-section, 65 ft wide
;tnd about 10ft deep (19.8 m by 3m), with cantilevered wings upstream
and downstream to carry the cycle and walkway tracks (Fig. 2.5 1).
The actual construction of the superstructure involved the use of prefabricated sections of some 60ft long by 8ft wide (18.3 m by 2.4 m) and of
varying depth. Erection was carried out by cantilevering out from the first
span of each approach viaduct, so that the bridge grew from the abutments
along each viaduct, then each side span and finall y each half of the
main span, until the two halves finally met over the center of the river.
The final 1000 ft span, across the river, was not installed using staging,
but was guyed during construction.
The design permits expansion at a later date from a four-lane crossing
to six lanes, by taking in the cantilevered wings which will carry cyclists
86
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
C:ClC~
168' 224'
iI
"
224'
-1
224'
I -
fttl. LJ,_UL.lq~A
360'
"'' '"' 1ooo
,,,.,
. --1-.--- 4-33_4_' -_-- _ -
36o'
2.24 224'
224' 224' 224' 224'
. --1------l-- ----;----- _,.______..
-----~-
-----
224'
2o6
102'-6"
IT 8'-9 11
8 1 -0 11 3'0 1 .._!.._:-0"
ft
FOOTWAY CYCLE
TRACK
24'-0 11
CARR I AGE WAY
1 1 0 11
-
1-"-i
11'
1'
2
O"
24'-0''
1'-0"
3'- "
k q :J :J :{ jiD[ 1: r~) ~
0
ij
_]' -0"
.1
17' -6"
20'-9 11
17 I -6 11
12 I -0 11
2Q I -9 11
and pedestrians in the early stages. These wings are strong enough to
carry the additional lanes, and wide enough to still accommodate foot and
cyclist traffic.
2.2.11
The New Galecopper Bridge, completed in 1971, crossing the AmsterdamRhine Canal at an angle of 51, has been designed as two skewed steel,
cable-stayed, continuous plate girder bridges, situated next to each
other 76 . The spans are 229.6, 590 and 229.6 ft (70, 180 and 70 m), whilst
the total width across the two bridges is 229.6 ft (70 m) (Fig. 2.52).
Each bridge consists of a steel orthotropic deck supported by six plate
girders. The towers and staying cables are arranged in the longitudinal
plane of symmetry of each bridge. The tower is of box type in crosssection, measuring 4. 9 by 4. 9ft ( 1. 49 by 1. 49 m) at the foot and 8.2 by 8.2 ft
(2.5 by 2.5 m) at the top. The tower is not connected with the bridge and
is hinged in longitudinal direction with the pier. The shape of the towers
was chosen for aesthetic appeal (Fig. 2.53)
Each main cable consists of two groups, each of six full-locked and
galvanized cables 3 in (76 mm) in diameter. The expression 'full-locked'
refers to a patented twisted wire cable, in which the spiral wires are of
trapezoidal and Z sections so that they lock together leaving practically no
voids 77 .
The cables are connected to the middle main girders through crossgirders. They are anchored in the bridge by two cantilevers on each side of
the main girders, and on the abutments by concrete rolled profiles.
:1
87
~
;.,.,;..
--
-.
----.,
--- ..
---~
--~-
< ~.
4l? ,
590.~'
229.6'
229.6'
't
t!J
M
II
- - - ...IJ---o- - --
o-
fl
:,l.
--8-
'l
The bridge was designed skew in plan. The torsiona!Jy weak construction, with its large width, required special considerations in design . HoweYer, rhe sa ,ing in the deck area is more than 20% .
2.2.12
88
CABLE-STAVED BRIDGES
At first the new bridge, with a clear span of 8-1-6ft (258 m) and a total
length of 2920 ft (890 m), will have a temporary or emergency function
while the existing bridge, built s hortly after the last war with only a
27 ft 3 in (8.3 1 m) roadway, is demolished.
It will consist of three steel girder cells and a 11 5 ft (35.1 m) wide
orthotropic plate deck carrying four lanes of traffic, two streetcar tracJ..s,
two bicycle paths and two sidewalks. It will be suspended by four
symmetrically arranged cables from a single tower (Fig. 2.55).0n the left
bank the forces from the cables will be transmitted to the ground through
four dead-end piers.
2.2.13
ll(f(hJIIt~)'
Trus cable-stayed bridge OYer the Danube Ri, er in l'\mi Sad111 consists
of spans 2 X 197 + 11 51 + 2 X 197 ft (2 X 62 + 35 1 + 2 X 62 m).
The bridge deck has a box-type cross-section of trapezoidal form ''ith
three cells to separate a proper place for p) lon connection and cable
anchorage. The deck incorporates two 32ft (9.75 m) ,,;de roadways and
two sidewalks 5 ft (1.5 m) ,,;de. The orthotropic steel deck is reinforced
by box-type ribs, and cross-beams arc spaced at 9ft 10 in (3m) intervals.
89
246 I
:j
t~T
~I
23 I -6ll
68'
115 I
23' -6"
------------~
The two pylons, 197 ft (60 m) in height above the deck, have
rectangular cross-sections, varying linearly from 11ft 10 in (3.6 m) at the
bridge deck to 10 ft: (3 m) at the top. Each pylon is reinforced by
longitudinal stifTeners with aT-shape cross-section. Transverse stiffening
is provided by frames spaced between 10 and 11 ft 6 in (3 and 3.5 m)
apart (Fig. 2.56). On each side of the pylon the cables arc spaced along
the deck at intervals of 177 + 157 + 157ft (54+ 47.9 + 47.9 m) and up
the cable heights from the deck arc 113ft 10 in (35m), 146ft 7 in (45 m)
and 179ft 5 in (55 m). Each cable consists offour strands spaced at 2ft 6
in (0.8 m). The number of wires in each strand varies from 240 to 312,
each having a diameter of~ in (7 mm).
2.2.14 Argen River Bridge, German)'
This is a highly unusual cable-stayed bridge design having 'above and
below' cable carrying a highway across an unstable valley slope in
Southern GermanyHZ,HJ. The ground is sliding, so foundations could not
he put on the incline. The main span of the bridge is 846ft (258m). The
bridge has stays which drop from a tower on the southern abutment, pass
through the center of the deck and three struts before being anchored in
the bottom of the deck short of the next support pier (Fig. 2.57). This
arrangement keeps the number and height of cable towers to a minimum.
From an anchorage on the southern side of the valley 12 steel cables
rise to the top of a 180ft (55 m) inverted-V (or A-type) concrete pylon
90
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Section A _A
-...
m
r
sr-
--.8
Section 8_ 8
91
2.3
92
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Both the Batman in Tasmania and the Czech bridge are unique among
cable-stayed bridges. Lying in the plane of the resultant of the cable-stay
forces, the single inclined tower of each bridge supports almost the entire
river span. The tower not only dominates each structure but also adds
great character.
It is not an easy matter to assess which tower configuration is the better,
structurally or economically, for each has its advantages and disadvantages.
Also these two bridges are the only ones of their kind in existence.
2.3.1
93
12'
12'
....
'
1.
94
2.3.2
323'. 9"
95
117'. 2"
68'.10"
~'::7"1
t
11 ' . 6" ~
41 ' . 4"
I 11 ' . 6" :I
64'. 4"
..
The lower flange plate of the box section supports pipe and cable lines
mounted on the bridge.
The torsional rigidity of the enclosed box section makes it possible to
suspend the girder in the middle plane so that with the asymmetric
distribution of transverse load the girder behaves as a three-span
continuous girder.
2.4.1
...
j
"''
~
i'
~
';'
47>
"'
97
in the inrensiry of stresses under the existing and proposed future train
loadings, which would practically overstress all members of the truss.
The proposed solution consisted of prestressing the truss members by
means of stay cables connected to the top of the tower which was designed
to rest on the center pier (Fig. 2.64). This solution proved practical and
permitted introduction of substantially hea\ icr trains by comparison with
the original loadings for "hich the bridge was designed.
19 1 -611
98
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
2.4.3
This 688ft (210m) long Expo 1967 structure, spanning the StLawrence
River between lie St Helene, is of an original design 91 92 (Fig. 2.67).
The bridge consists of two simply supported spans, each suspended at
midspan from their sides by cables anchored to twin concrete towers sited
in mid-river. Each span is made up of two longitudinal box girders
supporting floor beams designed to be composite with the concrete deck.
The longitudinal girders are supported at midspan by a transverse box
girder anchored to suspension cables. The spans have expansion bearings
at the abutments, while at the pier they rest on fixed bearings and bear
24'
Il
2 I -6 11
99
against buffers which take the horizontal components of the forces acting
on the cables.
This cable-supported girder bridge is 94ft (28.7 m) wide and is supported by two concrete towers that rise 92ft (28.1 m) above the roadway.
The bridge is 92 ft wide from curb to curb and accommodates automobiles, pedestrians and rapid transit trains, which run over its center
line (Fig. 2.68).
2. 4.4
,(\o
2.5
100
164'
164'
833'
~..---
<t
~~
'!!
28'
10.5'
13'-3"
-'--
13'.3"
t---
t-1
III
N
~
18.45'
18.45'
Ar I
Section A _A
II
-~4Fig. 2.69 Belgrade
Bridge, general
arrangement
Section B _ B
and Funen 94- 97 . The structure will be 11 miles ( 17.6 km) long. Some of
the alternatives included combined road and rail bridges. Three of
the original and successful designs are shown below.
2.5.1
The St Louis firm of Sverdrup and Parcel from the USA was one of four
firms awarded the first prize for a combined road and rail bridge (Fig. 2. 70).
I0I
-----+---"-'-'-
1 I -311
96
-o
_ _s'-9"-~
--------1---- -"-'39_'_-9'--"----tl-l~_'_::Q"_j
fig. 2. 70 Project by Sverdrup and Parcel and Associates, USA, first
prize
For the main navigation span two towers support stayed girder deck
units. Roadways are carried at the top level of the deep deck trusses with
two rail tracks fitted at the lower level as wide apart as the deck allows.
2.5.2
This is a combined road and rail bridge, having the main span as a cablestayed truss (Fig. 2. 71 ). All cables in side spans are connected to the piers,
increasing the stiffness of the railway bridge.
2.5.3
In this combined road and rail bridge the inclined legs of the piers shorten
the main span. They also provide fixity and decrease deflections. The
same applies for both side spans (Fig. 2.72).
102
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~~~~~;~~!
- - - -----~-J ~ ~ ~~ ."~ ~'<'~<(,.}~/
' 1968'
' -o~ ________ _
.~_-_0'_'-
-+
Fig. 2.71
f----492' -0''
46 I -0 11
46 I -0 11
1804 I -Q 11
656' -0"
49?
-a
2.6
2.6.1
103
Pipeline bridges
Types ofpipeline bridges
For crossing rivers, gorges, highways or any artificial obstructions, cablestayed pipeline bridges are most often used. Such types of bridges may
be designed as simple or multi-span structures. By its statical performance, the pipeline works as a continuous beam on elastic supports. At
spans of up to 350 ft (106 m) the cable-stayed system may be applied,
however for greater spans in the range of 350 to 1000 ft (106 to 305 m) it
is recommended to use cable trusses. Generally, end cables are
connected to anchorages, which arrangement is helpful for bridge
erection. In practice the pipeline bridge systems shown in Fig. 2.73 are
most often built.
In these systems panels between cable stays will be under additional
tension under the action of the horizontal stay component. However,
because the cross-sectional area of the pipe is relatively large, these
tensile stresses are small. For gas pipelines of diameter between 20 and
40 in (508 and 1016 mm) the spacing of radial stays connections is
between 60 and 130 ft (18 and 40 m), and for oil pipelines between 40
and 100 ft (12 and 30m). At great pylon heights, the forces in the stays
and its cross-sections are reduced, but more steel is required for the
pylons. For cable-stayed pipeline bridges having spans between 200 and
330 ft (60 and 100m) there are no horizontal bracings. However, at large
spans in areas subject to high winds, bracings are installed. To increase
the horizontal stiffness of the pipeline bridges, horizontal wind bracings
are used.
The basic carrying elements, cables and struts are post-stressed in the
horizontal plane. End cables of the wind bracing are connected to the
anchorages. The horizontal sag of the wind bracing depends on the
intensity of wind load and is taken to be from -1J to ~j of the span.
1
2.6.2
1.
104
(a)
(b)
(d)
(e
l
(d) and (e) Schemes of wind
bracings
2. PIPELH\E BRIDGE
This pipeline bridge carries two pipelines, each of diameter 31 1/z in (0.8
m). The continuous structure has two spans of 147ft (45 m) and 189ft
(57.5 m) and a single pylon 243 ft (74 m) high (Fig. 2.75).
105
3.8
0
"'~
Railing
Lights
I
I
-.,0
-.,0
1 ) I
~-
"j
-!...
Slope
1
r
-I
3.8'
0I
..,
0
1 (
-~
14. 6'
I
-l-'-"+-~---__:_1_::8::._9'
___
~,+.l-A--~~~4
8::._'_
~B ~lioo
A_A
Section B _ B
2.7
2.7.1
Pontoon bridges
Bridge over the Ganges River, India
106
C'\BLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Q>..P
(a
Pottrossed
Coble
-------!.
I j
/Girder
~ -~ -~Pontoon
I I
li
1/
\ I
. .
I
.
_.,>,
(b)
When one pontoon is under a load ~ which is greater than the actual
load for the bridge P, and at this position the bridge is stiffened by a
prestressed anchor cable, then after deloading the cable is prestressed in
tension. Under this loading the pontoon is effectively supported by a
prestressed cable acting as stiff support. This principle was applied in
1912, during the construction of a pontoon bridge supporting a deck of
rigid girders over the Ganges River, in Calcutta, lndia99 (Fig. 2.76 (b)).
The bridge has three spans with a total length of 1407 ft (4 29 m) and a
width of 98 ft (30 m). The bridge supports were built of eight
cylindrically shaped pontoons, each one 226 ft (69 m) long and with a
diameter of 15 ft 6 in (4.7 m). The pontoons were anchored to the
bottom of the river by prestressed cables.
It should be noted that the same principle of using post-stressed
anchor cables may be applied to achieve stiffness during construction of
oil rigs at sea.
2. 7.2
(a
(b)
j~~:h<S>
fl/.? /
I.
I
"" "-..\~
\ <So
278.8'
107
In this scheme the reactions of the truss are transferred onto the
hollow steel rings, which are anchored by post-stressed cables 400 ft
(120 m) deep under the water elevation to the bottom. The ring has an
external diameter of 131 ft (40 m) and a 65 ft 6 in (20 m) internal
diameter at the wall thickness of~ in (14 mm). There are a total of 12
floating supports stiffened by post-stressed anchor cables. The initial
tension will be completed at high tide.
2. 7.3
:~;;
:;:
!ypicarl~
:i
:'i'
;';)
Drilled_ in anchor
ELEVATION
Fig. 2. 78 Proposed
floating bridge for long
water crossings
108
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
wind and wave forces. The vertical anchor cables are deployed in a circle
to give equal stability in all directions. Their tension may be monitored
and adjusted through access galleries in the pontoons. A sufficient
number of cables is provided to permit the removal and replacement of
individual pairs of cables without endangering the stability of the system.
References
1. Wenk, H., 'The Stromsund Bridge', Demag News, No. 136,
Duisburg, 1954.
2. Ernst, H. J ., 'Erection of a Cable-Stayed Girder in the Construction
of a Large Bridge', Stahlbau, No.5, 101, 1956 (in German).
3. Beyer, E., Nordbriicke Dusseldorf, Landeshauptstadt, Dusseldorf,
1958.
4. Beyer, E. and Tussing, F., 'Nordbrucke Dusseldorf', Stahlbau,
Nos. 2, 3, and 4, 1955.
5. Fischer, G., 'The Severin Bridge at Cologne (Germany)', AcierStahl-Steel, No. 3, 97-107, 1960.
6. Schussler, K., 'Wettbewerb 1954 zum Bau einer Rheinbrucke oder
eines Tunnels in Koln im Zuge Klappergasse Gotenring', Stahlbau,
No. 8, 205, 253, 294 and 326, 1957.
7. Vogel, G., 'Erfahrungen mit geschweissten Montagestassen beim
Bauder Severinsbrucke in Koln', Schweiss. Schneid., 12 (5) 189194, 1960.
8. Hess, H., 'Die Severinsbrucke Ko1n, Entwurf und Fertigung der
Strombrucke', Stahlbau, No.8, 225-261, 1960.
9. Vogel, G., 'Die Montage des Stahluberbaues der Severinsbrucke
Koln', Stahlbau, No.9, 269-293, 1960.
10. Anonymous, 'The George Street Cable Cantilevered Bridge at
Newport', Civ. Engng pub!. Wks Rev., 575, May 1964.
11. Brown, C. D., 'Design and Construction of the George Street
Bridge over the River Usk, at Newport, Monmouthshire', Proc.
lnstn. civ. Engrs, No. 32, 31-52, September 1965.
12. Anonymous, 'Le Pont Suspendu a Haubans de Saint-Florent-leVieil (Maine et Loire)', Travaux, 765-766, July-August, 1968.
13. Anonymous, 'The Cable-Stayed Suspension Bridge at Saint
Florent-le-Vieil, France', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 2, 92, 1969.
14. Thu1, H., 'Stahlerne Strassenbrucken in der Bundesrepublik',
Bauingenieur, No.5, 169-189, May 1966.
15. Anonymous, 'Another Cable-stayed Bridge Conquers the Rhine',
Engng. News Rec., 103, 25 May, 1967.
16. Anonymous, Rheinbriicke Ress-Kalkar, Bundesminister fUr Verkehr,
Bonn, 1967.
109
17. Reutter, K., 'Konstruktion und Fertigung der Seilkammer fi.ir die
Stahlhochstrasse Ludwigshafen', Schweiss. Schneid., No. 9, 418420, 1968.
18. Freudenberg, G., 'Die Stahlhochstrasse uber den neuen Hauptbahnhof in Ludwigshafen/Rhein', Stahlbau, No. 9, 257-267,
September, 1970; No. 10, 306-314, October, 1970.
19. Tamms, F. and Beyer, E., Kniebriicke Dusseldorf; Beton-Verlag
GmbH, Dusseldorf, 1970.
20. Anonymous, Neubau Kniebriicke, Teil 1, Strombriicke, Landeshauptstadt Dusseldorf, 1967.
21. Anonymous, 'Record Span is Cable-Stayed', Engng. News Rec.,
34, 20 November, 1969.
22. Sanson, R., 'Saint-Nazaire-Saint Brevin Bridge over the Loire
Estuary (France)',Acier-Stahl-Steel, No.5, 161-167, 1976.
23. Fuchs, W., 'Die Loire-Bri.icke bei Saint-Nazaire', Bauingenieur,
53, 19-20, 1977.
24. Schwab, R. and Homann, H., 'Der Bau der Kohlbrandbri.icke',
Die Bautechnik, Heft 5, 145-156, May, 1975.
25. Rabe, J. and Baumer, H., 'Die Gri.indungen und Pfeiler der
Ki.:ihlbrandbri.icke', Die Bautechnik, Heft 6, 181-197, June, 1975.
26. Boue, P. and Hohne, K.]., 'Der Stromi.iberbau der Kohlbrandbri.icke', Der Stahlbau, No. 6, 161-174, 1975; No. 7, 203-211,
1975.
27. Anonymous, 'Structures in the USSR', IABSE Structures C-4178,
4-5, May, 1978.
28. S. Komatsu, Y. Torii and S. Okada, 'Cable-stayed Bridge "Rokko
Ohhashi" at Kobe Gapan)', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 3, 101-106,
1977.
29. Anonymous, 'Zarate-Erazo Largo Highway-Railway system
(Argentina)', IABSE Periodica, Structures C-3/78, 14-15, February,
1978.
30. Brodin, S., 'New Tji.:irn Bridge across the Ackeri.:ifjord (Sweden)',
IABSE Structures, C-21182, 40-41, May, 1982.
31. Kohmann, R. and Koger, E., 'Die neue Tji.:irnbri.icke, Konstruktion, Static and Montage der Stahlkonstructionen', Bauingenieur, 57,
379-388, 1982.
32. Clements, L., 'The Kessock Bridge Design and Build Contract, and
Proposals for Managing Similar Contracts', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs, Part
1, 76, 23-34, February, 1984.
33. Knox, H. S. G., Homberg, H. and Deason, P.M., 'Kessock
Bridge: Design by Contractor', Proc. lnst. civ. Engrs, Part 1, 76, 3550, February, 1984.
34. Kealey, T. R., 'Mississippi River Bridge, Luling (Louisianna,
U.S.A.)', IABSE Structures C-20182, 4-5, February, 1982.
110
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
111
112
C\llLE-ST\YED llRIDtiES
90.
91.
92.
93.
113
Chapter 3
3.1
3.1.1
115
fig. 3.1
View of
towers was then packed with concrete, the jacks were removed, and the
cables were embedded in concrete to protect them from oxidation
(Fig. 3.2).
The twisted cables are of high tensile steel, each made in one piece
and conveniently transported rolled up in drums. They have the advantage of being easy to unwind and place.
ll6
3.1.2
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
This 5~ mile (8.85 km) long bridge, completed in 1962 and spanning
Lake 1'vlaracaibo in Venezuela, is one of the world:s outstanding prestressed concrete structures5- 8 . It includes five 775 ft (236 m) main
spans soaring 148 ft (45.1 m) above the lake's navigation channels and
supported by inclined cables (Fig. 3.4).
117
118
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
r------"-5"--24_'_-8_"----+------'--5e
no' -R"
524'-8"
illodJor
I
46' -6"
intersecting forces of the system resulting from deadweight were calculated on the assumption of infinitely rigid inclined ropes. However, for
traffic loads, the elasticity of the ropes had to be taken into account.
The cables, having 16 strands, each 2"k in (73.0 mm) in diameter, were
made of cold-drawn patented Siemens-Martin cast steel wires and
protected against corrosion by a bitumen coating.
The 57ft (17.4 m) wide bridge deck carries four lanes of traffic with a
4 ft (1.22 m) central median and two 3 ft (0.91 m) sidewalks. This
unorthodox concrete design was selected because corrosive fumes in the
area would make maintenance of a less costly steel bridge too expensive
in the long run.
3.1.4
A cable-stayed bridge over the Dnepr River at Kiev, having a reinforcedconcrete main girder, was completed in 1963 9- 12 (Fig. 3.6). It consists
of a 474ft (144m) central span and two side spans 216ft (66 m) long.
There are three pairs of stays from each portal type tower. The outer
ones have a 0.16-2.76 in (4-70 mm) diameter, the middle ones are 0.162.16 in (4-55 mm) in diameter, and the bottom ones next to the tower
are 0.08-2.76 in (2-70 mm) in diameter.
119
USSR
The most interesting feature of this bridge is that the whole superstructure is prefabricated and made only of reinforced concrete. The
main girders are built from precast reinforced concrete members suspended by the cable stays. The reinforced concrete towers are 138 ft
(42.06 m) high. They are fixed into the piers and have lateral beams to
support the superstructure.
The most complicated joints are the connections of the steel cables to
the main girders. This is because these joints should satisfy the conditions during erection and the possibility of the regulation of the separate
strands of the cables.
In cross-section, the roadway is 28 ft (6.30 m) wide and the two
sidewalks on each side are 5 ft (1.52 m) each (Fig. 3.7).
Safe connections between the main girders and the cross-beams have
been achieved by making a joint between the front side of the cross-beam
and by making the side of the main girder a conical-shaped wedge. Only
a nominal amount of reinforcement is used in the deck except where the
cables are attached to the deck.
An examination of the dynamic behavior of the bridge revealed that
the structure had a high stiffness. I n spite of the shallow depth of the
main girder, which is only -rim of the span, the deflection does not exceed
-r/ro of the span. The deflection of the main girder is mainly the result of
the cable stretch under live loading, and is only slightly due to its own
deflection.
The structural design of the bridge system has been checked on a
to scale model.
120
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
472' -4"
904'-2"
--~
l __
foig. 3.11
\'ic'' of !he
PoJcc,em Creek
Viaduct, hal}
The three main spans of this structure, erected in 1966, are carried by
inclined cables and ha\"e span s of 66_., 689 and _.60 ft (202, 210 and
HO m) 131"' (Fig. 3.8).
The length and sequence of the spans were established by the location
of the piers which were built in spots allowed by the local topography,
the area being densely built and occupied by railroad yards, roads,
industrial plants and the Polcevera Creek.
The structural scheme of the viaduct is basically the same as that used
in the main spans of Maracaibo Bridge. The viaduct comprises a series
121
59'
~rloooool
I
50'-5"
122
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~7S'
7"
l7S't0"
9S'-2"
1
hlooooooor
1"'"-- - - - - - . 1 . .0 I -6"
_ _ _ _ _ _ 7~4" - - - - - - -- :
Fig. 3. 11 Ansa de Ia
Magliana Viaduct, general
arrangement
-1
123
3.1.7
complete with the roadway shtb, which is formed from precast channel
units spanning between the box girders and the cantilevered footways.
The remaining 282 ft (86.0 m) of each cantilevered box girder is erected
from 25 precast units.
The main cables are spread and anchored in pairs in adjacent units so
as to distribute the large concentrated forces as much as possible. The
permanent cables are socketed and anchored by means of horseshoe
washers at the tower. At the deck anchorages, the sockets are each
retained by a crosshead which is jacked down a pair of high tensile
threaded rods anchored to the beams.
125
fig. 3.12h o\norhcr '1e"
of the Ri,er Panna Bridge
~7'-2"
L
1:
32' -8"
t:
_1] [t
82 11
18'-2"1
39'
.- -l
;...,
'
~1
126
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Libya
319'-8"
925'
31~ -
.-
-r
In
49' - 2"
~r"'
1\
ro
24 t -J"
42 . -6"
--
.....
- l
127
128
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
I
fo'ig. 3.16 View of the
River Waal Bridge, Tiel,
Holland
~.-L
875' -9"
---
T
0
101
I
"'
-'
::L
16 ' -2"
~r=
Jr
r
2.5'-7"
1.!
+ 16'2"~
69'
lC
32 I 8"
83 ' -10"
Jr
25' -7"
'
"'
129
The lower backstay cables support the side spans at their mid-points
and the upper backstays are anchored over the first shore pier, so that
their function is to stabilize the tops of the towers from which the other
points are effectively suspended. Because of this, the forestays and
backstays, although of the same total size, are divided in different
proportions, and it is necessary to divert some tendons from upper to
lower stays in the tower saddles. Multiple strand cables are used for the
permanent stays and longitudinal stressing of the box girders, multiple
wire for transverse stressing of the deck and diaphragms and high tensile
bars for the temporary stays and vertical stressing of the box girders.
3.1.10
In this bridge the main span 688.8 ft (210 m) long is supported assymmetrically from a single diamond-shaped tower 23 (Fig. 3.18).
The deck in cross-section is a torsion resisting trapezoidal box supported
essentially on a single central cable plane. The permanent stays are
parallel wire cables anchored in conventional proprietary prestressing
anchorages. Dead-end anchors are used at the deck with jacking at the
tower through stressing rods. Each stay consists of two cables to provide
space for the anchorages and this arrangement conveniently allows for
229' -6"
229' -6'.'
688' -8"
229 1 -6 11
V--j
29'-5
11
130
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
a central footway on the bridge. The deck is anchored at the main pier
so that the tower is not stressed by expansion movement of the deck.
Each of the two adjacent piers to which the backstays are anchored acts
as a flexible strut and tie.
Under the proposed method of construction, the tower will be cast on
the site up to deck level and the approach spans cantilevered 114.8 ft
(35.0 m) into the main span at each end.
Because dead load accounts for about 95% of the total load which the
cables, tower and deck itself are designed to carry, economy will be
achieved by using high-strength concrete for the deck to reduce dead
load to a minimum.
3 .1.11
131
River downstream from Rouen and has a central span of 1050 ft (320m)
(Fig. 3.21).
In cross-section the prestressed segmented concrete deck consists of a
single-cell trapezoidal box girder, with interior stiffening struts. Webs
are vertically prestressed to resist shear stresses, in addition to transverse
prestressing in the top and bottom flanges. Inclined stiffeners are
prestressed longitudinally, near the center of the main span.
Each tower of the Brotonne Bridge was made of a single reinforced
132
60'-cl"
10'-0"
~ ~l
. I
80 -6
11
At l!lltA
t:D_ ~~
'
':...
.. ...
~
...
.124-8"
'
A: a:
~ec.
Coin
"' "'
0"'~
A_A
15'-o'soc. _a
U)
N
N
N
N
Tower
lr
Section
,
ar -, B
'
concrete pylon, 230 ft (70 m) high, fixed in the deck and exposed to wind
up to a height of 394 ft (120m) above ground level. The slenderness of
the tower is very impressive.
The suspension of the Brotonne Bridge is achieved by 21 stay cables
per tower, placed in a fan layout, anchored at both ends in the deck and
tower. The stay cables cross the tower on saddles which form a fixing
T) I' I(.
\I . CO!'\CRI:TF. IIRII)GI.S
133
Pig. 3.21
\ 'ic'' of
134
4 1113'
.o
83' .. 0 ..
21'..
ii
18' - 0'
,~-or41
.I
13:
.I -~~-
21 ' -0'
II
+1---~-a_-_o_-
-_o_- ....
.
0
Secllon A - A
.,
-N
..
b
N
Section B - B
Fig. 3.22 13rmonn
Bridge, general
arrangement
-1
135
172'
18'
51. s'
I 18' ~
3.1.14
136
C t\BJ.E-STAYED BR([)GJ:S
USA
(2701 m) portion of the high level approach and the main span of the
bridge were built by the precast segmental concrete technique.
In cross-section, the deck consists of single-cell precast concrete
segmental box girder units 12ft (3.65 m) long, 14ft (4.27 m) deep and
95 ft 3 in (29 m) wide. The cross-section is a monolithic unit and
contains transverse post-tensioning in the top and bottom flanges as well
as in the web.
The segments for the precast section of the bridge are being cast
under factory-type conditions and each segment weighs approximately
170 tons.
The twin 40ft (12.2 m) roadway allows for two lanes of traffic and an
emergency 10 ft (3 m) shoulder in each direction.
The Skyway design features a single pylon and a single plane of cable
stays. The pylon is basically rectangular, \\<ith a constant transverse
dimension of 11 ft (3.35 m) and a tapering longitudinal dimension of 23
ft (7 m) at the top. The pylon has an interior void area to allow for a
service elevator. Each single-shaft pylon is rigidly connected to the box
girder superstructure. The superstructure is supported by 2 1 cables on
either side of the pylon at a spacing of24 ft (7.31 m) on center for 2280 ft
(695 m) of the 4000 ft (1219.5 m) main span unit (Fig. 3.26).
The single plane of stays is continuous over the pylon and anchored on
blocks at the middle of the segmental steel pipe covering the stays to
protect them, and this pipe is painted with reflective epox')' to reduce the
maintenance needs.
The new bridge is designed to withstand hurricane winds of velocity
240 mph. The two main cast- in-place elliptical piers were designed to
I'
137
95'- 3"
3.1.15
The proposed Dame Point Bridge over the St Johns River in Florida
concrete alternative to one cable-stayed steel bridge will have a 1300 ft
(396 m) cennal span and side spans of 650 ft (198 m) (Fig. 3.27)35- 38 .
138
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
In cross-section, the cast-in-place deck is supported by precast Tbeams and the longitudinal edge girders. It will support three lanes of
traffic in each direction. Each pier will support two concrete pylons,
which anchor the stay cables (Fig. 3.28).
Each proposed stay will consist of between seven and nine Dywidag
bars, 1+ in (44.5 mm) in diameter, which will be encased in a metal
duct.
105' -10"
1!"2'-0"
I
I
span'[;-~.~::::::::::::====~====:::::::f$+-.
Cab loa
(Main
43' -6"
43'-6"
Cab los
(End Span)
Preca,.st-r;- Beam
.,...
0
139
Gemw1~)'
The Main Bridge, near Hoechst, was built in 1971 over the River
J\llain 39-H. This is the world's largest prestressed concrete bridge
carrying highway and railway traffic.
The bridge is a prestressed segmental cable-stayed structure, carrying
two three-lane roadways, separated by a railway track and pipeline. It is a
skew bridge having a central span of 486 ft (148 m), with a northern
approach span of 86ft (26m) and southern approach spans of 55, 84, 95
and 129 ft (16.9, 25.65, 29.00, 39.35 m) (Fig. 3.29).
140
~5.j6' 84.1~'
95.12' 12907'
I
376.90'
109.29'
118.64'1
486.19'
3.2.2
141
194. 7"
!H
-
194' - 7"
__,_,
34_
{b
39'
;::.
- --'!-l11
0
f
f ig. 3.32 M25 O vcrhridgc,
gen eral arrangement
142
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
3.2.3
r----sa-;-- ---------~-~-
50'
---------------r----
45
Fig. 3.33 Project by
Dyckerhoff and
\\idmann, second
prize
so
1
f~tL __I
----.2%
---t--
146'
-10 11
3.3
3.3.1
143
93'
93'
13'-4"
15'-10"
144
References
1. Kammiiller, K., 'Suspension Bridges with Inclined Cables', Beton
Stahlbetonb., No. 3, 63-65, March, 1952 (in German).
2. Paez, A., 'Our Fiftieth Anniversary', Concr. Constr. Engng, 187-188,
January, 1956.
3. Torroja, E., Philosopky of Structures, University of California Press,
Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1962, pp. 128-12 9.
4. Hadley, H. M., 'Tied-Cantilever Bridge-Pioneer', Civ. Engng,
Easton, Pa, 48-50, January, 1958.
5. Morandi, R., 'The Bridge Spanning Lake Maracaibo', J. Prestr.
Concr. Ins!., 12-27, June, 1961.
6. Lustgarten, P., 'Briicke iiber den See von Maracibo', Bauingenieur,
l'\o. 10, 365-373, October, 1962.
7. Schmitz, H. and Jetter, R., 'Planung und Bauausfiihrung der
Schiffahrtsoffnungen der Maracaibobriicke in Venezuela', Bauingenieur, No. 8, 283-302, August, 1963.
8. Simons, H., Wind, H. and Moser, W. H., The Bridge Spanning Lake
Maracaibo in Venezuela, Bauverlag, Wiesbaden-Berlin, 1963.
9. Kireenko, B. 1., 'Reinforced-Concrete, Cable-Stayed Bridge', Beton
Zhelezo-beton, No. 6, 5-10, 1965 (in Russian).
10. Anonymous, 'Die Schragseilbriicke in Kiev', Bauingeneur, No. 11,
426-427, 1968.
11. Streletzkii, N. N., Reinforced Concrete Bridges, Moscow, pp. 119-127,
1965 (in Russian).
12. Kireenko, B. 1., Cable-Stayed Bridges, Kiev, 1967, pp. 25-27 and 8192 (in Russian).
13. Anonymous, 'Polcevera Difficult Site is Spur to Design', Engng.
News Rec., 32-34, 26 August, 1965.
14. Morandi, R., 'Some Types of Tied Bridges in Prestressed
Concrete', Concrete Bridge Design, ACI Publication SP-23, American
Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1969, pp. 44 7-465.
15. Morandi, R., 'Viaducto de Ia Magliana, ltalia', lnj(mnes de Ia
Construccion Revista de lnfiJrmacion Technia, No. 208, lnstituto
Eduardo Torroja, Madrid, March, 1969, pp. 73-74.
16. Gee, A. F., 'Cable Stayed Concrete Bridges', Developments in Bridge
Design and Construction, Ed. Rockey, K. C., Bannister, ]. L. and
Evans, H. R. Conference proceedings, University College, Cardiff,
1971, Crosby Lockwood, London, 1971, p. 462.
17. Gee, A. F., 'Cable Stayed Concrete Bridges', Developments in Bridge
Design and Construction, Ed. Rockey, K. C., Bannister, ]. L. and
Evans, H. R., Conference proceedings, University College, Cardiff,
1971, Crosby Lockwood, London, 1971, pp. 464-465.
18. Morandi, R., 'Some Types of Tied Bridges in Prestressed
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
145
146
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Chapter 4
4.1
Introduction
148
4.2
4.2.1
This structure is the first cable-stayed bridge built in the uSA in 19723
(Fig. 4.1).
The cable-stayed portion of this bridge is 750ft (22H m) in length with a
main span of 450ft (137m).
The stay system in the form of radial cables in two planes consists of
three cables immovably anchored together at the top of the tower. The
cross-section consists of two main box girders, 6ft (1.83 m) deep, spaced
34ft 3 in ( 10.4 3m). The reinforced concrete deck slab is supported by floor
beams, stringers and main girders (Fig. 4.2). The steel towers are of
rectangular box section and fixed at their bases to the concrete pedestals.
4.2.2
The bridge which crosses the Ohio River at East Huntington has a main
superstructure consisting of two spans of 900 ft (274m) and 608 ft (185
m) and a single tower (Fig. 4.3t
The bridge was designed for two lanes and in cross-section the
composite deck consists of a high strength concrete slab supported by
two main girders and transverse steel floor beams.
The length of the precast segments in the stayed part of the bridge is
44ft 10 in (13.7 m), and floor beams are spaced at 9ft (2.74 m) intervals
on center. The deck slab, steel floor beams and main girders are built
monolithically (Fig. 4. 4). The height of the pylon above the deck is 179 ft
5 in (55 m).
Cable stays consisting of parallel ~in (6.35 mm) diameter wires are
anchored at both the pylon and deck and are of the Hi-Am type. The
original design incorporated an orthotropic type steel box girder.
4.2.3
Fig. +.I
1 2 5'
150 '
450'
J.
22'
15 '
) 49
150 '
1 2 5'
22'
1 5'
f'ig. 4.2
150
CABLE-STAYED BRLDGES
4" "'
fig. 4.f East
lluntington Bridge,
general arrangement
fig. 4.5
111
Ill
16'-6"
Section A_ A
Yiew of Quine)
Bridge, USA
151
20'-0'
21'-'3'
I
~
7- ~
7'-3.
7'-3'
.l
lt
(I
~
~.
.e
):
IHt--
--llkl
f ig. .f.7
\ 'ie" of
152
C\BLE-ST.\YFD IlRIDCiES
The deck is designed to carry six lanes of traffic but initially will carry
only four. The width of the bridge is 105ft (32m) and the superstructure
consists of two steel plate girders 6 ft 11 in (2.10 m) deep set 91 ft 10 in
(28 m) apart, supporting steel floor beams spaced at 14 ft 9 in (4.5 m)
intervals on center.
The steel members, connected to the 10 in (265 mm) precast concrete
deck by studs, act compositely with it. Precast concrete panels, 44 ft 5 in
(13.545 m) long and 13 ft 3 in (4.03 m) wide, span between the floor
beams. They are connected to each other at the steel members and at the
crown by cast-in-place strips. The panel sits on a neoprene strip that
provides uniform support during construction and leaves a 1.8 in (45
mm) wide gap under the panel filled with concrete during the pouring of
the in-fill strip (Detail 1, Fig. 4.8 (b)).
The bridge has two towers 506 ft (154 m) high and the bents are
reinforced-concrete structures with provision for ductile behavior in
earthquake situations. The legs are of a hollow rectangular cross-section
tapering from 24ft 7 in (7.50 m) by 13ft 9 in (4.20 m) at the base to 17ft
1 in (5.20 m) by 13 ft 9 in (4.20 m) at deck level, from which point the
cross-section remains unchanged.
(a)
r;
6.6' 1
41.6'
Cable plano
~~ymm
ID
0
"'
Main girder
1 4 .7'5'spacing
6.6' deep
liS'
.I
153
50mm concrete
overlay
Neoprene strip
415mm
(b)
Floorbeam flanQe
t.
Towor
(c)
Tower_ cable
connection
(d)
The cross-beams are also hollow in section. The depth of the lower
beam is 3 2 ft 10 in (10 m) and of the upper 26 ft 3 in (8 m). The walls of
the tower legs and cross-beams are 2ft (600 mm) thick. The cranked Hshape was selected to eliminate compound cable angles and associated
eccentricities at each cable anchorage; the modified fan configuration of
cables permits space to anchor each cable separately at the tower and
replacement of any cable. Despite their considerably larger weight and
foundation size, concrete towers were more economical than steel
towers.
154
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
References
1. Svenson, H. S., Christopher, B. G. and Saul, R., 'Design of a CableStayed Steel Composite Bridge', ASCE, J. Struct. Engng, 112, No. 3,
489-504, March, 1986.
2. Zellner, W., Saul, R. and Svensson, H., 'Recent Trends in the
Design and Construction of Cable-Stayed Bridges', 12th IABSE
Congress, Vancouver, BC, September 3-7, 1987, Final Report, pp.
279-284.
3. Golub, H., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges', Civ. Engng, Easton, Pa, 43,
August, 1971.
4. Pavlo, E. L., 'East Huntington Bridge', Cable-Stayed Bridges, Federal
Highway Administration, lind Book, 1978.
5. Kulicki, J. M., Waldner, H. E. and Prickett, J. E., 'Design of the
Cable-Stayed Mississippi River Bridge at Quincy, Illinois', Transp.
Res. Record 950, Second Bridge Engng Conf, val. 2, Washington, DC,
pp. 34-50, 1984.
6. Anonymous, 'Steel Wins Stayed Girder', Engng News Rec., 13, 26
January, 1984.
7. Taylor, P., 'Hybrid Design for the World's Longest Span CableStayed Bridge', 12th IABSE Congress, Vancouver, BC, September
3-7, 1984, Final Report, pp. 319-324.
8. Taylor, P., Torrejon,J. E. and Manniche, K., 'Use of Concrete in the
Annacis Bridge Main Span', International Conference on Concrete in
Transportation, Paper SP93-31, 1986, pp. 695-720.
Chapter 5
5.1
Introduction
Among pedestrian bridges erected up until now and used for crossing
road traffic, cable-stayed systems have found a wide application.
The superstructure of a typical pedestrian bridge usually has three
parts: an upward sloping stretch, a central part, and a downward sloping
stretch. The sloping parts may consist of ramps, stairs or escalators.
These may be in line with the bridge proper, curved or at an angle to it.
Further, they may have a uniform slope, or one that varies all the way.
The latter is the case with pedestrian bridges that take the shape of a flat
arch, and here the central horizontal part is omitted. The arched pedestrian bridge is usually pleasing in appearance in view of its architectural
form, but has the disadvantage that its users are taken to a point at the
crown of the bridge which is higher than the minimum clear headroom
that is necessary for the traffic below.
Pedestrian overpasses necessarily being observed by a large number of
people, there is therefore a natural tendency to build these structures so
as to blend with the surroundings. A variety of such solutions, applying
the cable-stayed system, are reviewed below.
5.2
5.2.1
This unusual, asymmetric, graceful pedestrian bridge was one of the most
interesting steel structures to be seen at the Brussels World Fair of
1958 12 . It connected the Fair's general exhibition area with the
West German section. After the close of the exhibition, the bridge was
dismantled andre-erected at Duisburg (Fig. 5.1).
156
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Fig 5. 1 Vie" of
pctbtrian bridge,
Dui-;hurg, German~
r---I
-....J--_
157
.118 '-_3"_______
_____lj).. '-=3."___j
188'-.fi" - ___
-------1
The tower has a curved hollow cross-section, namely two circular arcs
of a different diameter connected by two straight plates. In the transverse
direction, the lower portion of the tower is bent toward the walkway so
that the load passes through the center of gravity of the support. The
tower tapers almost to a point on both sides of the bend. Therefore, the
semicircular plates had to be conical in shape.
158
CABU:-STAYED BRIDGES
225'
303'-7"
78'-7"
~-------=
..;;__
Fig. 5.-1 The Schiller
Street llridgc, Stuttgart,
general arrangement
ts
----L
a~2J
The cables are of a special type. This is the only example of a German
cable-stayed bridge with parallel-wire cables. This type of cable was
adopted on account of the more favorable modulus of elasticity,than for
twisted-wire cables and also because it was possible to achieve a shorter
anchorage length for this type of cable than with the system usually
employed. The cables consist of 0.236 in (5.67 mm) diameter steel wires
which, after being bundled, were provided with a wrapping of a wire
159
56' -2"
178' -4"
68'-2"
292'-8"
160
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Pig. 5.()
"
T
/I
219' -9"
I
..,....
219'-9"
...,
"'
41'-4"
58 '-9"
Pig. 5.7
161
Fig. 5.8
View of the
Pon1 de Ia Bourse, Le
Havre, France
162
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
....
N
"'
N
240 I -11"
- - - - - _)44'_-6"
---------1
~36'3~
-~
163
:C:::::::::::::'
302 I -9"
t80'-3"
:::==
t80'-3"
6'
:;;
-..... -.....
"'
0
~
164
ln this bridge the solid prestressed deck sccrion is cast in place together
with the s ubstructure and the single central tower assembled from two
precast units stressed down to the deck girder. The parallel wire stay
cables are anchored in conventional proprietary prestressing anchorages
using dead-end anchorages in the deck and jacking at the tower to which
all cables are rigidly anchored (Fig. 5. 13).
The unusual cable arrangement certainly was chosen only for aesthetic
reasons since there is no structural advantage: equalizing the length of
the cables is of no benefit when the inclinations arc so diflercnt.
During the planning s tage extensive dynamic and static testing of a
one-fifth scale model of this bridge was carried out. A method of reducing
the deflection responses of the model was developed permitting the improvement of the dynamic characteristics of the prototype structure. The
165
lf
f.---
116 I -911
116' -9"
-'
l
15 I -9 11
static load testing was performed for different combinations of the design
dead and live loads and the ultimate load capacity of the structure was
determined. The agreement between the theoretical and experimental
results was within permissible limits.
5.2.8
166
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
co
r~
~_____22~~6'' _ _
_j__ _ 1 60-'-=2"_--1
413' -3'\
r-
13 I
~-
13 I -9 11
~-~
--
~I
-----------1
'
5.2.9
167
q>
0
-7
--7
'
,...
a:>
,,
29' -5"
59"
65' -6"
59'
2 13. - 2"
11' -S"
0.81'
-ITI 11
I
5.2. 10
3. -3"
I
I
II
3 '- 3"
Fig. 5 .I S Bundesallee
Footbridge, general
arrangement
168
spans of 65 fi 7 in (20 m). The girders were connected to each other wirh
high strength non-shrink grout (Fig. 5. 17).
The superstructure is supported by two rowers, each of which consic;t:,
of four high tapering precast reinforced square columns. The crosssection of each column \'aries from 35 X 35 in (0.9 X 0.9 m) at the base
to 22 X 22 in (0.56 X 0.56 m) at the top. Each tower cable is composed
of four galvanized Dywidag bars,
in (35 mm) in diameter.
If
3S'
10'-4"---j
9cJf!
arrangement
11
Base
~
,..,
Columns
Fig. 5. 18
View of the
169
26.2'
35.75'
"1
""1
CJ
170
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
---=~~c=ii=--==~=
---rll~:~,~~.l
1.
52"-d
142'-8"
177'- 2"
I 126'-3"
18'-2'
Straight branch
8'-10 11
6 1-7
2'-5
112'1
.. '4
11
3'-11"
Curved bronc h
,1'-l~~r
5.2.13
171
In 1978, the largest footbridge was finished over the old Yodo River in
Japan 21 . This cable-stayed bridge has two spans of 287 ft (87.5 m) and
133 ft (40 m), and serves both pedestrians and cyclists (Fig. 5.21).
In cross-section, this bridge has a hexagonally-shaped box girder. The
orthotropic-type deck consists of a ~ in (8 mm) steel plate, stiffened by
flat open ribs spaced at distances of 1 ft 2l in. The deck is covered by an
asphalt pavement of depth 1 ~ in (20 m;h).
This combination of aerodynamically-shaped box girders, incorporating orthotropic decks, results in a large natural frequency which is
not resonant to that of a pedestrian. Also, this structure does not produce
vortex-induced oscillations at a wind velocity lower than 54 mph.
The tower is an H-shaped frame with inclined legs. To ensure
aesthetical harmony with the length of the main girder, the height from
the pier was made 98 ft (30 m).
The cables of this bridge consist of locked -coil strands, and have been
protected from corrosion by painting. The cables were pre-tensioned to
reduce bending moments within the main girder and the tower.
172
l-____E'__
173
70'
All metal work has been hot dipped galvanized and special precautions
were taken during erection to apply a spread of mastic compound to fill
all the cavities between the timber and the metal connections. Bolts and
ring connections were used for all structural joints.
Prior to shipment to the construction site, a complete assembly of the
bridge was undertaken at the fabrication plant, where the completed
construction also received one coat of scaler.
References
1. Fuchs, D., 'Der Fussgangersteg auf der Bri.isseler Weltausstellung
1958. Eine Seitentragerbri.icke', Stahlbau, No. 4, 91-97, April,
1958.
2. Lewenton, G., 'The Pavilions of the German Federal Republic at
the Universal and International Exhibition, Brussels, 1958', AcierStahl-Steel, No. 6, 243-248, June, 1958.
3. Leonhardt, F. and Andra, W., 'Fussgangersteg i.iber die Schillerstrasse in Stuttgart', Bautechnik, No. 4, 110-116, 1962.
4. Anonymous, 'An Original Footbridge in Germany', Civ. Engng publ.
Ulks Ret., 1111-1113, September, 1962.
5. Reimers, K., 'Fussgangerbriicke iiber die Glacieschaussee in
Hamburg fiir die lnternationale Gartenbau-Ausstellung 1963',
Sc/znJeiss. Schneid., No. 6, 262-264, 1963.
6. Thomass, S., 'Spannbeton-Kongress Paris 1966-Arbeitssitzung V.
bemerkenswerte Bauwerke-Briicken', Beton Stahlbetonb., No. 12,
289-297, December, 1966.
7. Anonymous, 'An Original Suspension Footbridge in Belgium', Civ.
Engng pub. Ulks Ra'., 1365, November, 1966.
8. Bachelart, I I., 'Pont de Ia Bourse Footbridge Over the Bassin du
Commerce, Le Havre (France)', Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 4, 167-168,
1970.
9. Vander Molen,]. L., 'Prestressed Concrete Stayed Girder Bridge',
Conslr. Rn. Ausl., l\"o. 1, 19-21, 1969.
174
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Chapter 6
Structural Details
6.1
17 6
SECTION B-B
SECTION A-A
_jA
SECTION C-C
6.2
-i
SECT I ON D-D
Towers
1. GENERAL
The towers have to carry heavy loads, usually several thousands of tons.
Therefore, box sections with a large kern width are best to provide safety
against buckling with the minimum amount of material. Box sections can
be kept slender without unnecessary wasting of the material.
In the case of portal or A-shape towers, the legs are separated from the
stiffening girders. However, when the towers are located along the
longitudinal centre line of the bridge, they are usually connected to the
main central box girder.
Most towers of modern cable-stayed bridges consist of a single rectangular box built with thick steel plates which are joined by either
welding or riveting (Fig. 6.1).
Towers may be built of metal or of reinforced or prestressed concrete.
The advantage of metal towers lies in their faster fabrication and erection.
However, for large cable-stayed bridges, the towers can be built more
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
177
\
ELEVATION
PLAN
economically with concrete than with steel, and the saving can be as high
as 40% of the tower cost.
A different type of cross-section of the tower was used for the Knie
Bridge with two boxes arranged in T -form (Fig. 6.2).
The longitudinal box was made up with thick steel plates in order to
locate the center of gravity of the whole cross-section as close as possible
towards the bridge deck. This had to be done to keep the bracket moment
at the hanging points as low as possible.
The transverse box stiffens the relatively slender main box and prevents
the optical illusion of a tapering of the outer edges, whereby the tower legs
appear to diverge. The transverse box also permits installation of an
elevator for inspection of the cable saddles.
2.
The behavior of the towers depends upon the details of their connections
to the cables, deck and pier. These connections may be designed to
minimize tower bending moments; however, a fixed base, attached either
to the deck or the pier, may be necessary to avoid the expense of a heavy
pinned bearing. A pinned base may also complicate erection.
178
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
c
B
SECTION B-B
SECTION ASECTION C-C
SECTION A-A
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
179
"'.JI
_,
f"-
"'./1
i)i:.:
2..
I
0
SECTION D-D
~D
1' 7'Y.co"
SECTION B-B
Fig. 6.4 Tower base fixed
to the pier, Knie Bridge
180
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9 1 11
II
SECTIQN A-A
6.3
Types of cable
1. COMPOSITION
A cable may be composed of one or more structural ropes, structural
strands, locked coil strands or parallel wire strands.
A strand, with the exception of a parallel wire strand, is an assembly of
wires formed helically around a center wire in one or more symmetrical
layers and is produced in the USA in accordance with ASTM Standard
A-586 Specifications 1 . A strand may be used either as an individual loadcarrying member, where radius or curvature is not a major requirement,
or as a component in the manufacture of structural rope.
181
A~
VIE\/ A-A
ELEVATION
3 I -411
41 -1
~~v-~~--~1- ~
"'
I
"
--
f--
II
I I
'I
J/(4
Iii !I
:1\
---if'
:~--1 t - - -
e---
"
illl
~-811
--
1----
182
'~
\:.
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
2.
Figure 3.8 shows typical strands of twisted wires. The modulus of the
elasticity of twisted wire depends on the elasticity of the wires, the internal
deformation of the cable, the sag of the cable, or on a combination of these
three factors. H ence, the modulus of elasticity is constant but is a function
of the force acting on the cable.
3.
4.
.
.
...........
.~:. ~~.
:.::~
,.
~,.
:.lt
...
~.
,.:
....................
....
.......
.
;
~ ~
STRUCfURAL DETArLS
183
1.
.1..
..........
.-:1.
..:::~
is 90% for the locked-coil cable, and about 70% for the spiral cable, while
the modulus of elasticity is also higher for the locked-coil cable. After
only a few load repetitions in the range of live load stresses it reached
11150 tons/in 2 (18.27x 109 kg/ m 2 ), which is almost exactly half-way
between the value for the spiral cable and that for solid structural steel.
In spite of the increased stiffness of the locked-coil cable, the flexibility
required at curves is maintained because of its spiral construction. Moreover, locked-coil cables are largely insensitive to bearing pressure because
the individual layers of profile wires support each other through their
faces and not just by point contact, as in spiral cables (Fig. 6.10).
The locked-coil strand as used in Germany is also a helical type strand.
The center portion is composed of a number of round wires, then several
layers of wedge or keystone shaped wires and fina lly several layers of Zor S-shaped wires. The construction of typical locked-coil wire rope is
presented in more detail in Table 6.1. This type of rope does nor contain
strands.
184
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Number
of"' ire~
Center
6
12
2
3
-l
5
6
7
Total
R
IR
27
34
40
47
185
Wire
dimensions
(in)
0.189
0.177
0.177
0.177
0.197
0. 197
0. 197
0.197
2.830 d
Wire
shape
Area of
one wire
(in 2 )
Total area
for each
wire form
(in 2 )
0.0281
0.02-l6
0.()28
0.887
s
s
0.0307
1.872
Sp
Sp
0.0322
2.804
R
R
R
5.59
The circular wires form only a smaU portion of the total area ( 16.36).
The surfaces of the fo urth through seventh layers form a complete
cylinder. As a result, contact stresses between these layers are greatly
reduced. It should be noted thar the size of the wires does not vary
greatly with the size of the rope.
A type oflocked-coil strand is manufactured in the USA primarily for
cable and tramway applications and has not been utilized for bridges in
this country.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
5.
185
PRESTRETCHING
6.4
2.
The stiffness of the cable-stayed bridge depends largely upon the tensile
stiffness of the stay cables.
186
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The displacement of the end of the free hanging cable under an axial
load depends not only on the cross-sectional area and the modulus of
elasticity of the cable but to a certain extent on the cable sag, as proved by
Ernst 7 .
Let us consider an inclined cable, connected by a hinge at the lower
support and with one movable bearing as the upper support (Fig. 6.11).
Due to the action of the force F, the cable takes the shape of a chain line,
where L > land L is the length of the chain line between supports. IfF
became infinite the cable would be straight. The end C moves to the
position cl and the expansion is
!).f
=L- I
EJ = (j/<>1
3.
<>e = (j/Ee
where Ee indicates the corresponding modulus of elasticity.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
187
E!Ee
Ef+Ee
(6.2)
E.=~'-----..::_
'
F
-cos c(
188
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
I= L/cos r:t.
Condition Ms = M 9 yields
(6.3)
The cable length is
L1 =
I+~ (.fn:)
111 = L 1 -l =
~ (f~)
3
By designating
f~
and
I= L/cos r:t.
we obtain
3
(6.4)
L =I cos r:t.
h = H/g
H = Fcos r:t.
h = F cos r:t./g
we obtain
(6.5)
and
d/11
dF
(6.6)
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
189
Generally,
Fl
l dF
E=-=-=-~
1:
A 11.!
A d 11.!
12lF3
EJ =
Ait
cos 2
12F3
ex-
AlL2
By designating
g/A
we have
(6.7)
By introducing (6.7) into (6.2) we obtain the expression for the ideal
modulus E;:
(6.8)
where
E;
Ee
Y = ~
Then
y2 Ee = 1.37 2 X
(yL?
-- E
12
e
2.02 x
w-s X 10 800 =
w- 4 x L 2 x 12 2
12
= 2 42 X 10- 3 L 2 tons/in 2
Therefore,
(6.9)
where L is in ft and a is in tons/in 2 .
190
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
30
28
26
"'
""
Vi
<!l
~ t:-...
\\ I"\" ~
2~
22
-'
10$2
20
"
18
w
Vl
::;)
-'
16
1~
>-
12
::E
w
-'
<!
2:
10
::;)
\.
\
\
""'
\
~
~00
"
!'....
800
SPAN
5.7
....___
1200
l IN
FT
1600
"-....
--
"'z
lr
;;;
\.~
...............
""'
'\.
\
'\.
7.1
::;)
""'\. !'-.."'"""'"
Vl
Vl
4.3
a:
>-
Vl
-'
w
w
>Vl
2.8
1.4
2000
Assuming numerical values for the span Land stresses CJ, it is possible
to determine from formula (6. 9) different values of the ideal modulus E;,
shown in the diagram (Fig. 6.14).
Static calculations for the live load are based on an idealized modulus
of elasticity E; which decreases as the length of cable increases. If the load
on the sloping cable is increased, its sag is reduced and its ends move
away from each other. Solely from this elongation of the chord, an
apparent Young's modulus can be derived which increases with increasing
load. This effect, together with the elastic deformation of the cable, can
be used to calculate an idealized modulus of elasticity which is then
introduced into the static calculations.
In Fig. 6.14, this modulus is diagrammatically shown on the ordinate
as a function of the cable stress, and the horizontal distance between the
tower and the anchor of the stay cable is shown on the abscissa. For very
long bridges the loss of E; can be as large as 40%.
The economical limit for cable lengths for inclined cable systems is
therefore between 658 and 987ft (200m and 301m). Nonetheless, longer
lengths of cables could be subdivided by intermediate supports to avoid
this disadvantageous effect, but it is debatable how far such a design
could be made to look attractive.
It is certain, however, that even with longer cables, the inclined cable
bridge could still successfully compete with the conventional suspension
bridge.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
6.5
191
K
Kres = - - - - - - - 0.65nl +0.35n 2 (1 + Jl)
(6.10)
where
n1 = I. I = the coefficient of the overloading for the dead load
n2 = I. 4 = the coefficient of the overloading for the live load
1+ J1 = 1.1 = the dynamic coefficient.
Substitution of the above values into (3.10) yields
Kres =
0.65 X
2.5
~ 2
1.1 +0.35 X 1.4 X 1.1
(6.11)
RauKm 1 m 2
(6.12)
Kml Kres
1
= 0.78
0.8 X 0.8 X 2
l. FATIGUE TESTS
German specifications require that the allowable working load for steelwire ropes shall be taken as 42% of their calculated breaking load. The
effective safety factor against fracture or yielding is then 2. 4 or 1. 5 respec-
192
''.l
;;; 40
~~3
136
z
w
f-
I'
I I
I
f-
'
:0::
- 20
>--
ALLOVo'0 =4~%. f B
f---- f - - -
~ f---.
35,
I
I
I
I
I
I
--'
J14
I
I
:0
'
'
I
.._1 0
rr35
<0
I
I
I
l
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.0
2.25
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
2.
193
To make the stay cables under dead load stiff, by decreasing the sag effect,
the stresses in the cables should be high. However, for dimensioning of
the cables, we must, of course, consider the additional stresses due to live
load, and these are not only larger in cable-stayed bridges than in suspension bridges but also positive and negative. This applies mainly to the
upper cables in the side spans which have to anchor the tower top.
The maximum amplitude of stress in such cables was calculated to be
as high as 50 000 psi (35.1 x 106 kg/m 2 ) for highway bridges and 65 000
psi (45.7 x 106 kg/m 2 ) for a 4200 ft (1280 m) span railroad and highway
bridge with the upper limit of stress being 100 000 psi (70.3 x 106 kg/m 2 )
for a steel strength of 200 000-230 000 psi ( 140.6 x 106 -161.9 x 106
kg/m 2 ).
For fatigue, we have to consider those loads which will probably be
repeated more than 2 x 106 times during the life of the bridge. These loads
are a certain percentage of the full live load, which depends on the density
of heavy traffic compared with the load specification.
In Germany, where the highway loads are much higher than the loads
specified by the AASHO, it is assumed only at about 40% for highway
bridges with long spans. This means that the fatigue strength of the cable
must be at least 23 000-26 000 psi (16.2 x 106 -18.3 x 106 kg-m 2 ). This
seems to be a low value, but if we test large cables dynamically, especially
ropes with zinc-filled sockets for anchoring, then we get values as low as
14 000-17 000psi(9.8x 106 -12.0x 106 kg/m 2 )ifnospecialcareistakento
avoid damage by the high temperature of the zinc or by other causes. With
such care, we can get up to 20 000 psi (14.1 x 106 kg/m 2 ), which is still
low.
This low fatigue strength forced designers of older cable-stayed bridges
with locked-coil ropes to reduce the upper limit of the allowable stresses
and use more steel. But this was not satisfactory, and consequently a new
type of anchorage for parallel wire cables was developed, which gives the
same fatigue strength as the cable itself. In this anchorage, the wires get a
BBR button head at their ends lying behind a steel plate which keeps the
wires spread and closes the end of the conical cavity in the steel socket
(Fig. 6.16). The voids are filled with a special mixture of metals and
epoxy resm.
The high quality of this anchorage is such that in fatigue tests more
wires broke outside the anchorage than inside (Fig. 6.17) and the
amplitude of stress which did resist more than 2 x 106 cycles was as high
as 36 000 psi (25.3 x 106 kg/m 2 ), i.e., almost twice as high as for zincfilled sockets.
In these tests which had been made with cables of295 wires of diameter
in (7 mm) and almost 4 x 106 lb ( 1.8 x 106 kg) of static rupture load, it
was found that the fatigue strength of such large units, involving a very
194
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
II
40
~~
0
120
ooo
0-
~"'
, ..
120
40
20
40
WI R E
60
80
D.&=
( 35,500 1bs/;n2)
large length of wire, was considerably lower than for short single-wire
specimens-the difference being as high as 35%. Therefore, tests with
single wires or small cables do not give the true picture for the actual large
structure.
The first fatigue tests of such large cables were made at the Otto-Graf
Institute of the University of Stuttgart. Later a new device which was
developed at the EMP A in Zurich was employed, using prestressed steel
beams.
The protection of the cables against corrosion is done more and more
frequently by a wrapping with glass fibre tissue drenched in polyethylene
or polyurethane, the voids between the wires being also filled with a resin.
Good protection against corrosion should be considered of great importance, even if the cables can be replaced, as can be done in the case of
cable-stayed bridges with many separate stays.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
195
6. 7 Corrosion protection
Wires in the cables should be protected from corrosion. The most
effective protection is obtained by hot galvanizing which may be used
according to the ASTM Specifications. There are three different zinc
coatings classified as A, B, and C, depending on the coating thicknesses.
The ASTM Specifications provide values of breaking strength for the
above types. Also zinc dust-zinc oxide paints are suggested which may be
used to restore the original zinc coating. The individual wires or strands
in the different layers are often made with varying corrosion protection,
where the outer z-shaped wires are galvanized and the inner wires are
not. To reduce the inner cavities, a filling of red lead is made. Sometimes
none of the wires are galvanized, and the outer corrosion protection is
maintained by normal painting.
In the construction of the Papineau Bridge in Montreal, Canada, an
effective corrosion protection was achieved by surrounding the galvanized
wire strand by a 5 mm polyethylene layer during the fabrication of the
strand in the plant. Prefabrication parallel-wire strands, as used in multicable-stayed bridges, may be protected against corrosion by a plastic
coating or a stainless tube, and the mortar is injected when the cable is
under full dead load stress to reduce cracking of the material.
Corrosion protection is increasingly provided by wrapping the cables
with glass fibre tissue drenched in polyethylene or polyurethane, the
voids between the wires also being filled with a resin. Good protection
against corrosion should be considered of great importance, even if the
cables can be replaced, as can be done in the case of cable-stayed bridges
with many separate stays. l\;ew developments are required to aid in
protecting cables from the problems of corrosion.
196
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
=2
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
197
Saddle
diameter
(in)
Rope
Max. wire
Saddle diam.
Saddle diam.
diameter
height
Rope diam.
Wire height
(in)
(in)
Severin
305
2.71
113
0.236
1300
Leverkusen
199
2.34
85
0.197
1010
For the Usk River Bridge in Great Britain 3 in (76 mm) diameter
locked-coil ropes were used, bent over a saddle of96 in (2.44 m) diameter.
Therefore, the ratio of saddle to rope diameter is 32.
To improve the cable performance and increase its bearing capacity,
construction of the cable supports is of great importance. The surfaces of
the saddles should have a suitable curvature, to achieve gradual transition
from the state of transverse compression to the state of the free hanging
cables. It is also recommended that the upper cover of the support is made
somewhat shorter than the lower support. This is necessary to eliminate
the concentration of the transverse shear forces between the compressed
and free part of the cable. It is also recommended that a soft pad is used
under the bent cable, and that polished gutters are provided for the
bearing surface.
198
6.9
Cable supports on the towers may be either fixed or movable or a combination ofboth. A typical arrangement of these supports may be described
by examining the supports on existing bridges. Supports are usually
provided at the top of the tower as well as at the intermediate locations
along the tower, depending on the number of cables used for the particular
bridge system.
1'.:1
[1
I
I
I
I
/'
~----
'
I
--
--
I
I
I
I
I
---~
1.
FIXED SUPPORTS
Different solutions have been used for the construction of fixed supports
at towers. For the Stromsund Bridge, the tension cables terminate on the
top of the tower and their attachments are shown in Fig. 6.19.
The cable sockets at this point are provided with eyes attached to the
ribs of the tower-head bearings by pins. Thus, while the cables cannot
slide, they are free to pivot vertically. This relative fixing of the cables
increases the stiffness of the system.
A different type of fixed cable connection at the top of a saddle, in
three levels, is shown in Fig. 6.20.
Figure 6.21 shows a combined type of cable connection: the bottom
cable is immovable, but the middle and upper are connected to the rocker
type saddle.
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
199
7 CABLES 3Ys"
"
7 CABLES zYecl>
..,._/
SECTION
A-A
SECTION A-A
200
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
1 II
~T
Fig. 6.22 Cable connection to the fixed saddle,
Severin Bridge
1"
t---~~----~.rSECTION A-A
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
201
ELEVATION
PLAN
This solution requires a large amount of welding and special care to avoid
temperature stresses. The many ropes of the Bonn Bridge were anchored
in a similar way.
In the case of many stay cables of the fan type, Leonhardt 10 suggested
as the best solution the use of a wide semicircular saddle of concrete,
covered with a steel plate (Fig. 6.16).
The cables are spread transversely into one or two layers only. For some
of the cables, sliding due to the differential forces between main span and
side span will have to be prevented by bolt pressure or other means. This
solution is especially favorable on top of an A-shaped tower for very large
spans.
2. MOVABLE CABLE SUPPORTS
In the case of application of movable supports, these take the form of
appropriate rocker or roller devices. Typical arrangements of the movable
cable connections are shown in Figs. 6.25 and 6.26. For the North Bridge,
Dusseldorf, the movable support used is in the shape of a rocker (Fig. 6.25).
202
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
6'-7 11
00
'
I
1 I 311
1 I 3 It
3 I 1 11
5'- 4 Y.a."
6'12." OIA.STEEL
R0.LLR.S
SECT I ON
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
203
Stay cables constitute the main load carrying elements, therefore the
details of their structural connections to the stiffening girders, the towers
and substructure are very important. These cable connections should
provide full transfer of loads, protection against weather, initial
tensionjng and adjustments, as well as access for inspection.
A socket widely used for the anchoring of parallel-wire strands 11 is
shown in Fig. 6.27. The wires are led through holes in a licking plate at
the end of the socket and have the bottom heads providing the resistance
against slippage of wires. The cavity inside the socket is filled with hot
zinc alloys. To improve the fatigue resistance of the anchor a cold casing
material is used. To indicate a high amplitude socket it is called HiAm
(Fig. 6.28).
plora
Fig. 6.28
1-liAm socke r
The parallel steel wires are encased in a polyethylene pipe and the
space between wires and pipe is grouted for corrosion protection after
erection of the structure. The anchorage socket is filled with steel balls
and an epox'Y and zinc dust binder. In the Freyssinet type socket the
strand is anchored to an anchor plate (Fig. 6.29).
This wedge anchor is used during erection and after application of
204
Fig. 6.29
frcyssinc1
anchor
dead load the anchor tube is filled with epo.Ky resin. Under live load the
additional cable force will be trans form ed by shear from the cable strand
to the tube.
2.
l(b l
I
~
I
I(
cl
I
I
(J
: (d)
c::::l.....__ __..c;J
STRUCTURAL DETAI LS
205
(e)
I tt l
l =~=r====~=r::::J I
lI' (O I
In the case of box-type stiffening girders, the cables pass between the
two webs of the girders and are anchored by their cable sockets against a
cast-steel anchor body.
The anchor body is arranged so that hydraulic jacks can be positioned
to produce the required initial tension in the cables. This permits retensioning at any time (Fig. 6.32).
SECT! ON A-A
On the first cable-stayed bridges, the cables were anchored inside a box
girder close to the edge of the bridge (Fig. 6.33). The ropes of each cable
are spread sufficiently to give space for the anchor sockets, which rest on
transversal ribs. The webs of the box girder must be strengthened locally
to resist the large cable forces. The whole anchorage is concealed inside
the box girder. For the Severin Bridge in Cologne, a similar anchorage
was chosen (Fig. 6.34).
At the Knie Bridge, Dusseldorf (Fig. 6.35), the five pairs of cables were
anchored to a transversal bracket in an inclined plane in order to get the
longitudinal main girder, which has only one web, sufficiently behjnd the
edge.
The cantilever moments of these brackets are in equilibrium with a
couple of forces acting transversely over the width of the bridge. The
compressive force is carried by the orthotropic plate of the bridge deck;
206
C \JJLE-ST\YED BRIDGES
ELEVATI ON
Fi~t.
for the tension force a strong tic had to be provided between the bottom
flanges of the main girders (Fig. 6.36).
This solution gi,cs the Knie Bridge a ''cry slender and light appearance.
However, from a structural point of view, simple ways of hanging such
bridge decks by stay cables had to be developed.
As Leonhardt suggests, a better solution is offered by shorter spaces
between the cables with consequenrly small forces to be anchored, and by
the shapes which he found to be aerodynamically optimum. The sharp edge
can be used to get the cable forces well spread out longitudinally and to
carry the load tra nsversely, if it is made to act as a part of a triangular
hollow box girder (Fig. 6.37).
A ,ertical gusset plate may be joined at the edge to which the cable
socket is bolted, but the change of angle bet" een cable and ded may
cause fatigue difficulties. Adjustment of the length of the cable must be
provided for, in this case by a turnbuckle.
The solution proposed by Leonhardt is to take the cable through the
box girder imide a pipe welded to the longitudinal web, and to let it act by
compression from the rear side (Fig. 6.38). In this way, a large amount of
207
CABLE I ANCHORAGE
CABLE ANCHORAGE
SECTION BB
SECTION A-A
ELEVATION AA
208
I"
I I
1 tA BlE
1[
2 tAB lE S
6.39-6.41.
When the cables arc in a single vertical plane along the median of the
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
209
--,
32' -I 0"
4 5'- I 1"
ELEVATION
a._l
SECTION A-A
bridge, the concentrated cable forces are transmitted to the central girder
system, as used at the Maxau and the Papineau Bridges (Figs. 6.42 and
6.43 respectively).
In the case of very large cable forces, it is necessary to transmit the
forces from the central girder system onto a stiffening girder. In certain
circumstances, s ubstantial strengthening of the bottom, deck and web
plates will be necessary to ensure that the very large forces are distributed over the full width and depth of the stiffening girder.
SECTION B-B
210
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
: I
9
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_ _l
-;r
0
~I
--~
"''
.:;.
;:..'
7'-3'1-L"
...
~
STRUCfURAL DETAILS
211
BOOT (IIATERPROOF)
2 PlATES 14' 0 x 1
2 PlATES 14" x
1Y4"
Fig. 6.43 Detail of cable
anchorage, Papineau
Bridge, Montreal
The web of the main girder is locally thickened to Ii\ in (W mm), due
to the normal and shear forces. On each side of the cable anchorage there
is a main cross-girder to distribute the cable force uniformly to the six
main girders.
6. 11
When negative bearing loads will occur at the free end bearings of the
bridge, the main girders are connected to the abutment by vertical anchors,
resisting tension and compression. The arrangements of these anchorages
are illustrated by the following examples.
At Stromsund Bridge (Fig. 6.45), the vertical anchors resist c hangeable
' ertical reactions and permit horizontal movements of the stiffening
girder. H owever, the horizontal forces arc transferred per pendicu larly to
the abutments through special spur bearings allowing longitudinal
movements.
The end girder anchorage of the Jiilicher Street Bridge consists of two
anchor plates connected by a pin (Fig. 6.46). Figure 6.+7 shows an anchor
arrangement at the orrh Bridge, Dusseldorf.
At the Papineau Bridge (Fig. 6.48), the outer stay cable, at its shore end,
is tied to the bridge deck structure. The deck, in turn, is linked to anchors,
which are grouted into bedrock. Weight of the heavy abutment structure
also resists overturning.
212
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
6-~~
SECTION 0~4 8R I OG(
~nchorage, 1
SECTION 8-8
VIEII A-A
213
'I
'I
6. 12 Erection methods
The erection procedure depends on the structural system of the bridge, the
site conditions, dimensions of the shop-fabricated bridge units, equipment and other factors characteristic of a particular project.
Stiffening girders and deck are erected either by the cantilever method
or by using a few intermediate temporary supports. For this purpose,
cranes are used moving on the already erected structure, or floating cranes
which may erect whole prefabricated sections.
During erection by the free cantilevering method, temporary guy ropes
are sometimes introduced to restrict the excessive deflections caused when
more panels are added. Figure 6.49 shows a typical erection procedure,
as applied to Stromsund Bridge, using the cantilever method. As erection
proceeds, the stiffening girders are connected to the cables and adjusted to
the proposed elevation. When the appropriate points are reached, the
cables are attached and tensioned by jacking up the saddle bearings.
214
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
::
'
\1)
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
2 15
J-611
30"
TRANSVERSE SECTION
The bridge was assembled unit by unit from the rear end and was
continually moved forward as construction proceeded, so that with the
last shove the entire bridge was moved into its final position. It should be
noted that the sliding movement was not performed with the aid of rollers,
but on teflon sliding pads.
Erection of the metal towers for cable-stayed bridges does not present
special difficulties. The following methods are used in practice:
(1) For relatively small spans, the towers were raised to the designed
position by hinging them up at the erection joints.
(2) For bridges having greater spans, the towers are erected by using
cranes, erecting the prefabricated members, and connecting them by
riveted or welded joints.
(3) In the case of reinforced concrete towers, having great weight, special
methods of erection are used.
216
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
c~
~
,, '
- CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
FIRST TEMPORARY SUPPORT.
2
- CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
PERMANENT SUPPORT.
-CANTILEVERING BRIDGEWORK TO
BEYOND ANCHOR PO I NTS OF SHORT
CABLES.
217
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
''~'
~I
I
1-A CANTILEVER 3~
2-A
BOXES
!!!
1-B
ERECT TOWER.
ERECT BOX.
I I
I I
i'''~R
,,,,~A
I
3-A
3-B
4-A
4-B
ERECT BOX
5-A
5-B
DISCONNECT TEMPORARY
ANCHORAGES.
ljj~
,,,~,
~:i::I::o:::co:::::r::::I:1:::r:::::Cil9
=;z::l
11
CONTINUE
CANTILEVER
1 1'
ERECTION.
1~11
li~lllilll~!
(6.14)
218
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
219
where
11Ln
Ln
P
A
E
I'
i:
l\
I
I
!i
i(
:I
I
!I
'I
220
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
S+P/n
(6.15)
p
-5---
(6.16)
where
~=
Pl
(6.17)
(ns-n)EA
The depth of the packing blocks under the anchorages which is equal to
the raising of the cable connection joint during one cycle, when all strands
of the cable stays are post-tensioned by some value of the force, is
L ~ = __!_!___+
nEA
Pl
Plns
(ns-n)EA
n(ns-n)EA
(6.18)
f= !!_:__
2lo
f\N)
-J\;}
(6.19)
STRUCTURAL DETAILS
221
where
f = natural frequency in s - l
nc = number of half-waves in the length of the cable
10 = free or flexible length of the cable
N = tension in the cable, assumed to be uniform along the cable
m = q/g = mass of the vibrating cable in kip x s 2 /ft 2 , where q is the
weight of the cable in kip/ft and g is the acceleration of the
gravity force.
The most convenient observations can be made when the whole length
of the cable vibrates, or at nc= 1, and
(6.20)
The vibrations of the cable may be easily generated by swaying the
cable for a few seconds. After the vibrations start, the time is counted
for fifty subsequent vibrations. By assuming that the cable force is determined by the interval t 50 for fifty oscillations, the expression (6.20), after
substitution off= 50/ t 50 , yields
(6.21)
One check on the calculation of the tension in the cables is that the sum
of all horizontal components of the cable forces at the top of the tower
should be equal to zero. Practice indicates that the deviations from the
actual values are not greater than 1-1.5%.
References
1. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard A-586-68
Specifications for Zinc-Coated Steel Structural Strand, 1968.
2. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard A-603-70
Specifications for Zinc-Coated Steel Structural Wire Rope, 1970.
3. Scalzi,]. B., Podolny, W. Jr. and Teng, W. C., Design Fundamentals
of Cable Roof Structures, ADUSS 55-3580-01, United States Steel
Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa, October, 1969, p. 6.
4. American Society for Testing and Materials, Standard A-586-68
Specifications for Zinc-Coated Steel Structural Strand, 1968.
5. Scalzi,]. B., Podolny, W. Jr. and Teng, W. C., Design Fundamentals
of Cable Roof Structures, ADUSS 55-3580-01, United States Steel
Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa, October, 1969, p. 8.
6. Beyer, E. and Ernst, H.]., 'Briicke Jiilicher Strasse in Dusseldorf',
Bauingenieur, 39(12), 469-477, December, 1964.
222
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Chapter 7
7.1
Introduction
,.,
1:
!
li
I
I
7.2
r
I
I. LINEAR ANALYSIS
Cable-stayed bridge systems are generally many times statically indeterminate. A statically determinate basic system may be formed by different
methods. The deflections of the basic system under applied loads may be
determined by applying the classical theory of structures or so-called
first-order theory, by neglecting the deformation of the system when
formulating the equilibrium conditions.
For a statically determined basic system, the resulting equations are
linear in the loads and in the internal forces, and linear superposition is
valid for the internal forces caused by different loads or load groups.
If Hooke's law is assumed to be valid, linear superposition applies also
to the displacements, and, therefore, to the determination of the stresses
of cable-stayed bridge systems.
224
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
7.3
Nonlinear analysis
225
include the normal modulus and the effect of sag and tension load.
These factors are expressing changeable stiffness of stay cables. Actually,
the stiffness depends on the tensile stress, length of the cable and its
deflection.
The equivalent or ideal modulus of elasticity of the cable as expressed
by Ernst is
(7.1)
where
E = modulus of elasticity of straight cable
l = horizontal length of the cable
y = specific weight of the cable
o = tensile stress in the cable
Different values of the ideal modulus are shown in Fig. 7.1, indicating
the primary influence of stress in the cable. For a stress of o = 14 ksi,
the stay cable stiffness for a horizontal span of 300 ft (91.5 m) is equal,
according to Ernst's formula, to one half of a straight cable, orE= 0.5E0
(where E0 = 29 X 103 ksi). However, for cables with a horizontal span of
E kai
3
29 xiO
3
2Bx1o
27xla3
3
26 x10
3
211x10
3
24xi0
0"' kai
100
90
80
75
70
611
60
115
140
130
120
110
10
90
60
70
60
so
40
30
20
10
0
Lft
226
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
227
7.4
Dynamic analysis
+ [C]
{D}
+ [KJ
{D}
= {P}
(7.2)
where
[M]
ex,
228
The dynamic equations were solved with the aid of Newmark's linear
acceleration method 4 . This required the assumption that the velocity and
acceleration at a time level n + 1 can be expressed as a function of the
displacement n + 1, the time interval 1'1t, and the value of the previous
state, n.
The developed theory was programmed in Fortran and run on a
Unival 1108 computer. There were four basic programs required for a
computer analysis and two cable-stayed bridges were analyzed in some
detail, shown in Figs. 7.2 and 7.3. The bridge in Fig. 7.2 had dead load
as concentrated loads at the nodes: 800 kips at 1 and 6, 1600 kips at 2, 5,
7 and 8, 1718 kips at 4 and 185 kips at 3.
'
.~~!.
4 at 100 tt =400 tt
?Jib,.
lOOft 1 lOOft 1
~-~~
~~~3
.1
B~~:
eati50tt=900tt
,J,zoo~
eati50tt=900tt
where
Eeq
E
H
A
T
229
The nonlinear behavior of the other members in the structure, due to the
effect of large bending and axial deformation, was considered by
introducing the concept of stability function 7
For dynamic analysis, the mathematical model of the single-load
bearing plane of Nord Bridge, Germany, was considered (Fig. 7.4). This
mathematical model has 22 nodes and 31 individual members. The mass
of the structure was assumed to be lumped at the nodes. Both
translational and rotational degrees of freedom were initially considered.
The model damping coefficients were computed by using the approximate
approach described by Biggs 8 . The method employed in the dynamic
analysis was a step by step integration algorithm, developed by Argyris et
aP, which works in terms of the inertia force vector and its time
derivatives at the beginning and end of a time step. This is an iteration
approach which approximates the displacement by a fifth degree
polynomial with time. An integration step of 0.3 times the smallest
natural period of the system is needed for convergence. The advantages
of the procedure are that they do not involve matrix inversion when a
lumped mass matrix is employed and when the number of degrees of
freedom is large, the capacity of the computer core is insufficient and the
external storage unit must be used, thus greatly increasing the
computation time.
I,
,,
.
,,
7.5
Application of computers
19
II
22
:I,
230
C\BLE-S"IAYFD BRID<iFS
References
1. Morris, N. F., 'Dynamic Analysis of Cable-Stiffened Structures',
ASCE]. Struct. Div., 100, 971-981, May, 1974.
Chapter 8
8.1
The performance of the stiffening girder as an integral part of the cablestayed bridge is similar to the behavior of the continuous girder on elastic
supports. However, during the initial stage of erection and prestressing
of the cables under dead load, cable connections to the girder may be
considered as rigid supports.
In the second stage of the loading, which includes final dead load and
live loads, the connections deflect elastically due to the cables' extensions
and displacements of the towers. Resulting deflections of the cable
connections reduce the stiffness and bending moments in the stiffening
girder.
It is obvious that due to the reduction of the rigidity of the stiffening
girder, the additional bending moments caused by the deflection of the
cable connections to the tower will be also smaller. However, the reduction in the rigidity of the main girder decreases the longitudinal distribution of the loading on the adjacent connections of the cables and this
results in overloading and greater stretching of the cables.
Experimental investigation 1 of stiffening girders with different stiffnesses showed that the change in the cross-section of the girder affects
the bending moments. However, as Fig. 8.1 shows, this influence is
nonlinear.
Change of the moment of inertia of the stiffening girder has no significant effect on the stresses in the inclined cables and flexural stresses
in the girders and towers. This fact makes it possible to develop an
approximate method of analysis of inclined cables which neglects the
flexural and longitudinal deformations of the girder.
The influence of the stiffness of the girder on the deflection of the cable
connection to the girder is also insignificant. If the moment of inertia of
the girder is doubled, the deflection of the connection under the maximum
,,,
,,,
{1
~' I
232
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
M KFT
1300
M1
~~
1200
~/
1100
900
800
/; v/
700
600
100
v/
/;1/
400
~v /
/L I
500
200
M3
1/ /
1000
3000
Hz
//1 I
Vii_
II!
1x10 4
2x10
3x10 4
4x10 4
5x1o"'
6x10 4
7x10 4
8x10
9x10 4
EI x 10 6 KFT f
233
I''
I
and
na
l =-n
A = Fn
COS (Xn
(8.2)
,I
,I
Pn nay
W=-----
(8.3)
W=-,-----sin
(Xn
cos
(Xn
an
cos
an).
234
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
T
\7\
T
,..
..
DISPLACEMENT OF THE
TOWER'S TOP
I
I
I
I
I
_ _ _ _ _ _JI
THE
l"ig. 8.2 Analysis of the
simplified bridge system
pn = 1.
Let us now analyse the relation between the inclination of the cable
and the deflection of the stiffening girder at locations of the cable connections to the stiffening girder at joint n (Fig. 8.2).
The force in the cable Fn due to the load Pn = 1 at the joint n is
Fn = Pn/sin rxn
(8.4)
/':./ =
"
Pn/n
EAn sin rx"
(8.5)
The force in the upper cable F 0 transferred by the tower from the cable
Fn is
Fn
COS
(Xn
Fo=---
cos rx 0
(8.6)
235
(8.7)
and the corresponding displacement of the top of the tower is (Fig. 8.2 (a))
h = 1110 /cos
(8.8)
l/. 0
The vertical deflection of the joint n due to the elongation 11/n of the cable
is (Fig. 8.2 (b))
11
"" =
11/n
~n an
Pn/n
=
(8.9)
EA sin 2 a"
The vertical deflection of the joint n due to the elongation 1110 of the cable
and displacement h of the top of the tower, due to the load Pn at the joint
n (Fig. 8.2 (c)) is
Pnlo cot 2 an
EA 0 cos 2 a0
(8.10)
,,
Therefore, the total vertical deflection of the joint n under the load P is
11tot
P"l"
= 11vn+11no = EA 2
n
sm
(/.n
Pnlo cot an
+EA
2
0
cos (/. 0
(8.11)
!f
,,
,,.:
'
I,'
I I'
II
we obtain
i
~'
(8.12)
where the constants
= C 3 /(sin a cos a)
(8.13)
236
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~+~
6
10
1-
<J 5
u
....
...J
u.
....
0
1\
:z
0
;::: 4
"'....
"'-
~ ............
__.....
"' 2
I
I
I
I
I
10
20
I
I
I
RECOMMENDED
:
I
I
v
L/
LIMITS
I
30
I
I
40
50
I
60
I
I
0(
70
80
= na tan 25 = 0.465na
(8.14)
(8.15)
237
h = 0.465 x 4a = 1.86a
(8.16)
The middle panel is usually longer than the remaining panels and may
be taken to be 1.3a. In that case, the ratio of the tower height to the length
of the midspan, considering, for instance, six panels, is
h
1.4a
(6+ 1.3)a
------,-----,-,---~-
5.2
so
l
h:::::::5.2
(8.17)
The number and length of the panels are basically determined by the
bridge system and its structural characteristics.
As discussed in Section 8.1, it is possible to reduce the moment of
inertia of the girder, and for this purpose it is necessary to reduce the
panel length. However, the reduction of the girder's depth is limited,
because of connection of the cable to the girder. Technically it is certainly
convenient to have the minimum number of cable connections, to reduce
the work of regulation of the forces in the cables.
A comparison of the existing structures indicates the following optimum values of the panel length:
(1) For central spans in the range 450-490 ft (137-150 m), panels of
65ft (19.8 m) are recommended.
(2) For the smaller central spans the panels should be 50-55 ft (15.216.8 m).
(3) For central spans longer than 550ft (168m), panels should be 100ft
(30.5 m) long.
The middle panel performs differently from the other panels, because
it is not compressed by the horizontal component of the cable forces,
and therefore it is possible to use a somewhat longer middle panel. The
size of the middle panel substantially affects the distribution of the loadings between the remaining parts of the stiffening girder. At greater
stiffness of the girder at the middle panel, the non-loaded part contributes more to the increased carrying capacity of the loaded part.
The optimum size of the middle panel is determined under the
assumption of full use of the material of the girder. Experience indicates
that the length of the middle panel may be 20-30% longer than the other
panels.
238
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
solutions. However, local conditions may affect the length of the flanking
spans and it is sometimes possible to reduce its length. This may result
in a reduction in the number of the cables.
The reduction in the length of the flanking spans somewhat increases
the stiffness of the bridge and therefore the deformations of the upper
cables which are maximally loaded.
The deficiency of the cable-stayed system with reduced flanking spans
consists in the increase of the negative reactions of the end supports,
which reg uire special arrangement. Increasing the length of the flanking
spans over the one required by structural conditions is not suitable because it affects the performance of the whole structure. In this case, some
cables may be excluded from the action because they will not possess the
necessary reserve in tension under dead load.
Some cable-stayed bridges have only a few stay cables, others have a
large number of stays to support the stiffening girder (Fig. 8.4). For the
comparison of these different arrangements, large spans of at least 800 ft
(240 m) should be considered.
It is evident that using a small number of stay cables leads to large
239
240
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(f) The damping capacity of the bridge system is increased with a larger
number of stay cables of different lengths and natural frequencies.
8.6
Multispan bridges
Fig. 8.6
Triangular
type tower
241
278.8'
524.8'
1-
770.8'
770.8'
z46
511.5'
511.5'
511.5'
511.5'
(Fig. 8.8). The towers of such bridges must be stiff to carry the large
cantilever moments to the foundation. For this purpose, A-shaped
tower frames can be recommended. Expansion joints are needed in the
middle of each span, which are usually obtained by a short drop in beams.
,,
:l
,,
:I,.
8.8
.I
;I
For the analysis of the inclined cable, let us consider a cable supported
at two points at a different elevation. The cable is uniformly loaded by
its own weight, with intensity of w lb/ft (Fig. 8.9).
~B
H~~~~~~~~~_,,L,-,-,-,~
RA
w sec c/J
H
(8.18)
where c/J is the inclination of the cable to the horizontal at any point.
,,
I
242
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Since tan
d y dx
may be written as
w[
H
(dy)2]1/2
~---1+~
2
dx
(8.19)
Integrating this equation, taking the origin at the lowest point of the
curve, we obtain the equation of the cable curve
y
= _1
2C
(ecx+e-cx_ 2 )
(8.20)
where
C
= w/H
Lo
I
w2 P cos 3 a
= --+----;;-cos a
24
F6
(8.21)
243
l+ ~ w 2 P cos 3 a
cos a+ 24Pi
(8.22)
L 1 -L 0 =
=
2
3
~
w z3 cos a ( 1
1)
--+
---
cos a
~
--+
24
Pi
P6
w 2 P cos 3 a P 2 - P 2
0
cos a
24
(8.23)
P6Pi
~L ~
~
(Pcos-Pa _l_)
_1_
cos a EA
1
(8.24)
--+
cos a
(P1- P 0 )l
=--~2
EA cos a
and
(8.25)
If the stay is taken to be a straight bar, its elongation is
(8.26)
and the horizontal displacement of the support is
(P 1 -P0 )l
~ 1 = ~Lcosa = - - - -
EA cos a
(8.27)
Therefore, the ratio of the exact and approximate values of the horizontal
displacement of supports is
~
~1
(P1 + P0 )w 2 l 2 cos 5 a EA
+
24P6Pi
(8.28)
The same value may be found by considering the ratio of the exact and
approximate values of the elongation of the cable in the direction of AB.
By expressing this ratio by forces P= N cos a, we may obtain
(8.29)
244
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Assuming that the cable performs as a simple bar under tension, we use
~1
(8.30)
~-l
~1
22
N6
24/ 3
(8.31)
y = 0.285 ib(in3
For an estimate of the possible deviation, assume that 11.=0. At a relatively long length of the cable I= 600ft, we obtain
0.285 2 x 7200 2 x 24.5 x 106 (N1+N0)N1
~1
N6
24/3
1+
/3
1+
N6
Assuming the allowable stress relatively small fan= 40 000 psi, we obtain
~
432 x 1010 (N1+ N 0)N1
1
~
N6
+ 64x 10 12
1+0.0675 (N1+;o)N1
0
The ratio Nt/N0 of bridges with relatively large spans usually does not
exceed 1.1-1.3. If we take, with safety, N 1/N0 = 1.5, we obtain
~I ~1
Considering that the angle 11. is usually greater than 20, then even at
!an= 40 000 psi,
~~~1 =
245
1.224
8. 9 Bridge systems
Typical cable-stayed bridge structural systems of which the analysis is
discussed in this chapter are shown in Fig. 8.11. These structural systems
possess the following characteristics:
For the purpose of analysis of the bridge as a plane system, two cases
may be considered:
(a) The cross-section of the superstructure consists of a single box
girder and the points of attachment of the cables are located at the
246
For the analysis of the plane system, it was assumed that the two main
girders, each consisting of one half of the bridge beam and its cable
system, do not cooperate with each other. Actually, however, they are
interconnected by transverse diaphragms located at the points of attachment of the cables. Consequently, if their deflections are unequal, the
box girders are subjected to torsion, and the bridge acts as a torsionally
rigid beam grillage.
In view of the special structural behavior of cable-stayed bridges,
standard practice at present is to design the structural system of a bridge
not merely as a plane or two-dimensional system, but to utilize the
spatial, three-dimensional or transverse structural properties and to
consider them in structural analysis.
Considerable simplification can be achieved if the load is split up in
the transverse direction into a symmetrical and an anti-symmetrical
portion. For symmetrical loading, the shear force at the center of a
diaphragm is zero in the case of two main girders connected by the
diaphragm. And for anti-symmetrical loading, the bending moment at
the center of a diaphragm is zero.
The splitting-up of the grillage into two subgrillages does, however,
have the disadvantage that the most unfavorable condition of loading
cannot be directly obtained from an influence line, but has to be found
by trial and error. The flexural influence is, however, usually greatly
predominant over the torsional influence. Therefore, the influence lines
for bending alone do, in fact, determine the nature and position of the
loading with a sufficiently high degree of certainty.
A more accurate analysis of the system may be obtained by considering
it separately for bending due to central or non-eccentric loading and for
torsion due to external twisting moments, which cause displacement of
the central loading to its actual eccentric position. The analysis for central
loading of the three-dimensional system is identical with that for the plane
system. The torsional analysis-according to the usual torsion theory
envisaging a warping effect-would presuppose that the cross-sectional
shape of the beam is retained by the rigid diaphragms. This investigation
247
would yield hardly any saving in weight and the only part of the design
that could be intluenced to any appreciable extent by such analysis is the
dimensioning of the bottom flange plates. For this reason, the numerical
analysis of the torsion is often neglected. For practical purposes, it is
sufficient to base the design on the values obtained from the influence
lines of the plane system, using the maximum live load acting on a main
girder.
I= C+2S-H-3
where
C = the total number of the cables,
S = the total number of the stiffening girder supports, and
H = the number of movable connections or hinges, considering also the
movable supports of the cables on towers.
Generally, cable-stayed bridges are many times statically indeterminate
structures. For instance, the cable-stayed plate girder system of the
Dusseldorf North Bridge having six parallel cables at each tower and
also ten transverse diaphragms at the locations of the cable connections
to the stiffening girder (Fig. 8.12), is a 46 times statically indeterminate
structure 6 .
To reduce the amount of work connected with the design analysis of
such a complicated system, it is necessary to simplify the statical scheme
and consequently to reduce the number of redundants to a minimum.
With reference to the above example, it is possible to exclude ten transverse diaphragms from the original statical scheme and consequently
reduce the statical indeterminancy ten times.
248
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
4
11111111111111
1111111111111
illllllli!ll!lilil!llllllllll!ll
3a
3a
3a
3a
12.
~~m~l~~q(f~~
Fig. 8.12 North Bridge,
Dusseldorf. Structural
system
;,71111
tYIIIJ
f V!Zzzz[mzzza
SECT I ON A-A
LOADING
IN THE
MIDDLE
249
SPAN
,,,
:.
!
LOADING
IN THE
FLANKING
SPAN
mitted by the upper cables to those parts of the stiffening girder which are
above the fixed bearings (Fig. 8.13). The remaining cables connected to the
stiffening girder are much more flexible, and therefore there is no
appreciable transfer of force along them from the loaded cables to the
top of the tower.
Under the action of concentrated loads on the middle span, the force
in the loaded cable acting on the tower causes tension in the upper cables.
However, under loading in the flanking span, the upper cable is subjected
to compressive forces, which result in a decrease in the initial tension in
these cables.
When cables are attached to a tower with movable supports, the forces
from the loaded cables do not transfer to the more rigid upper cable. In
this case the load on the stiffening girder is distributed over two
connections only.
When the bridge system is loaded by a uniformly distributed load over
the whole length or by a symmetrically distributed loading, the perfor-
25 0
mance of the system changes. In this case, each cable is acting under the
corresponding load and is in equilibrium with the symmetrically positioned cable on the opposite side of the tower. The deflection of the
cable connection to the girder is minimal, being caused by the elastic
stretching of the cables and the flexural deformations of the girder at
both sides of the tower. Due to this type of load distribution, the type of
cable connection to the tower does affect the performance of the whole
bndge system.
The rigidity of the tower and the way it is fixed to the pier or to the
stiffening girder do not practically influence the behavior of the bridge
system under any loading position. This may be explained by the relatively great height of the tower, which means that its deformation with a
rigid anchorage is similar to that with a hinged support, and part of the
horizontal forces acting on the tower may be neglected.
When the cables are arranged parallel to each other, the forces from
one connection to another can transfer only by bending of the section
.....-!:::/ [1 ~ ~ r--..
.....- ':;/
8~2. J,
3 154. 1 2,.;~
.......-::
rn
t:
.....- ~
t---..,.__
mfr
I~
1"\;
~
....
'
~.
,~
_,
.JfT.
-:7
- ..:.-..
"""
1'\.
'~
~~7"""":::,~
'./
r>
::::...~"
......
.._
-,
r-
f--..
~8 ~ f--..
nfr
::= ~
~~
b1 ~ ~
~r;;..
SYSTEM
I.
SYSTEM
II.
,;~r 314.~ -~
"'~
""'
.:.: p
SYSTEM Ill.
251
of the tower between them. This may cause substantial bending moments
in the towers. For this reason, with the harp system it is more convenient
to attach only one of the cables, and to connect the remaining ones by
using movable bearings. The most effective scheme may be to use fixed
connections of the upper cable as mostly affecting the performance of the
stiffening girder.
The deflections of the typical cable-stayed bridge system as well as
the influence lines for cable forces and types of cable connections are
shown in Fig. 8.14. The minimum deflections, and therefore the minimum bending moments in the stiffening girder under the radial system,
are obtained with all cable-tower connections fixed (System I I) (Fig. 8.14).
With the fixed connections of the bottom (System I) and middle cables
(System III) cables of the radial system perform similarly to the system
with parallel cables with fixed middle cables (System II).
The reduced participation of cables with fixed connections to the
towers in the performance of the whole bridge system is confirmed also
by comparison of the influence lines for both systems.
Cable-stayed bridge systems are generally many times statically indeterminate. A statically determinate basic system may be formed by
different methods. The deflections of the basic system under applied
loads may be determined by applying the classical theory of structures
or so-called first-order theory, by neglecting the deformation of the
system when formulating the equilibrium conditions.
For a statically determined basic system, the resulting equations are
linear in the loads and in the internal forces and linear superposition is
valid for the internal forces caused by different loads or load groups.
If Hooke's law is assumed to be valid, linear superposition applies
also to the displacements, and therefore to the determination of the
stresses of cable-stayed bridge systems.
2.
GENERAL DATA
252
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
0.214t
r 1
o. 415ll
.--:77 ~~.13BL_.fi ~
1 2 3 4 5 6
I t7 s , 10 l1.n
1
'
FA1
FA4
r-
r--.r---.b=+O. 60 l
""
i'
v=-0.21 t
- v~n-~ 'l'J
nJ
v~-'- r--re-,=+~31t
FA5
F.
FA2
FA6
FA3
1--
I...., t-
r-r-
r-1-"' .__v
.0. =-0. 0054 7l'
Ms
M4
0.018 l
I I I
M5
0.~3~t
ll
M6
_l...d.....-
_Lj_j_
IDJJ.
~ ,\
0.0492L M1-2
nlJ35t
n. =-0. 00564 L2
M3
~1
~I'- i'
r--r--
~ ~~=+0. 00802 ~
r-
n11
1
t7 ~~0.00854L2
o.~5jOt
Figures 8.15 and 8.16 show typical influence lines and their areas.
All influence lines for cable forces, except FA 3 in Fig. 8.15, have in the
main span ordinates of practically the same sign. The influence line of
the stay cable A3 has a relatively small negative area, which is about
3-4% of the positive area of the influence line.
For the cable stay AS (Fig. 8.16), the negative area is about 9% of the
positive area, and for A6, about 10%. The remaining two cable stays
have only positive areas of the corresponding influence lines. It may
therefore be reasonable, to determine approximately the cable-stay
forces in the main span, to assume that the live load acts on the main
span only. Also the forces in these cable stays from the dead load will be
253
0~
I
2
N3,
o. 01512
0. 011 2
o.oos1'
0
2
-0.0051
,.
,
I
--
,..i,
~ -,L7'
'v
--
____,
N2 ,
N1 \
1,--/ /
I
'L-::\ ~
'
-0.0112
,
I
0.01012
0.00512
0~ ./..-
-0.015
1..-F.:
o. 401
0. 333l
0. 4001
0. 431
0. 4441
0.4SL
--......: ~:
determined assuming that this loading is located along the main span.
This is because the areas of the influence lines at the side spans are
relatively small or large, but have different signs.
Y'v-~ I~"
254
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
With increase of the middle panel, the locations having the maximum
moment do not change, but the bending moment increases from M =
0.007gP to M=0.0125gP, or about 78%.
If the middle panel is decreased, the bending moment in the middle
of the span also decreases. And the maximum moment is located in the
adjoining panel and is given by M=O.lOSgP. Therefore, this bending
moment is substantially greater than in the case of panels of the same
length. For the case shown in Fig. 8.18, the distribution of the moments
is similar.
If the middle panel is reduced, the maximum moment will be somewhat reduced-by about 4-5% in comparison with the moment diagram
for the case of equal panels.
For the preliminary design it is possible for a cable system with five
equal panels (Fig. 8.17) to use the formula
Mmax ;::::;
(8.32)
0.007gz2
(8.33)
0.006gz2
1.53.!.
n
1. 0
s.!.n
0.5
s.!.
n 0
LEGEND:
n= 5 panels
c
~
....__ c
0.1
n ~
pane 1 s
0.2
0.3
0.4
(8.34)
255
where
_ l.SOq/(1-1.062)
F;- -.---sm
!X;
--~~.----~
n sm lt;
(8.35)
If the bridge system has five panels (Fig. 8.17), it is possible to find
forces for each cable:
0.237ql
Fl = --.--sm rx 1
Fo
= F1
0.174q/
F2=-.sm r:x2
r:x 2 =
(8.36)
(0.237 + 0.174)_f!}__
tan rx 1 tan r:x 2 cos r:x0
Fl = - . - sm rx 1
0.146q/
F2 = --.--sm r:x2
0.117q/
F3 = - . - sm rx 3
(8.37)
5.
....
DETERMINATION OF THE CABLE FORCES IN THE MAIN SPAN
A symmetrical single-span cable-stayed system with a uniformly distributed load acting along the whole span (Fig. 8.20) is six times statically
indeterminate. The cable forces in the six cable stays could be considered
as redundants. Due to symmetry of the system and loading, the symmetrically positioned cables have equal forces.
The unknown redundants may be determined by using the method of
superposition
X1611 +Xzc512+X3613+~1p = 0
Xlc52l+Xzc522+X3c523+~2p
=0
(8.38)
l:I
I
256
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(8.39)
In this formula the first term indicates the bending deformation of the
stiffening girder along the span, and the second the axial deformations
of the cables and towers. Practice shows that the first term is substantially
larger than the second, therefore we may write
j M 2 dx
511
= Jz ----kJ- e11
(8.40)
(8.41)
Therefore
(8.42)
By analogy with formula (8. 40) the coefficient 5 12 = 6 21 will be equal to
_
12 -
Jz M 1M 2 dx
EI
el2
(8.40)
257
+ (a 2 sin a 2 )b 2
a 1 sin a 1
Since b2 = l- 2a 2 , we obtain
J, M M
1
(8.44)
Therefore
(8.45)
By analogy, it is possible to determine the remaining coefficients of the
equations (8.38).
~
a22(2
3a2
u22 =
+ b2) sm 2 IY.2
0
EI
822
(8.46)
qlai
qai qP a 1
--------
(8.4 7)
,,.
25 8
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(8.48)
By analogy, we obtain
(8.49)
(8.50)
The values of the coefficients e in formulae (8.46) may be taken approximately as
(8.51)
and
(8.52)
These coefficients may be used in approximate computations of the
systems with 3-13 panels.
6. THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE
For the determination of cable forces due to change of temperature, we
may use the basic equations
X1b11 +Xzb12+X3b13+~ 1 x = 0
X1b21 +Xzbzz+X3b23+~2x
=0
X1b31 +X2b32+X3b33+~3x
=0
(8.53)
The coefficients of the unknowns are the same as in eqs. (8.38), and
they may therefore be determined according to formulae (8.46).
The free terms of the equations are
~ 11 =
~ 21 =
~ 31 =
L: S 1 sat
L S 2 sctt
L: S 3 sat
(8.54)
where
ct = the coefficient of the linear deformation of the element
t = the increase of the temperature in F.
259
Elat
M 112 = 38-1
(8.55)
E!at
30-1
(8.56)
260
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
both directions. Then, if there are hinges for supports, the system
shown in Fig. 8.21(a) is statically determinate, but that shown in Fig.
8.21(b) is twice statically indeterminate. If, in the system shown in
Fig. 8.2l(b), the stiffening girder has no hinges at the tower, the degree
of statical indeterminancy is increased by two.
Let us consider the system shown in Fig. 8.21 (a) but with the stiffening
girders rigidly connected to the towers (Fig. 8.22). For this system the
basic equations of equilibrium are
X1b11 +X2 b 12 +Ll1P
= 0
(8.57)
_ (j
11 -
_
22 -
fMEIdx
E1Al + '--
~ 5i 1/1 ~
'--
(8.58)
The above equation is valid for the cables, parts of the stiffening
girder under compression and the tower in the case of a constant crosssection. If the cross-section of the tower varies, then the term expressing
the deformation of the tower under compression should be expressed in
the form of the integral
5 2 dx
EAx
distributed from the top of the tower to the Section A. The integrals are
valid for the bent elements or for the sections of the girder AB and AC
as well as over the top part of the tower.
By analogy, we may obtain
(j
_ (j
12 -
_
21 -
~ 5 1 52/1
'--
EA1
M 1 M 2 dx
EI
(8.59)
In this formula, the sum and integral are valid only along one elementthe upper part of the tower. In the remaining elements the forces and
moments are equal to zero due to forces X 1 and X 2 . The shape of the
influence line for the cable force X 1 is shown in Fig. 8.22.
8.13
261
1. STIFFENING GIRDER
The problem of the determination of the approximate own weight of
girders for the preliminary design is not yet properly developed. Technical literature provides very scarce information on this subject. However,
on the basis of the analysis performed in the previous section it is possible
to obtain very approximate values of the weight of the structure using
formulae (8.32) and (8.33) indicating the maximum bending moments in
the five- and seven-panel bridge systems.
Taking account of the change of temperature, the expression for the
maximum bending moment may be used as follows 7
M = 0.005(1/'g+p+q)F
(8.60)
where
g = the theoretical weight of the stiffening girder per linear foot of the
span
p = the uniformly distributed weight of the deck per linear foot of the
span
q = the uniformly distributed live loading carried by a single girder per
linear foot of the span
1/J = the construction coefficient of the stiffening girder.
If we denote by /g the allowable flexural stress, the required section
modulus of the girder is
w=
O.OOS(v,g+p+q)F
/g
(8.61)
_ bh
w- 6
Ac(h/2) _ A ~ A h
+ h/2 - w 6 +
:!
:t,,,,,
:t
(8.62)
262
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Assuming that the cross-sectional areas of a single chord and web are
equal, Ac=Aw, therefore A= 3Aw and, from (8.62),iit follows that
(8.63)
and, substituting for W into the above expression from (8.61), we obtain
(8.64)
g=
0.0125(1/Jg+ p+ q)l 2 y
[gh
(8.65)
p+q
g = /gh/O.OI25Fy-I/J
(8.66)
gs =
p+q
[g/I.25lrI/J-l
(8.67)
This formula was obtained without taking into consideration the axial
force acting in the stiffening girder. However, in the middle panel there
is no axial force, and at the sections where large axial forces may originate,
the bending moments, as a rule, are relatively small. Therefore, formula
(8.67) may be used as the first approximation, using the construction coefficient 1/1= 1.4.
Formula (8.67) was developed for the five-panel system. In the case of
seven panels, the corresponding formula is
p+q
gs
= /g/1.07/}1/J-1
(8.68)
Comparison offormulas (8.67) and (8.68) indicates that for the larger
spans it is more economical to divide the span into a greater number of
panels. The above formulas may provide a satisfactory solution only for
spans in the range of 900-1300 ft (270-400 m).
Larger spans should be divided into nine, eleven and even greater
numbers of panels, to obtain a relatively light stiffening girder.
2.
263
CABLES
Fl =
0.237(g+p+q)l
sm
1)(
(8.69)
0.174(g+ p+ q)l
F2 =
.
sm 1)(2
The lengths of the first and second cables are
:l(,
Assuming the allowable stress as fc and the specific weight as y, we
obtain the weights of the cables
F 1 11 y
=
1
(8.70)
7=
0.143/
then
tan
1)( 1
= 0.713
Q(l
= 35 30'
tan
1)( 2
= 0.357
1)(2
= 19 40'
and
sin
1)(
cos
1)( 1
= 0.463
sin
1)( 2
cos
1)( 2
0.312
Therefore
Ql = 0.102(g+p+q)yl
!c
~ = 0.223(g+ p+q)y/
!c
'I
,,!
I
0.0696(g+ p+q)Py
~=-----sin 1)( 2 cos 1)( 2 fc
h=
.,11
.,
0.047(g+ p+q}Py
sin 1)( 1 cos 1)( 1 fc
fc cos 1)( 1
.,
'.,
(8.71)
264
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
After distributing the weight of the four cables uniformly along the
span, we obtain the theoretical weight per unit length of the span,
gc
0.65(g+ p+q)yl
(8. 72)
Jc
Fo =
F0
(8.73)
0.948(g+p+q)l
Qn
= Fy 0.
!c
!c
0.54(g+p+q)ly
(8.74)
!c
1.19{g+ p+ q)ly
(8.75)
!c
3. TOWER
The load on the tower is
{g+ p+q)/
0.900{g+ p+q)/
(8.76)
The weight of two towers, assuming the height of the towers as equal
to 0.143/, is
n __ 2x0.900(g+p+q)lxO.l43ly __ 0.257(g+p+q)Fy
J<J
!t
!t
(8.77)
!t
'+'t
(8.78)
265
0.462(g+ p+ q)ly
(8.79)
1. BASIC CONCEPTS
Several general basic methods may be employed to carry out the approximate structural analysis of a cable-stayed bridge. For linear analysis the
'slope~deflection' or any force or energy method could provide us with
the conditions required to determine the unknown redundants and thus to
solve the problem. The same applies for non-linear analysis, except that
the solution of the virtual work, continuity or energy equations becomes
in this case more cumbersome and numerical iteration methods have to
be employed.
Compared with suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges display a
different structural behavior. The loads acting on the stiffening girder of
a cable-stayed bridge are transferred to the cables at connections, whereas,
in the case of a suspension bridge, transverse forces due to the action of
suspension rods are applied along the cables.
The analysis of a cable-stayed bridge may be divided into two parts.
In the first part, bending moments, axial and shear forces and deflections
due to dead and live loads are determined. In the second part, the posttensioning forces in the cables required to reduce to specified values the
stresses and strains determined in stage one are calculated.
The analysis discussed is limited to the case of a two-dimensional cablestayed bridge system.
...,
,,
I,
'
.,
i~
,,,,
(
'i
'
I
.l
:i
.I
~:
2.
:I
I
266
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
267
The effect of the axial force in the beam sections due to the inclined cables
must be considered in the final analysis. The extent to which the axial
force may influence the design of the beam sections depends on the cable
arrangement.
If we choose the continuous stiffening girder on elastic supports as a
basic system and the cable forces are taken as redundants, then the
amount of the calculation doubles by comparison with the previous cases.
The beam-an-elastic-supports analogy (Fig. 8.25), has been suggested
by Smiths. Intended by its author as a computer method, it may also be
used as a classical method. Smith shows how to determine the equivalent
spring constant for any specific cable-stayed bridge system. For the case
of movable cable-to-tower connections, that is, when cables are free to
slide along their supports, if the shortening of the tower is neglected, the
elastic support spring constant K, the vertical force needed to develop a
unit displacement (Fig. 8.26), may be obtained as follows:
IfF is the internal force in the cable, then from Fig. 8.26,
FL
(8.80)
K = Fsin a
(8.81)
EA
F= ysin a
(8.82)
:;
,,
f(TYI
I I
liTh
:I
"'
:1
,.~t
,,:r"
268
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~ ~r----I
X sinCX.
After substituting (8.82) into (8.81), the value of the elastic sprmg
constant is
EA
K = ysin 2
r:x
(8.83)
(8.84)
K=
1
2
(H,/A,E,)+(LcfAcEc sin r:x)
(8.85)
where H, is the height of the tower. The suffix t applies to sectional and
elastic properties of the tower and the suffix c to the corresponding properties of the cable.
Further details regarding how to determine K for a more general case
are outlined by Smith.
It should be pointed out that this procedure may be applied either in
conjunction with available tables for continuous beams on elastic supports or by carrying out a complete analysis. In the latter case, the solution
of the five-moment system of equations, written on the basis of continuity
of slopes and displacements at joints, may be obtained with the fivediagonal algorithm. This algorithm represents an extension of the wellknown three-diagonal algorithm 9
269
270
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
271
BRIDGE SYMMETRY
I
llllllllllllklllllllll
the displacements of the top of the tower vp and up, and the corresponding joint of the stiffening girder Vv and Uv (Fig. 8.29).
These deformations change the angle of inclination of the cable with
respect to the chord of the girder and consequently lead to the redistribution of the stresses in the girder.
The stress S in the cable becomes S + /:>.S, and the corresponding
vertical and horizontal components change into V + /:>. V and H + !l.H,
where /:>. V, /:>.Hand /:>.S may have positive or negative values.
The first step in the design is the determination of the influence on
the bridge system of the additional components /:>. V and !l.H, and also of
the additional bending moments due to the forces V and H which result
from the deviation of the girder axis from the initial position. The sum
of the additional vertical forces should satisfy the condition 2: V = 0.
By loading the influence lines by these additional vertical forces, we
obtain the corrections !l.M, /:>.N and /:>.S to the first approximation for
the bending moments and normal forces in the stiffening girder and
stresses in the stays, and are able to determine the resultant additional
deformations of the system.
272
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
In the same manner, we repeat the calculation in the second approximation, using the forces and deformations found in the first approximation. The final values of the forces in the system after n approximations
are expressed as
M 9 = M+~M1+~M2+ .. +~Mn
N 9 = N+~Nl +~N2+ .. +~Nn
S 9 = S+~S1 +~S 2 + .. +~Sn
(8.86)
where
M,N,S
are the bending moments and normal forces in the stiffening girder and forces in the cables according to the preliminary design
~M, ~N, ~S
The series converge very fast, and generally it is enough to use only
the first approximation.
References
1. Kireenko, B. 1., Cable-Stayed Bridges, Kiev, 196 7 (in Russian).
2. Anonymous, 'Rheinbrucke Bonn Nord', Tiefbau 29-40, 1968.
3. Gimsing, N.]., 'Multispan Stayed Girder Bridges,' Proc. ASCE
Struct. Div., 1989-2003, October, 1976.
4. Gimsing, N.]., Cable Supported Bridges, Concept and Design, John
Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 194-210, 1983.
5. Leonhardt, F. and Zellner, W., 'Cable-Stayed Bridges-Report on
Latest Developments', Canadian Structural Engineering Conference,
Toronto, 1970.
6. Beyer, E., Nordbrucke Diisseldorj; Landeshauptstadt, Dusseldorf,
1958.
7. Kachurin, V. K., Bragin, A. V. and Erunov, B. G., Design of
Suspension and Cable-Stayed Bridges, Moscow, 1971 (in Russian).
8. Smith, B. S., 'The Single Plane Cable-Stayed Girder Bridge: A
Method of Analysis Suitable for Computer Use', Proc. Ins/. civ.
Engrs, 37, 183-194, July, 1967.
9. Troitsky, M. S. and Lazar, B., Model Investigation of Cable-Stayed
Bridges, Report No. 1, Sir George Williams University, October,
1969, pp. 22-26.
10. Feige, A., 'Stahlbri.ickenbau', Stahlbau, Handbuch for Studium und
Praxis, Band 2, Stahlbau-Verlags-GMBH, Koln, 1964.
Chapter 9
9.1
Methods of analysis
274
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9.2.1
(A) Linear analysis. Based on the flexibility method, a computer program for analysis of a cable-stayed bridge has been developed. The
program reads input data regarding the geometry and sectional properties of the system and calculates the following:
(a) Influence lines for bending moments, axial and shear forces, displacements and reactions.
(b) Envelopes of maximum bending moments, axial and shear forces for
the most critical combination of dead and live loads.
The computer program applies to a bridge system having an overall
geometry and supports as represented in Fig. 9 .1. The connections between towers and the stiffening girders are fixed and the cable-tower and
cable-girder connections are hinged. For the system considered, the
redundants have been chosen as shown in Fig. 9.2. The developed flow
chart is shown in Fig. 9.3.
In the flow chart, Steps 2 and 3 represent the statements required to
read and store the geometrical and sectional properties of the system to
be analysed. This data is employed in Step 4 to determine sin, cos, tan,
and cot functions of the angles between the cables and the stiffening
girder.
Fig. 9.1 Cable-stayed
bridge systems analysed by
the flexibility method
275
11
12
13
14
:;
15
!
,,
,,'!'I
~I
16
i:
.;I,,
,,
17
18
,,:r
19
20
276
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
21
24
22
25
26
23
AMA =
AMA 1 , 1
AMA1,2
AMA1,6s
AMA 2 , 1
AMA 2 , 2
AMA 2 , 68
AMA 93 , 1 AMA 93 , 2
(9.1)
AMA93,6s
277
~
18
2Q
forces due to a uniform distributed load of 1 kips per linear foot along the
stiffening girder.
To obtain moment envelopes, each third line (columns 2-67) is scanned
and all positive terms are accumulated successively in a column vector
AMAP. The same is done for the negative terms which are added and
stored in AMAN.
The next operation is to multiply AMAP by (L x LL )/5 and the first
column of AMA by DL/1000 and to add the results. This gives the final
AMAP, that is the ordinates of the bending moments at bar ends due to
the most critical combination of dead and live loads. The same procedure
is employed for AMAN and also for axial and shear forces.
The total computer time required to calculate and print the envelopes
is 15 s.
The computer program has been written in USASI FORTRAN
language for the Control Data Corporation (CDC) 3300 computer. This
machine has 80k words of core storage (one word is equal to twenty-four
bits) which represents a memory roughly equivalent to 320k bits on the
IBM 360 series. The computer has full floating points and character
hardware, eight disk drives with a total capacity of about 65 million
characters, 5 tape units, 1 printer, 2 terminals, l card reader, one punch,
one plotter and a multiplexor connected to the TWX network.
(B) Nonlinear analysis. The nonlinearity of a cable-stayed bridge system
is caused by large displacements, bending moments, interaction of axial
forces and shortening of members due to bowing. Relations between
stresses and strains at any cross-section are assumed to be linear.
Analysis of plane frames which display the above type of nonlinearity
has been studied extensively in the past decade 4 5 6 7 . Saafan 4 has
developed a physical concept which allows nonlinear analysis by successive iterations of linear subroutines.
The first step of the analysis determines a vector of displacements based
on the initial geometry of the system and on the external loads. In the
second step, an additional displacement vector, due to the difference
between the joint loads and the resultants of internal bending moments
and axial and shear forces at each joint, is determined. In performing the
second step, the stiffness matrix of the system is assembled on the basis
of the deformed geometry and of the axial loads determined in Step 1.
278
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(9.2)
N{
N~
A1
A2
(9.3)
-=-==
and
a2.2X2+a2.3X3++a2.12X12 = A2.1+A2.2X1
a3,2X2+a3,3X3+ .. +a3,12X12
A3,1+A3,2X1
(9.4)
{A}
(9.5)
279
where
(9.6)
[a]=
(9.7)
(9.8)
In (9.8)
(9.9)
and
From (9.5)
(9.11)
il',,
M,(C 0 -1) =
M; X 1 +(M,)*{X}
(9.12)
!'
(9.13)
where
M;+(M,)*[arl*{A2}
(9.15)
N{ = N;+X 1 Nf++X 12 Nf 2
(9.16)
'I
(.I,,
280
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
281
DQL 1
AMQi*FM 1 *AML
2.5
2.6
The bending moments, axial and shear forces due to a unit load
applied along cable I are calculated:
2.7
Steps 2.1 to 2.6 are repeated for alll2 substructures. Vectors AM 1AM 12 are stored in matrix AM.
The matrix of displacements indicated in Fig. 9.4 due to unit loads
acting along cables 1-12 is computed:
DJ= BMJT*FM"AM
2.8
The reactions due to unit loads acting along cables 1-12 are calculated:
(3) The post-tensioning forces in cables are determined so that deflections 1-10 and displacements 11-17 are reduced by a factor C 0 < 1.
3.1
3.2
3.3
Displacements due to the action of dead load are read into the computer. Vertical deflections 1-10 and horizontal displacements 11
and 17 are then multiplied by C0 and stored in vector AJ.
Matrix JD is assembled from the first eleven rows and row 17 of
matrix DJ.
The post-tensioning forces in cables are determined from
~I
I
H
:',
:I
,,
\,I
X= JD- *AJ
(4) Final bending moments, axial and shear forces, reactions and displacements due to post-tensioning are calculated from
(9.17)
AR 1 X 1 ++AR 12 X12
In (9.17), AM 1-AM 12 , DJ1-D}12 and ARcAR 12 are the corresponding column vectors in matrices AM, DJ and AR.
The procedure developed above allows the determination of posttensioning forces to be applied in cables to reduce displacements due to
dead load.
il
!Il
I
282
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9.3.1
(9.18a)
Ab
(9.18b)
(9.18c)
where Va and Ve are the vertical components of the cable forces at D and
E, Vb is the support reaction at B and./i,a is a flexibility coefficient for the
deflection at B due to unit load at D, for the simple beam AC.
La
~~ = -A,-----E---,--,--;;2:-ll-=-
(9.19a)
e_
Le
fe- A e E Sln
. 2 8e
(9.19b)
a s1n ua
IT= A E
T
(9.20)
283
(a)
INFLEXIBLE LEVER
(b)
(d)
(f)
(c)
(e)
(q)
where His the height of the tower and AT its cross-sectional area.
The rotation of the tower lowers the connections D and E by BD x
and -BE x , respectively. These additional deflection terms must be
added to eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c). Also, there are the increases Vaf'd and
Vef~ in the deflections at D and E respectively, due to the flexibility of
the springs. Therefore, in eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c), the coefficient .faa must
be modified to faa+ fa and lee to lee+J~.
As the tower shortens, the anchorage of the cables connected to D and
E drops by a further amount of ( Va+ Ve)fT. Therefore, the coefficients
of Vd and Ve must be further modified by the addition of jT, the tower
flexibility, to each of eqs. (9.18a) and (9.18c).
Due to the angular rotation of the tower, the equation obtained by
taking moments for the tower about its hinge is
(9.21)
284
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(9.22a)
= ~b
(9.22b)
VafJea+Jy)+ Voifee+f'O+Jy) = ~o
(9.22c)
VaBD- V 0 BE
= 0
(9.22d)
Ji,b
he
feb
ifee+f~+fy)
-BE
BD
~c
~b
-BE
~0
(9.24)
The upper left-hand part of the coefficient matrix would be the flexibility matrix for the structure if the tower were fixed against rotation.
The additional right-hand column and bottom row arise from the rotation and stability of the tower, respectively. Since the unknowns include
a displacement, as well as forces, the method falls into a 'mixed' category.
Let us consider the following bridge systems:
1. MULTI-CABLE RADIAL SYSTEM
This system, shown in Fig. 9.8, involves the same action as described
above. Each cable-connected point on the girder behaves as if supported
on a spring. The deflection of each of the points is influenced by the rota-
Fig. 9.8
Multi-cable
radial system
tion of the tower in proportion to its distance from the base of the tower,
and all points are affected equally by the shortening of the tower. Thus the
coefficient of the matrix is
iflld+J~+fr)
([gd+fr)
285
idh
ifllh+fr)
iflle+Jr)
BD
([gh+ fr)
(he+fr)
BG
/i,h
fbe
ifJ 9 + fr)
/i,d
/i,g
(fi,d+ fr)
ifh 9 + fr)
(fed+fr)
ife 9 +fr)
.feb
(feh+fr)
BD
BG
-BH
/i,b
ifhe+ fr)
-BH
-BE
0
(9.25)
To account for axial forces in the stiffening girder, assuming the girder
is free to move longitudinally at A, Fig. 9.7(a), the point of attachment D
drops by an amount
2
Vd cot 8dLdb
AGE
This factor must be included in eq. (9.22a) by further modifying the coefficient of vd by adding
G -
J db-
Ldb cot2 ed
AGE
.
,,
!I'~
~''I
(9.26)
,,
:'
If the support at A resists longitudinal forces, then the axial component from the cable must be divided into a tensile component along AD
and a compressive one along DB. The size of each component is inversely
proportional to the length along which it acts. In this case, the shortening
of DB will be
(9.27)
..
il
(I
(9.28)
AGE
and
AGE
respectively. The coefficients of both V 9 and Vd must be modified in
each of the equations for compatibility at G and D.
286
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(9.29a)
and the drop of H is
(9.29b)
Therefore, in the compatibility equations for G and H, the coefficients
of vg and vh, respectively, must be modified once more by the addition
of their coefficient from eqs. (9.29).
3.
287
When all cables are fixed to the tower (Fig. 9.9(b)), there is the possibility of the tower bending as a simple beam between F and B, as well as
rotating. The resulting lateral deflection at L and M will influence the
forces in the cables and the bending moments in the girder.
It may be shown that the vertical deflection of J due to bending of the
tower is
(9.30)
To account for the bending of the tower, the coefficients of Vi, Vk> V9
and Vh in eq. (9.30) must be added to the appropriate coefficients in the
row of the coefficient matrix representing compatibility at J. The coefficients in the G, K and H rows must be modified also in a similar way.
4.
CANTILEVERED TOWER
In case the tower is cantilevered from the top of the pier, a hinged rotation of the tower is prevented. Therefore, the row and column of the
modified flexibility matrix, representing the equilibrium of the tower
and deflection of the girder resulting from its rotation, respectively, may
be omitted.
:)
:I
I
.,
t!
:t
II
Fig. 9.10 Tower
cantilevered from base
'
288
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-v
(9 .31)
5.
289
F'
c'
'Y
G
FLEXIBILITY OF TOWERS
il
iii
9.3.2
''
'~
This method of analysis is an extension of the one proposed for singleplane structures. An elementary type of double-plane stayed girder is
considered first and the method of analysis developed (Fig. 9.12).
In the eccentrically loaded double-plane structure, the twists of the
girder have to be considered. Therefore, in the analysis the couples on
the girder at all the interior supports must be released also and additional
equations of compatibility written for the twist at those positions.
Assuming now that a full set of interior releases has been allowed, and
that the external loads are applied to the simply supported girder, the
center-line deflections and twists of the girder at D, B and E are, respectively, Lla, Llb, Llc and 1/1 d, 1/1 b and 1/1 e.
If the restraints provided by the cables at D, D', E and E' were completely rigid against vertical displacement and twist, as for example at
support B, the compatibility equations would be
(9.32a)
(9.32b)
Lle
(9.32c)
(9.32d)
(9.32e)
(9.32f)
'I
:I
.
ll
~
q
'
290
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
in which Vd is the vertical force on the girder at D,fbd is a flexibility coefficient giving the center-line deflection at B for unit load at D, 1/Jbd is a
flexibility coefficient giving the twist of the girder at B for a unit torque
applied at D for the simply supported girder AA 'CC', and r the distance
across the deck between the sets of cables.
However, the restraints at D and E are not rigid but deflect as the cables
stretch and as the towers rotate and shorten. Therefore, eq. (9.32) must
be modified to account for each of these actions as follows :
(a) Suppose towers BF and B' F' rotate through anti-clockwise angles
and ' when the load is applied. The consequent downward centerline deflections at D and E are
(+')Lbd
and
and
To account for these actions, coefficient hd and fee in eqs. (9.32a) and
(9.32c), respectively, must be modified to
and
291
rt/1 dd
2
and
rt/1 ee
2
rt/Jaa+n
2
r
and
rt/Jee +J~
2
r
must be modified to
(c) The effect of the shortening of each tower, due to the vertical
components of the force in the cables, produces the vertical center-line
deflection at D and E as
VaLba- VeLbe
(9.32g)
V~Lba- V~Lbe
=0
(9.32h)
ii
Therefore, rewriting eqs. (9.32) in matrix form and including all the
modifications gives eq. (9.33).
The solution of (9.33) gives the vertical reactions at each interior support and cable connections, and the rotation of the towers. It is then a
straightforward computation to determine the remaining unknown reactions va, v~, vc and v~, and hence the shear force, bending moment
and torque at any point along the girder. It is possible also, by considering
the effect of the tower rotations in conjunction with the stretching of the
cables and shortening of the towers, to calculate the center-line deflections and twists of the girder at the cable connections.
An inversion procedure for solving eq. (9.33) is preferable since it
allows the simultaneous consideration of several alternative loading
conditions.
:t
l)
'
fdiJ+nf2+fT/2
fab
!db
fd.+fr/2
fdc+fr/2
Lbd/2
Lbd/2
vd
/l.d
hd
fbd
hb
hb
he
he
V'd
/l.b
f.d+fr/2
f.d+fr/2
feb
f.b
f..+f~/2+frf2
vb
t-..
V'b
"'d
rl/ldll/2+ntr+ frlr
-rl/ldb/2
(ri/Jde/2+ fr/2)
-(ri/Jde/2+fr/2)
- Lbe/2 - Lbe/2
Lbd/r
ri/Jbd/2
ri/Jbd/2
'"'bb/2
- ri/Jbb/2
ri/Jbe/2
- ri/Jbe/2
ri/Jedf2+JT/r
-(ri/Jed/2+/T/r)
ri/Jeb/2
-ri/Jeb/2
(ri/J f2+f~/r+fr/r)
-Lbe/r
Lbd
-Lbe
Lbd
-Lbe
-Lbd/r
o ~ lv,
Lb~/r
;;
"'b
1/Je
c/J'
(9.33)
1.
293
The horizontal components of the cable forces induce an axial compressive force in the girder which consequently shortens. If the cross-section
of the girder is light and the axial forces are high, it may be necessary to
account for the effect of the deck shortening on the cable forces and girder
moments.
Other possible actions which may have to be considered, depending
on the particular structural arrangement, include: bending of the towers
when pairs of cables are connected at different heights, as shown in Fig.
9.13; bending of the towers when they are cantilevered from the piers, as
in Fig. 9.14, and the effect of some of the pairs of cables being carried on
roller-supported saddles at the tower. It is possible to consider all these
variations by modifying the coefficient matrix, as was done for the
single-plane cable-stayed bridge system.
;i
11
i'
I
.!I
il'
~I
,.[
.. ,
:lj',,
2. DOUBLE-PLANE CABLE SYSTEM WITH A TRIANGULAR TOWER
If the two planes of cables are concentrically connected to a single triangular tower, as illustrated in Fig. 9.15(a), then the previously separate
tower rotations and ' will be constrained to a single value .
An advantage of this arrangement is the increase in torsional stiffness
of the girder, due to the impossibility of any differential rotation of the
towers. The rotational equilibrium of the combined tower is now dependent on the horizontal components from all the cables for which only a
single equation is required. Therefore, eq. (9.33) now becomes
Matrix flexibility
matrix, corresponding to that in
eq. (9.33)
Lbd Lbd 0 0
-Lbc
-Lbe
Lbd
vd
~d
v~
~b
-Lbc
vb
~e
Vi,
l/ld
ve
l/lb
V'e
l/Je
<P
(9.34)
".,
"I
.I
294
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
An analogous structure for the combined tower arrangement is iUustrated in Fig. 9.15(b). The inflexible lever represents the combined tower,
while the spring represents the cables which have the same vertical stiffness.
IN BENDING
AND TORS I ON
295
(a) If the legs of the portal are free to twist, the legs are subjected only
to bending, and the portal strut only to twisting, giving a distorted form,
as shown in Fig. 9.16(b). In this case, the longitudinal out-of-plane
deflection {J, at the top of the towers is given by
(9.35)
where
is the moment of inertia of the cross-section of each leg about a transverse axis, } 2 is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section of the
portal strut, and G is the shear modulus of the strut material.
The warping deflections {J, at the top of the legs F and F' allow
downward and upward deflections of D and D', respectively, equal to
/1
1J,Lbd
H
with a consequent twist of the girder at D equal to
(9.36)
'l'e
(9.37)
Except for the effects of warping of the portal, the behavior of the
structure and its analysis will be the same as that for the double-plane
single-tower structure. Therefore, the system may be represented by
eq. (9.34) except that the coefficients of Vd and Vein the fourth row of the
matrix, which establish torsional compatibility at D, must be modified
by the addition of
and
respectively.
Similarly, the coefficients of Vd and Ve in the sixth row of the matrix,
which establish torsional compatibility at E, must be modified by the
addition of
and
respectively.
""'"I
I
:1
'I
I
296
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(b) If the supports of the portal are restrained against rotation in the
horizontal plane, the legs and the strut are subjected to both bending and
twisting, giving a distorted configuration as shown in Fig. 9.16(c). It may
be shown by an energy analysis that the resulting twist of the girder at D
is equal to
(9.38)
and the twist at E is given by
Lbe
XY
bl/fe = -2(Vd cot ed- Ve cot Be) Hr (X+ Y)
(9.39)
where
4.
9.3.3
Conclusions
297
analysis, including the formulation of the matrices and the final computation of the moments and shears, should be programmed.
9.4.1
,,' li
The problem
II
i i!
1j
l
:11
.,
298
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9.4.2
9.4.3
Linear analysis
In the analysis, the bridge girder and the towers are divided into intervals
by joints, with the length of intervals taken at random in the calculation.
While the stiffness and the slope within each interval are assumed as
constant, the interval must be kept sufficiently small to make this assumption valid. Experience has indicated that subdividing each span into about
five or six intervals yielded satisfactory results. All supports and cable
connections must be joints.
Fig. 9 .I H Interval of
girder or tower
Un+l
1
un+(L tan {3)c/>n+ZEI'(2eL cos {3-L 2 tan {3)Mn
1
.
E ,(3eL2 cos {3-L 3 tan {3-6aL sm {3)Q,
6 1
1
+ 6EI' (6e 2 L cos {3 + 3eL 2 sin {3- L 3 tan2 {3- 3eL2 tan {3
+ 6L cos {3)Nn
(9.40a)
wn+l
299
1
. f3 )Mn
wn+L</Jn+ ZEI'(L 2 - 2eL sm
1
EI' (- L 3 tan f3- 3eL2 - 6aL sin f3- 6e2 L sin f3)Nn
6
</Jn+l
1
L2
2
</Jn- EJ'Mn-ZEJ'(L tanf3+2eL)Nn-ZEJ'Q,
Mn+l
Mn+LQ,+L tan /3 Nn
(9.40b)
(9.40c)
(9.40d)
Qn+ 1 = Qn
(9.40e)
Nn+ 1
(9.40f)
Nn
where
I' = I cos f3
a= EI'/(EF)
u
f3
= rotation
L = chord length of cable
e = eccentricity of system axis
M = bending moment
N = horizontal force
Q = vertical force
E = modulus of elasticity
'I
I
I
.I
..
:I
.1
;,
:l,/
..
300
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
yn =
cPn
Mn
(9.41)
~
Nn
301
(9.45)
is valid, in which cis the elastic constant (feet per kip) and c= 0 represents
an unyielding support.
Cables may have different equations of compatibility depending on
different types of cable saddles. For cables fixed at both ends, or for cables
with a fixed saddle, the equation is
"'L
Ll.
SL
EA
(9.46)
ill':I"
:j,
.I
I
:1
.I
where
..
.1
;,
:!
''
302
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
For the cable saddle in Fig. 9.19(a), the resultant horizontal component of the cable forces must vanish. Therefore the following equations
may be applied:
I!.L = 11Lieft + 11Lright = 0
(9.47a)
(9.47b)
And for the cable saddle in Fig. 9.19(b), the equations are eq. (9.47a) and
(9.47c)
Putting all load terms onto one column matrix, A 0 , the system of
equations for the solution of the redundants can be expressed as
AX= A 0
(9.48a)
in which A contains only elements picked from matrices Z;, and A 0 only
those corresponding elements from matrices L;.
Because matrix A, which depends only on the physical characteristics
of the bridge, is independent of A 0 or external loads, it will be calculated
only once. Term A 0 must be calculated for every loading condition and
influence line. If A is inverted, giving B =A -I, the redundants are simply
X= BA 0
(9.48b)
303
Influence lines
9.4.4
ii
:I
.I
I
:I
(9.49a)
where
Mi
Ni
TK
I
I
.I
= axial force
= the tension of cable K
"1
.l
;,
the influence of T K.
Because the live load which gives the maximum values of Mi or Ni does
not necessarily result in the maximum value off,., either the three influence
lines for Mi, Ni and T K must be evaluated simultaneously, or an influence
line in the form of eq. (9. 49a) be evaluated in order to obtain the maximum
and the minimum/... The latter is the simpler procedure.
Combined influence lines in the form of eq. (9.49a) can be calculated by
simple superposition. Instead of the unit deformations or distortion,
!J.cpi, IJ.ui and !J.lc = 1 a combined distortion
(9.49c)
:l,/
..
304
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
is applied. The resulting deflection curve of the bridge is the influence line
offr.
Many other combined influence lines can be obtained in the same way.
The differential cable tension on a cable saddle, the relative movement of
the bearing plates at supports, etc., are examples for which combined
influence lines are necessary.
In order to simplify the evaluation of stresses and deformation due to
uniform loads, the area included by the influence lines should be estimated. This can be done by subdividing each interval into equal or
unequal parts and integrating the area numerically by means of the
trapezoidal rule. The positive and negative parts are then summed to
form the maximum and minimum. Influence lines may also be modified
according to the corresponding specifications to include the effect of
impact and wind.
9.4.5
Nonlinear
ana~ysis
305
_
-
L 1+
G cos cx
24H
G cos cx
)
640H4 +
(9.50)
where
dH
s
ECAC cos
(9.52)
(J.
dL
dH
(9.53)
On the right-hand side of this equation, the first term, which is linear,
represents the elastic elongation of the cable and the second term, which
is nonlinear and inversely proportional to H 3 , expresses the change in
chord length due to the change in shape of the parabola as H changes.
Therefore, a modified stiffness of cable should be used in the analysis.
Using the chord length as the length of cable, eq. (9.53) gives
(9.54a)
in which
(9.54b)
However, r varies asH varies. AsH increases from H 1 to H 2 , an average
cable stiffness should be used so that
(9.55a)
..
.l
:,
'
306
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
with
r 1 = l+G 2 cos 5 r:t.EcAc(H1 +Hz)fl2HiH~
(9.55b)
{
I
/
/ex
K = (EA)o-(EA)n S
(EA)o
n-1
(9.58)
in which (EA) 0 is used for the calculation of the matrices A and B, (EA)n
is calculated from eq. (9.53) with H 1 =HvL and H 2 =Sn_ 1 cos r:t., where
sn-1 is the cable force resulted from the (n-l)th iteration.
A second nonlinear effect of cable is caused by the change of the angle r:t.
307
due to displacement at both ends (Fig. 9.23). This change in slope, or the
rotation of the chord, is small compared to the original slope. Therefore,
the changes in vertical and horizontal components of the cable forces are
approximately
1'1H =
1'1 v =
(9.59)
(9.60)
where
1'1a
IY.
(9.61)
2.
(9.62)
F2
(9.63)
'I
II
!
(9.64)
(9.65)
converges very rapidly in the common range of loading.
In order to simplify the calculation, this imaginary load !'1q will be
summed up to form point loads, denoted by 1'1P at the joints (Fig. 9.25).
Because the intervals are small, these imaginary point loads, at an
arbitrary point i for the nth iteration, for instance, can be calculated by the
following equations:
l'!
'i:
.l,,,i
:!',f
'
308
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(9.65a)
(9.65b)
where w' = dw/ds and rand l indicate the position of the load, either at the
right or the left side of the point i. Resolving these loads into a pair of
vertical and horizontal forces, eq. (9.65) gives
11 Vi<nJ
11H;<nJ
/3;
/3;
(9.66)
(9.67)
3.
11Vi(n)
-I1Pi(n),l-I1P;(n),r
11 vi(n)
(9.68a)
CALCULATION
All imaginary loads, 11P, F 1 and F2 in the first iteration are zero, which
gives exactly the result of the linear analysis. Thus, the effect of nonlinearity can be obtained simply by subtracting the resultant stresses of
the first iteration from those of the last one. It should be noted that the
convergence of the method is reasonably good. Experience has shown
that three iterations will be sufficient for all possible loading conditions
that may occur in the practical design of cable-stayed bridges. However, a
fourth iteration is sometimes desirable to ensure this convergence.
The same program can also be used to find the critical load under
which the bridge becomes unstable. Repeating the calculation with
increasing external loadings, a curve can be plotted showing the relationship between load and displacement, so that the critical load can be
estimated. However, the convergence of the calculation will slow down as
the load increases.
Because the principle of superposition is not valid due to nonlinearity,
the influence-line method cannot be applied directly. But for design
purposes, the influence line from linear analysis may be used to locate the
approximate positions of the live loads, which correspond to the maximum
or minimum stresses. Then a nonlinear analysis can be carried out for
this specific loading to obtain the maximum or minimum stresses. This
method gives satisfactory results and seems to be the simplest way of
computing the maximum and minimum stresses.
4. CONCLUSIONS
The reduction method for the linear and nonlinear analysis of cablestayed bridges is convenient for design purposes. The nonlinear effects
are assumed to be imaginary external loads in the calculation which
309
results from the relatively simple procedure. The matrix method is very
suitable for using digital computers.
By comparing the results of different iterations, the designer can have a
good understanding how nonlinearity affects the stresses. Usually, this
influence is small for the main girder, where the allowable deflection is
also an important criterion, and is larger for the towers, the stability of
which deserves attention as well.
In many cases, the designer may find the most critical condition governing the design is not the one due to heavy traffic but rather one during
some erection stage, when the cables are stressed relatively low. In these
cases, it is necessary to use nonlinear analysis for the cable-stayed bridge
system.
9.5
Simulation method
9.5.1
Introduction
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
In order to use only the originally accepted computer program, the new
assumptions were incorporated in the original system.
9.5.2
Simulation can be effected by introducing additional cables, or by reducing the bending or axial stiffness of certain parts of the structure.
The hinged support of the tower, for instance, can be simulated by
il
I
I
,,
1
'
'.
I
31 0
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
[A][Ar 1 = [/]
The elements of the matrix [A] are designated (5ik and elements of the
inverse matrix [A] - I are designated f3ik The equations for a matrix of
the order n can be established as
n
for
for
= j =
1, ... n
for
i-=1-j
max[6;k/3kj[
IL~+ I
6;kf3kj-ll x 100%
max[6;k/3kj[
for
t=j
and errors f > 0.1 x 10- 4 are noted. No errors were noted during the
simu.lation, due to the use of 18 digits in the mantissa. Similarly, by
311
9.5.3
1.
BASIC SYSTEM
Figure 5.26 shows dimensions, stiffness and loading of the bridge system.
As a test case for all simulations, a loading of 2.0 Mp/m on the right side
span was chosen. Beside this, an example for cable prestressing and for
some influence line was calculated. The accuracy was approximately the
same for every computation.
2.
SYSTEM NO. I
In System No. 1, the tower has a fixed support, and the main girder has a
fixed support at the abutment; there is no connection between the tower
and main girder at their intersection, and attachments of the cables to the
tower are fixed (Fig. 9.27).
This system completely satisfies the requirements of the program.
Simulations are not necessary. The results agree with an exact calculation
with approximately 7 digits.
3.
SYSTEM NO. 2
System No. 2, shown in Fig. 9.28 has the tower with a fixed support, all
bearings of the main girder are movable; there is no connection between
the tower and the main girder at their intersection, and attachments of the
cables to the tower are fixed.
l'
'
312
2.0 Mp/m
1111111111111111111111111111111111111
0
~~i
:t
10
40
30
20
"'
0
MAIN
MOMENT
OF INERTIA
IN m4
24
28
32
21
0
0
"'
0
0
0
_,.
>-
"'
:c
co
0
"'0
0
oa:
co
0
V>>-
i5 li!-'
"'u.J
</>
:>:z
#fa
I
</>07
u.J
'-'
LENGTH
IN m.
co
ou
30
0.015
0.015
0.015
0.017
0.020
0.12
0.12
0.12
0. 13
0.14
GI ROER
CROSS
SECTION
IN m2
MODULUS OF
ELASTIC tTY
CABLE
2.1 x 1 o7 Mp/m2
CROSS
SECTION
IN m2
0 .006/m 2
MODULUS OF
ELASTIC I TV
System No. 2 differs from System No. 1 in that in this case the main
girder has all movable bearings.
The following simulation is used: In supporting point 50, a horizontal
fixed support is assumed, and the girder between points 40 and 50 is
assumed to have a very small axial stiffness (cross-sectional area A is very
small). The simulation can only be done in those parts of the girder where
there is initially no axial force. If both end supports are connected to the
inclined cables, and therefore axial force acts throughout the girder, one
end has to be extended. This imaginary extension includes a piece of
girder with a very small axial stiffness and with a fixed support at the end.
The calculation has been done with different assumed cross-sectional
areas, Ai=A 50 a.
The accuracy attained by the simulation is shown in Table 9.1 (page
314). In addition to the shown numbers a, one calculation was done with
a= 10- 14 . Even then, no instability of the calculation occurred. The
results are in general agreement with an exact calculation with 6 digits.
4. SYSTEM NO. 3
System No. 3, shown in Fig. 9.29, has a tower with fixed support, one
fixed bearing at the girder, and the normal force acting on the tower at the
BRIDGE
SYSTEM
313
SIMULATIONS
~
2
4.
50
"'
No!
No2
No3
~(A)
'
,_
'-----------
-------+ ""
intersection of the girder and tower, and attachments of the cables to the
tower are fixed.
This system differs from System No. 1, because at point 20 the reaction
of the main girder is introduced in the tower as a vertical load.
Simulation: In the original System No. 1, the main girder has no
support in point 20. A vertical cable of 1 mm length is assumed to connect
the tower with the main girder at their intersection. The cross-sectional
area of this cable can be assumed very large (e.g. A= 1024 m 2 ); no instability can occur in the calculation. No differences are necessary in the
steps of the simulation, and accuracy is as before.
No4
314
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Girder
Tower
10-4
10-6
w-s
Nso
[Mp]
1.99
0.21
0.02
max. LM
min.LM
(%)
(%)
9.22
0.34
0.98
O.o3
0.12
0.00
max. LN
min. LN
(%)
(%)
2.85
0.34
0.29
0.03
0.03
0.00
max. LM
min. LM
(%)
(%)
25.9
8.70
2.69
0.90
0.27
0.09
max. LN
min. LN
(%)
(%)
0.77
0.36
0.07
0.03
0.01
0.01
5.
SYSTEM NO.
System No. 4, shown in Fig. 9.30, has a tower with fixed support,
movable bearings at the girder, the normal and transverse force in the
tower from the girder at the tower-girder intersection, and fixed attachments of the cables to the tower.
This system differs from System No. 1, because the vertical and
horizontal forces are introduced in the tower at point 20 (bolted connection between main girder and tower).
Simulation: The absence of a horizontal immovable bearing is simulated
as in System No.2 (a= 10- 14 ). The connection between tower and main
girder is replaced by a vertical and a horizontal cable, each 1 mm in length.
The cross-sectional area of these cables is the same as in System No. 2.
6.
SYSTEM NO. 5
System No. 5, shown in Fig. 9.31, has a tower with hinged support, a
fixed bearing at the girder, no connection between the tower and main
girder at their intersection, and fixed attachments of the cables to the
tower.
Simulation: The tower is replaced by a simply supported beam with
cantilever. The cantilever has the same length and the same moment of
inertia as the tower. The simply supported beam has a length of only
1.5 mm and a very small amount of inertia Ji= }60 y.
The calculation was done using different values of y, and the accuracy
attained is shown in Table 9.2.'Besides the numbers shown, one calculation was done withy= 10- 12 . No instability occurred. There was practically no difference between the two results which, to 7 digits, generally
agreed with the exact calculation.
315
Girder
Tower
w-6
10-7
J0-8
-5.82
-0.59
-0.06
M6o
[MPM]
max. LM
min.LM
(%)
(%)
1.06
0.06
0.10
0.01
0.01
0.00
max. LN
min. LN
(%)
(%)
0.16
0.03
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
max. LM
min.LM
(%)
(%)
19.44
0.05
1.95
0.00
0.18
0.00
max. LN
min. LN
(%)
(%)
0.13
0.07
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
7. SYSTEM NO. 6
System No. 6, shown in Fig. 9.32, has a tower with hinged support,
movable bearings at the girder, a rigid link between tower and girder at
their intersection, and fixed attachments of the cables to the tower.
This system differs from System No. ~ as follows: the tower and the
main girder have a fixed connection at the intersection, the tower has a
hinged end support, and the main girder has movable bearings. At 0:5 m
on both sides of the intersection, the tower and main girder have the crosssectional properties J = oo and A= oo.
Simulation: The missing fixed bearing is simulated as in System No.2
and the missing fixed end of the tower is simulated as in System No. 5. In
order to have approximately the same magnitude of the matrix elements
for both simulations, the values ll.= 10- 10 and y= 10- 12 were chosen.
The rigid connection between tower and main girder is replaced by
three short cables of infinite axial stiffness. At a distance a above the
intersection, two cables are attached to the tower. On each side a cable is
leading under an angle of 45 to the fixing point on the main girder. The
third cable is arranged horizontally. The calculation was done for
a=0.5 m and for a=O.l m. There is practically no difference between the
two results. The results are in general agreement with an exact calculation
to 7 digits. Only the influence lines for forces near the intersection point
do not show this accuracy. For example, the influence line for bending
moment which is located 0.5 m to the right of the intersection point,
shows an error of maximum 0.05%. For practical use, however, this value
can be neglected.
316
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
SIMULATIONS
BRIDGE SYSTEM
~---~' ---''
z
ri
'
"
'
"
1
_____
END OF
ro
A. = A
I
NoS
No6
No7
No 8
8. SYSTEM NO. 7
System No.7, shown in Fig. 9.33, has a tower with fixed support, a fixed
bearing at the girder, and no connection between the tower and girder at
their intersection; cables 1 and 4 have fixed attachments to the tower,
while cables 2 and 3 are supported at the tower by movable bearings.
Here, the difference from System No. 1 is that cables 2 and 3 are connected to the tower by a horizontal movable bearing. No shear forces can
be introduced at this point.
317
10.
Table 9.3 (page 318) shows the different systems of cable-stayed bridge
forces at certain sections. It shows a qualitative summary of how the
forces are affected by changes in the support conditions, the cable
connections and the attachments between tower and main girder.
9.6
9.6.1
Stiffness method
Introduction
The analysis of cable-stayed bridges, taking into account their threedimensional space action, is a relatively complex problem. If simplified
assumptions are made, the problem may be reduced to a twodimensional analysis. Lazar 22 presented a stiffness method of analysis of
cable-stayed bridges. An outline of the method is presented here. The
cable-stayed bridge displays a nonlinear elastic behavior. The nonlinearity
00
Table 9. 3. Comparison of the moments M and normal forces N for the different systems under 2.0 Mp/m in the right-hand span.
(j
System No. I
System No.2
System No.3
System No.4
System No.5
System No.6
System No.7
System No.8
;,.
Ill
tTl
I
...,
(JJ
Cable 1
122.90
133.75
122.89
122.60
135.02
133.20
126.14
126.76
Cable 2
28.05
60.65
28.08
27.08
43.08
47.47
63.70
63.14
Cable 3
109.06
71.61
109.09
110.29
94.17
88.20
65.24
63.14
Cable 4
97.25
127.51
96.50
133.64
134.93
M
Ne
Nr
-199.46
-158.83
-184.53
-374.76
-122.53
-178.10
-193.84
-112.32
-137.13
108.47
-280.13
-141.78
-181.24
107.39
Point 10
97.24
-199.54
-158.82
-183.55
-278.28
-122.03
-165.52
-391.31
-119.53
-177.89
-390.28
-119.31
-177.16
Point 30
M
Ne
Nr
15.75
-184.53
-86.98
180.46
-178.10
-114.05
9.79
-184.95
-86.31
85.73
-181.24
-97.02
87.31
-174.95
-96.05
102.01
102.68
81.20
88.08
Point 60
M
N
-447.73
-152.77
31.74
89.11
-166.97
-447.75
-182.17
-396.42
-181.80
0.00
-162.01
0.00
-190.05
203.06
-177.89
-119.53
11.15
-103.25
-165,03
210.89
-177.16
-120.69
Point 40
15.65
-183.55
-86.97
102.91
8.64
-97.13
-164.69
Point 80
M
Ne
Nr
268.92
-152.77
-92.75
89.11
-166.97
-110.63
268.93
-152.78
-92.74
273.15
-152.47
-92.30
280.16
-162.01
-102.63
272.74
-159.89
-101.41
41.70
-165,03
-110.33
47.81
-164.69
-lll.l5
;,.
-<
tTl
t:l
Ill
s"'
Cl
tTl
(JJ
319
is due to large displacements, the bending moment-axial force interaction and the catenary action of the cables.
9.6.2
Linear analysis
cos 2 a
[SM], 11 ,
=M
sin 2a
sin 2 a
2
0
0
0
0
-2sin 2a -2sin 2 a
sin 2a 0
2
0 0 -sin 2a 0 -cos 2 a
-sin 2a
00 -2sin 2 a 0
sin 2 a
2
0
00
0
0
0
00
0
0
0
0
0 0 4 sin 2 a 0 sin 2a -2sin 2 a
0
0
0
0
0
-cos 2 a
sin 2a
2
0
0
00
-sin 2a 00
2
sin 2 a
0
sin 2a
cos 2 a
-sin 2 a
2
0
00
00
0
0
-sin 2a
0
2
-sin 2a
2
0
0
0
sin 2 a
0
(9.69)
~"'~
,;,qA
----
320
where
A
Ec
L
a
[SM] 111 ,
=
=
=
=
=
area of cross-section
equivalent modulus of elasticity of cable
length of movable cable
angle of cable inclination
stiffness matrix of movable cable
The error produced by neglecting the nonlinear behavior of the cablestayed bridge may, however, reach 12.4%.
Nonlinear ana(ysis
9.6.3
-EA
L
0
0
[SM]
-EA
L
0
0
L
0
-12Efs
GEl 5
--y;r
I ---y;r 2
-GEls
--u-
12Els
------u-
GEis 2
L2
GEls --L2Eis 3
-y;r
-EA
2El S
--L- 4
(9.70)
0
-l2Efs
-GEls
--y;r
I --u- 2
GEls
-y;r
2El S
-r
EA
--r-
12Eis
--y;r
--u-
-GEls
-GEls
--u-
41 S
--L- 3
321
where
[SM]
E
A
I
L
=
=
=
=
=
(2) For cables, the axial load is employed to determine the modified
modulus of elasticity.
(9. 71)
where
This equivalent modulus E" is used in the cable stiffness matrices, eqs.
(9.69) and (9.72), instead of actual modulus E.:
fSM]rc =
E,A
L
1
0
0
-1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
-1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(9.72)
i Linear subroutine:
(a) Read structural data and loads.
(b) Assemble the overall stiffness matrix from the appropriate member
stiffness matrix (use three types of member stiffness matrices: type
one for girder and tower members, type two for fixed cables, type
three for movable cables.
322
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(5) Numerical example. An example was worked out for the cable-stayed
bridge shown in Fig. 9.38. The loads considered were 6000 lb per lin. ft.
The final stress resultants including the influence of nonlinearity are
presented in Table 9.4.
Fig. 9.37
~-~--
Erection
stage
J TB =1040 00U in
2
ATB =417 in
A 1 =1u5in
A2=
A :
!.
,.,
I IOU ft
450ft
.1
Stress resultants
(1)
(4)
Axial force, cable 1 2719.00 kips
Axial force, cable 2 1883.73 kips
Axial force, cable 3 1186.48 kips
Bending moment, 918 X 106 lb in
interior support
2955.00 kips
1943.73 kips
1205.58 kips
992 X 10 6 lb in
+8.31
+3.18
+1.61
+8.06
323
9.7
9. 7.1
324
C>\BU>ST,\YED BRIDGES
(9.73)
For tower deflection:
(9. 74)
(9.75)
The relationship between the displacements at the cable ends, X1 and x/,
is more involved and is dependent on the type of cable saddle used (Fig.
9.40). For a fixed saddle, the cable forces are (Fig. 9.40 (a)):
325
where
=
=
=
=
w;, w1, w, =
a;, a 1
=
A;,A1
lh li
S;, 1
u;, u1, u,
(9.77)
S,
(9.78)
S=.1
cos a;
--:....5;
cosa 1
CJiz + Cz(iz'
hz- hz
-1
{CtYc}
y,
(9.80)
where I is the unit matrix. Once the redundant forces have been solved,
all the other displacements and internal forces of the structures can be
determined.
326
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
The computer program developed can be used for solving plane frame
cable-stayed structures, since it is only necessary to use the appropriate
flexibility coefficients (for the frame member) in eq. (9.73).
9.7.3
Numerical example
Figure 9.41 (a) shows a plane frame cable-stayed bridge. Figure 9.41 (b)
shows a three-dimensional bridge with a bridge deck width b = 40 m,
such that the overall moments of inertia for all transverse sections are the
same. Figure 9.41 (c) shows two different loading cases to be considered:
a full uniformly distributed load and a partial uniformly distributed load
over half of the deck. These loads are equivalent to the line load for the
girder of the plane frame structure. Due to symmetry, only half of the
bridge is analyzed, and the deck is divided into 56 shell elements. The
cable forces and the deflections and bending moments of the mid-span
are compared with the results of the plane frame analysis.
i if t II I J I I I J I I I I J II l 1!! t/m
Icl
Load
Load 2
~:::::::::::::::4i t/m
200m
The results for the full uniformly distributed load (load 1) are
symmetrical with respect to the longitudinal center line of the bridge, and
the transverse variations of deflections and moments are quite small.
Therefore, the bridge can be safely analyzed as a plane frame structure
under such loads.
On the other hand, the partial uniformly distributed load (load 2) is
not symmetrical with respect to the center line of the bridge and the
forces and displacements at symmetrical points are now different, with
the discrepancies becoming larger with increasing bridge width.
Figure 9.42 shows the influence surfaces (b = 40 m) which show that
eccentric loads will induce significantly different responses at sym-
f
(a) Axial
force in cable
327
-0.3
0.0
0.3
!i#llif!/llll..
1 ob .3o
(b)
Axial
force in cable 4
/~-'i<<f!!M$'z/l
f
(c l
I I
Longitudinal
1_ 0
3
0.0
0.3
W!!fiil11!
79/~
'; 2
(d) Deflection at
r-0.0003
0 0
0 000.3
point
9. 7.4.
will
The well known displacement method using the lumped mass technique
is employed here. To simplify the analysis, the cables are treated as
springs, thus implying that they can take up compression as well as
tension.
The example shown in Fig. 9.41 (a), (b) (b = 20 m) is used for free
vibration analysis. In order to understand better the effect of the cables
on the dynamic behavior of the structures, three different sectional areas
and a different cable arrangement (8 cables instead of 4), as shown in
Fig. 9.43, are used for the three-dimensional structure. The mass per
unit length of the bridge is kept constant for all cases.
An examination of the results shows that the cables have a stiffening
effect and tend to raise the frequencies significantly with increasing cable
area, and that for the same total cable area, the number of cables used
has little effect on the frequencies.
328
CABI.E-STWED BRIDGES
~ ~_72om
~
I
j,
BOrn~.
200m
BOrn
The mode shapes of the deck and towers for the case of 0.03 m 2 cables
are plotted in Fig. 9.44, while the mode shapes of the girder and towers
are shown in Fig. 9.45. The torsional modes can be obtained only when
the bridge is treated as a time-dimensional structure.
-..
1
'
~
(c)
( f )Transverse mode
Transverse mode 3
d=-=-h
Mode 1
~7~
Mode 2
Mode 3
---=:J
=c---.
Mode4
The finite element method which has been applied to the static and
dynamic analysis of cable-stayed bridges shows that the plane frame
analysis commonly used in design is insufficient to explain all aspects of
behavior of the cable-stayed bridges.
Introduction
329
rpw
I
Fig. 9.46 Box
cross-sections
9.8.2
Basic assumptions
330
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
parison with the dimensions of the cross-section, and that the shear
stresses in the walls are uniformly distributed.
9.8.3
p(z)a
l3
Fig. 9.47 Three span
cable-stayed bridge
lf2
1-
~d a
dh
I--
-dh
~--
db
2p (z)
p(z)
p(z)
P (z)
331
p(z)
TI
Fig.'). 49 Decomposition
of vertical load
lxa
V = ('la+"{b) a
c
2h
2h
_____._
-1 xa
2h
~
V=-~
c
2h
Fig. 9.51 Deflection at
point A
p(z)-(qa+qb)
-
Elx
(9.81)
where Elx is the bending rigidity of the girder with respect to the x-axis.
The transverse deflection could be determined considering the distortion of the frame, by applying the method of virtual work (Fig. 9.51).
332
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(9.82)
and
(9.83)
we obtain
(9.84)
d6
lo=l2(1-i)
dzy
. 2
dz 2
a3
d4qa
= 24EB dz 4
(9.85)
And after equating the vertical displacements from (9.81) and (9.85) the
following linear differential equation is obtained:
p(z)-(qa+qb)
Elx
333
a3
d4qa
24EB dz 4
From (9.82), it follows that qb= Kq 0 and after substituting this value into
the above equation, we obtain
p(z) 24EB
(9.86)
By designating
),n=bI
J[6Bb
~(l+K) J
(9.87)
(9.88)
(9.90)
Y2
Y3
(9.93)
334
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Table 9.S.
Y;
yl
2
3
4
a Y;/arx
-4Y4
a2 Y;/arx 2
a3 Y;/arx 3
a4 Y;/arx 4
-4Y3
-4Y4
-4Y 1
-4Y2
-4Y3
-4Y4
y2
yl
y3
y2
yl
-4Y2
-4Y3
-4Y1
y4
y3
y2
yl
aY(O) =
arx
82 Y(O) = 0 83 Y(O) = 1
8rx 2
8rx 3
(9.94)
(9.95)
In the case of the uniformly distributed loading p =constant along the
whole span, we have
ia
q2(rx) = - 4pK
Y4 (rx-t) dt = -p- [1- Y1 (rx)]
1+
o
1+K
= _P_(l-coshrxcosrx)
l+K
(9.96)
(9.98)
where y indicates the transverse distortion of the cross-section.
335
- 2 Y2 - qa(li.)a2 - 0
y- a - 12EB or
(9.99)
for z=O and z= I.
The boundary condition (9.99) gives for a simply supported girder
C1 Y1(0)+ C2 Y2(0)+ C3 Y3(0)+ C4 Y4(0)
for z = 0
lJ.
= 0
(9.100)
+~[1- Y1(Jcl)]
forz =I
lJ.
=Jet
d2y
a2
d2 qa(li.)
-=--~-=0
d1J.
12EB d1J. 2
Y 3 (0) = C3 =
o
(9.101)
For
2
d qili.)
= 0 and
= I
diJ.2
(9.102)
-4C2 Y4(Jcl)+ C 4 Y2 (Jcl)- 2p Y3(Jcl) = 0
336
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
we obtain
C _
2
C _
4
Y~(Jcl)+4Yi(Jcl)
( .
)
9 103
Therefore
(9.104)
mq = -2[(l+K)qaG+xr)- Pxr]
= -(1 + K)qaa+ [p-(1 + K)qa]2xT
(9.105)
where xT is the distance of the centre of torsion from the web of a halfsection.
From the vertical forces acting on a half cross-section
(9.106)
rz =
m
_!1
2xr
(1+K)qa-[p-(1+K)qa]a
(9.107)
337
L,
I~
~II
ll
I~
l
/.cysc~1
I
Rf2
tl
M =-Ra
p
lq
!I
~"
i=
~r,
Mp=-Ra
rI
I
I
I~
Cmq
.r
r<
'
dz
1+K{
C
(l+K) o qadada=-;_- CzY3(A/)- 44[Yt(.A./)-1]
+ 1:
K [.A.I- Y2 (.A.l)]}
(9.110)
2xr
= - pa { 1---;-
(D-1)}
----ys-
(9.111)
338
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
and
mvn =
where
IT=----0
2I T
L7= 1 f1S;/6;
2ad 3
ad 3
hd 3
a
b
h
=--+-+3
3
3
339
where 1/t is the particular solution which may be found following the
method of initial parameters used by Vlasov27 .
First the zero of the coordinate z is placed in some arbitrary section of
the girder. It is assumed that all the geometrical and statical factors
involved in the description of torsion of the girder under the law of
sectorial areas have definite values prescribed for this initial section.
Denoting these factors by 1/1 0 , 81/f 0 /8z, M 0 and N 0 respectively, it is also
assumed that the girder is subjected to the action of the initial factors
only, or that the external forces vanish along the beam. Putting z= 0 for
this section, and using the expressions
(9.117)
where
M = bimoment
N = flexural-torsional moment with respect to the shear centre,
we write, from the general equation (9.116),
l/t 0 (z)
81/t 0 (z)
= K 1 +K2z+K3 sinh
~ =
.
81/t 1 (z)
K 2+K3{3 cosh {Jz+K4 {3 smh {Jz+----a;:821/t
-EI'"8z 2
Glr 821/t
- 7 8 z2
(z)J
.
1 82 1/t 1
- GI { K 3 smh {Jz+ K 4 cosh {Jz+ {3 2 z 2
8
83 1/t
81/f
-Elw 8z3 +Glr 8z
(9.118)
340
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
K1
Mo
1/Jo+ CIT
No
CIT
Kz=-
1 81/1 1 (0) 1 N 0
K 3 = 73 --a;:---73 CIT
(9.120)
Substituting the expressions for K 1 , K 2 , K 3 and K4 founded from expressions (9.118), one obtains the general equations by the method of
initial parameters for all four design quantities:
1 81/1 1 (0) .
M0
N0 (
1 .
)
1/1 = 1/1 1 + ~ smh [3z- Cfr (cos /3z-1)+ Cfr z- smh f3z
73
73
81/J
81/1 0
1 M0 .
N0
-=-cosh f3z--- smh f3z+- (1-cosh f3z)
(9.121)
8z
8z
f3 CIT
CIT
1
81/10 .
1
.
M = -73 CIT 8z smh f3z+Mo cosh f3z+73 No smh [3z
N= N 0
Let a concentrated transverse force, P, at a distance e from the shear
center, act on the girder at some point z= t. In this case, the girder will
be in a condition of combined flexure and torsion. Actually, the load P
if transferred parallel to itself to the shear center, will cause stresses,
determined by the usual elementary theory of bending. The concentrated external torsional moment N=Pe obtained by transferring the
force P to the shear center induces complementary sectorial stresses
rJ w and 'w. Omitting the calculation of the beam for a load which causes
flexure according to the law of plane sections, let us examine the calculation of the girder under the action of a concentrated torsional moment
N=Pe.
341
Table 9.6.
ifio
ljf(z)
aljf(z)
0
az
M(z)
0
CIT
N(z)
CIT
aifio
az
Mo;
CIT
Nr
CIT
No;
CIT
Pe
CIT
--
~sinh {Jz
1 .
1- cosh {Jz z-{i smh {Jz
cosh (iz
1- cosh {J(z- t)
_!sinh
{3
fh
~sinh {Jz
cosh {Jz
1 . h
{ism (z-t)
z=
t/1=0 ot/J =
z=
t/1=0 ot/J =
oz
oz
t/1=0
ot/J
oz
342
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
1) .
N 0 l ( 1-- smh {3
-M 0 ; ( 1- cosh {3) +-
CIT
CIT
{3
Mo {3 .
No
- - - smh {3 +- (1- cosh {3)
CIT l
CIT
Pe
CIT
Mot
= -----------------------------------
No; =
(9.123)
+--~~~--~~~~~--~~~--~~~
(9.124)
The corresponding angles of twist under the unit torque acting at
the attachments of the cables to the girder will be found by introducing
the values of the initial parameters in Table 9.6.
For the above boundary condition, the following equations are
obtained for the required angles of twist at the connection of the first cable:
(1) For the first cable z = t 1
,,,
'I' 11
_ M 01 (1-cosh {3td N 01 (
1 . h {3 )
+
t 1- - sm
t1
CIT
CIT
{3
(9.125)
(2) For the second cable z = t 2
,,,
'I' 12
M 01 (1-cosh/3t 2) N 01 (
1 . h/3)
CIT
+CIT t2-~ sm t2
+ GilT [< t 2 - t d- -
13
'I' 13
sinh {3 (t 2 - t 1 )]
(9.126)
t3
M 01 (1-cosh{3t 3 ) N 01 (
1 . h/3)
+t 3- -{3 sm
t3
CIT
CIT
(9.127)
343
I
I
= t4
_ M 01 (l-cosh
CIT
'I' 14 -
+ C~T
[(t
4-
/3t4 )
N 01 (
+CIT
I .
t4
-fj smh
f3 )
t4
(9.128)
4-
(9.129)
The length of the cables can be calculated from Fig. 9.54:
xcl = sm
. ()(cl cos ecl
xc2
c2
(9.131)
344
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
1Jc1
(9.132)
~c2
1Jc2 =
c2
l/t 22
l/ttt=-1Jct
a
(9.133)
= - 1Jc2
9.8.7
Vertical displacements
+Xta
at
Mx2
= +Xza
at
(9.134)
and the angles of twist produced by the torques MP at z=t 1 and z=t 2
are given by the following system of equations:
(1- :T
2
( 1-
2
:T
D;
a=
l/to2
:T D; l)
(9.135)
1
2
)
a ( 1- : T
P
!1
(1-
D;
345
Using matrix algebra, we can write eqs. (9.136) in the condensed form
Ax=f
(9.137)
A=
(9.138)
t/12t+t/124
and the column vectors are
(9.139)
Besides the influence of vertical loading, prestressing force and temperature, cables have to be dimensioned to transfer the forces caused by
torsion, as given by the formulas (9.131). These forces are much smaller
when a box girder is used instead of open girders. When a box girder is
used, the torque can never change the sign of the load in the cable in
tension.
On the basis of the above analysis of the torsion of the bridge system,
the following conclusions could be made:
( 1) The stiffening girder of cable-stayed bridges can be treated as an
elastically supported continuous girder.
(2) Due to the significant vertical displacements of the cables, the middle
supports can be eliminated by prestressing the cables.
(3) In case of torsion, produced by eccentrically acting loads, prestressed
cables are of no significance.
9. 9 Analysis of towers
9. 9.1
Introduction
The tower must be generally designed to transfer the cable force to the
base and not to obstruct the roadway. It usually has one of the following
geometrical shapes, discussed in Chapter 1 :
346
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
C~HI.F-SnYF.D BRIDGES
Single column
A pair of separate columns
A-frame
Portal frame.
The design of the tower depends upon the material employed. This
is either prestressed concrete or, more commonly, steel. The application
of steel for cable-stayed bridge towers offers many advantages. The
lower cost permits a greater height in order to secure a more favorable
slope for the inclined cables.
To meet architectural requirements and to offer resistance to transverse forces, the outline of the tower should taper towards the top. This
also conforms to structural requirements.
The behavior of the tower depends upon the details of its connections
to the cables, deck and pier. It appears to be desirable to design these
connections in such a manner as to minimize tower bending moments.
Comparison of the shapes of the influence lines considering different
types of cable connections to the tower indicates that the choice of type
of such connections affect bending moments acting in the stiffening
girders and towers themselves.
The tower legs should be designed as columns to withstand the vertical
reactions of the cables; also as cantilevers to resist the unbalanced cable
forces. The latter depends upon the saddle design: whether it is fixed or
movable, the temperature and loading conditions, and the inclination
of main and sidespan cables at the saddle. Forces due to wind pressure
on the cables, towers, and stiffening girders must also be accounted for.
9. 9.2
Generally, a fixed base, connected either to the deck or to the pier, may
be necessary to avoid the more expensive heavy pin bearing, which also
complicates erection. When the tower is finrily anchored at the base to
the tower pedestals, it is free to deflect longitudinally under the deformations of the cables when they are fixed to the tower.
Rocker towers, pin-bearing at the base, afford the most economic and
scientific design for bridges of longer span. They eliminate the stresses
from unbalanced cable forces without requiring movable saddle construction. If rocker towers are adopted, they must be secured against
B A S E
LEGEND:
347
FIXED SADDLE
ROLLER OR ROCKER SADDLE
FIXED
PINBEAR I NG
The cables are generally continuous over saddles located inside the
towers. Saddles are either bolted to the supports or provided with
rollers. When fixed saddles are used, the resultant unbalanced horizontal
forces must be calculated and allowed for in the design of the tower,
unless it is of the rocker type.
If the saddles are movable, the eccentricity of the vertical reaction
under various loading conditions must be accounted for. The roller
support for the saddle permits its horizontal movement. The resultant
of the tensions of the cable should pass through the middle of the roller
nest to give an even distribution of stress. The friction of the rollers is
so small that the angle of inclination of the resultant reaction is negligible.
Instead of circular rollers, rockers may be used, so as to furnish a
greater diameter and thereby reduce friction and roller-bearing stress.
Rockers, however, must be secured against excessive motion liable to
cause overturning.
Rollers serve to reduce the bending stresses in the towers due to an
unbalanced horizontal cable pull resulting from special loading conditions and temperature. On the other hand, they are expensive, add
348
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
9. 9.3 Loadings
The prime function of a tower is to carry the vertical load transmitted
to it by the cables. In addition to the direct vertical loads, the design of
the towers requires analysis for loads acting both transversely and
parallel to the centerline of the bridge. These loads may be summarized
as follows:
(A) Verticalloads
( 1) Tower weight
(2) Cable reactions which include:
(a) dead load
(b) live load plus temperature change.
(B) Longitudinal loads
(1) Deflection of the tower top due to change in side span cables
(2) Wind
(3) Saddle eccentricity.
For all longitudinal loads, the towers are analysed depending on their
support conditions and types of cable attachments.
(C) Transverse loads
(1) Wind
(2) Saddle eccentricity
(3) Secondary stresses-caused by eccentriCity of vertical loads
resulting from lateral deflection of the towers under wind load
(4) Temperature change.
9.9.4
349
Tower analvsis
Under a normal live load, extending across the width of roadway and
distributed asymmetrically, the tower deflects and may also twist. The
tower deviates from a vertical plane, causing the large vertical loads to
become eccentric, producing bending and twisting moments and
stresses. Consequently, the primary problem is the calculation of tower
stresses due to these deformations. However, it may be necessary also
to estimate the transverse and torsional stiffness of the axially loaded
tower.
The primary stresses in the tower shafts are a result of the vertical
cable reactions and the longitudinal bending moments induced by
changes in the side span cable length due to live load and temperature
changes.
The axial loads on the tower shafts vary from a minimum at the top
to a maximum value at the base resulting essentially from the weight
of the tower proper. The longitudinal bending moments vary from near
zero at the top to different values along the tower, depending on the type
of cable supports or attachments to the tower.
Generally, the following basic cases should be investigated by analysing
the tower:
(a) Maximum vertical load Vmax with the corresponding displacement
of the tower f This case should be considered when the whole bridge
is loaded.
(b) Maximum displacement of the tower !max with the corresponding
vertical load V due to loading in the midspan. This is the critical case
for design of the tower.
(c) In the following analysis 2'\ a typical case is considered of a tower
of constant cross-section, having a fixed base, which is loaded by the
vertical force V and which has displacement/ (Fig. 9.56).
By neglecting the weight of the tower proper, therefore, assuming
that the normal force N is equal to the vertical loading V, we obtain the
following expression for the moment at section x:
M(x) = Hx- V[f-v(x)]
(9.140)
Eld v(x)+M(x)
dx 2
(9.141)
we arrive at
d2 v(x)
EI - 2-+ Vv(x) = Vf- Hx
dx
(9.142)
350
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~v
~~r-~~~~~-~H___
x
""
1 f-v(x)
I
J
I
I
v(x)
"1--
EI CONSTANT
and by indicating
(9.143)
we obtain
(9.144)
The general solution of the above equation is
v(x )
1 COS lXX+
C2
Stn lXX+
Hx
f -V
(9.145)
x=O
v(x)
x=h
v(x)
=0 - =0
(9.146)
dv
dx
1
C2=-sin IXh
(Hh
- - f)
V
H =
IXh
V!Xfcos IXh
( 147)
9
IXh- sin IXh
.
COS
(9.148)
(9.149)
M (h) = _ JV
sin IXh
sin rxh - IXh cos rxh
(9.150)
351
II
,,,,
,,,,
fv sin<Xh
sin o<.h- OCh coso01
maxM
tV\
--- !...,............
,,/I 0
I
cx.h
Er
x (maxM) =h
CXh
I
I
x (maxM)
(9.151)
= Za
and
(9.152)
352
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
LI
N.
v;
(d) Next, the general solution for a tower with varying cross-section
is analysed.
Up to now only the action of the vertical force V and the displacement
of the top of the tower fhave been considered. In addition, the following
factors should be taken into consideration for the calculation of stresses
and deformations of the tower: wind load w in the longitudinal direction
of the bridge, the non-uniform influence of the temperature 11h on the
towers and particularly the eccentricity e of the vertical load V 0 during
erection (Fig. 9.58).
The above influences can be evaluated using the previously developed
differential equation (9.144). In the following, an attempt is made to
find its solution taking account of the varying cross-section of the tower,
which results in varying moments of inertia I and consequently in varying
weight of the tower. In this method, the tower is divided into n sections
(Fig. 9.59).
353
Table 9. 7.
vi-t
J'J.t
~-1
'
l';-1
VI
X ( 1-COS
x (1-cos cxJ;)
1
--2
Elrx;
ct.))
(1-cos ex./.)
11
EI;cx,
d;
x ( 1- cos
aJJ
EI;rx;
di
2::
Vk
(9.153)
k=O
These concentrated loads V; induce not only the normal force N but also
the transverse force Q in direct proportion, since
(9.154)
At the beginning of the first section and also at the top of the tower,
the known displacement and the bending moment are
Vo
=I
(9.155)
The slope of the tower at the top, dv 0 (x)/dx, and the horizontal force H
at the support, may be determined from the boundary conditions. Slope
dv 0 (x )/ dx is determined from eq. (9 .148) at the boundary condition
X= 0.
The horizontal force H is determined from eq. (9 .14 5}, using v 0 ( x) =I
at x=O and dv(x)jdx=O at x=h.
354
9.9.5
(a)
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Typical examples
BRIDGE AT MAXAU
"-
...-
":
"'
Fig. 9.61 Assumed
-deflection of the tower in
the longitudinal direction
in,
H
- - VM
- - - VM
355
1.57 in.
356
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Apart from transferring cable forces, the tower is under the influence
of wind components acting in the plane of the deck.
The analysis of the tower 31 32 , was carried out by introducing in
the longitudinal direction of the bridge a vertical cut through the top
of the tower, thus separating the two legs from each other (Fig. 9.65).
The common force across this cut is introduced as a further redundant
quantity. The forces acting upon the tower, for the purpose of this
analysis, were split up into two sets of loads, one being symmetric and
the other antisymmetric with respect to the axis of the structure. For all
the symmetrical cases of loading, the common force in the cut is zero
at the top of the tower, therefore only the two-dimensional main structural system is operative. For all the antisymmetric cases ofloading there
arises in the statically indeterminate two-dimensional subsystem of the
upstream and of the downstream main girder a horizontal displacement
of the top of the tower. This displacement is of equal magnitude in each
of the two systems, but acts in the opposite direction and is cancelled
by the redundant joining force acting at the top. This means, therefore,
N ( t)
357
My (tm)
-52.30
-52.86
-5374
-54J5
-5462
-6058
-6090
My (tm)
N ( t)
5357
5161
5502
5601
5629
6004
6035
that in all antisymmetric cases of loading, the top of the tower is immovably fixed, so that no tension occurs in the retaining cable VI. The
immovability of the top of the tower has the further effect that the
deflection and therefore also the moments in the girders due to antisymmetric loading are smaller than those produced by antisymmetric
loadings of the same magnitude.
The bending moments in the towers under the action of the main
girders loaded by the live load are presented in Fig. 9.66, under wind in
the loaded bridge in Fig. 9.67, and for the principal and secondary forces
in Fig. 9.68. The maximum normal forces transferred by the external
358
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
"'
:;
9"'
,..-
"'
:;
-I-
;;,
-"
"'
N
::
Fig. 9.69 North Bridge at
Dusseldorf. Structural
system of the tower
57.6'
~j
I-
359
(a) All the saddle supports were located eccentrically on the tower shafts,
0.79 in (20 mm) to one side within the plane of the system and 1.97 in
(50 mm) asymmetrically in the plane of the portal frame.
(b) The shafts were not quite vertical due to errors in fabrication or
erection. The tops of the shafts were assumed to be 3.94 in (100 mm)
out of plumb in the plane of the system and 1.97 in (50 mm) out of
plumb in the plane of the portal.
Within the plane of the bridge system, the tower shaft is subjected to
bending primarily by the horizontal force acting at the fixed saddle
bearing. This loading and the corresponding deformation of the shaft
could increase only as a result of increased loading and deformation of
the main girder. The girder, however, is less endangered by secondorder flexure than the towers. Therefore, it is reasonable to apply the
load factor v due to the longitudinal loading of the shaft, but not due to
the initial first-order deformation of the shaft.
For second-order analysis, the following cases of loading are considered: eccentric positioning of the saddle bearing, out-of-plumb
positioning of the shaft, and temperature change. The simplifying
assumption was made that the shaft was firmly held by the fixed middle
cable and was rigidly fixed at the base. In the case of live load, these
assumptions would be too inaccurate when the deformation of the whole
system is considered. Therefore, the actual second-order effect of the
live load on the shaft was calculated and the result was multiplied by v.
In the plane of the portal, the shaft is freely deformed by all the loads.
When v times the load is applied to it, the first-order deformation also
becomes v times as large.
The influence of v times weight of the shaft and cables is included in
the second-order analysis. Difference in the temperature of both shafts
does not produce any additional forces, and only the actual deformation
Q (t)
6.1
I
I
11.2,
~-2.0
6.1
DISPLACEMENT
( t)
IN mm.
1-2.0'
270.440
1251.758
11.2
-712:7
136.986
I
123.75S
1326!2
II=
-2330.6
C:::
I-2234
. 113
360
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Mx ( tm)
415'
54.7
I
I
3.0
54.7
5. 6
(t)
( t)
DISPLACEMENT
IN mm.
-2.0 t-2.0
3.0
5. 6
1196!7
I
166.21
166.2
1 o. 1 1
10.1
Their direction is somewhat altered by the vertical loads at the joint due
to the weight of the shaft and cables, and in the case of principal and
secondary forces, also by the horizontal deflection of the main girder
due to side wind. For practical computation, the support reactions acting
along the inclined cables were resolved into their vertical and horizontal
components, and the vertical components were increased by amounts
corresponding to the loads at the joints due to the weight of the shaft
and cables.
361
The stresses in the extreme edges of the shaft were calculated with the
second-order bending moments in both directions and with the corresponding direct forces due to the load multiplied by the load factors
1.71 and 1.50.
In order to determine the reserve strength of the portal with regard
to additional lateral forces, the ultimate load capacity of the towers was
calculated, for the loaded bridge, with the principal and secondary
forces and with an increased value of the wind load.
References
1. Troitsky, M.S. and Lazar, B., Model Investigation ofCable-Stayed
Bridges. Structural Ana~ysis of the Bridge Prototype, Report No. 3,
Sir George Williams University, April, 1970.
2. Gere, ]. M. and Weaver, W. Jr., Analysis of Framed Structures,
Van Nostrand, New York, 1965.
3. Weaver, W. Jr., Computer Programs for Structural Analysis, Van
Nostrand, New York, 1966.
4. Saafan, S. A., 'Nonlinear Behavior of Structural Plane Frames',
Proc. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs, 89 (ST4), 557-579, August, 1963.
5. Merchant, W. and Bratton, D. M., 'A Generalized Method of
Analysis of Elastic Plane Frames', IABSE Symposium, Rio de
Janeiro, 1964.
6. Miller, M. A., Bratton, D. M. and Merchant, W., 'A Computer
Method for the Analysis of Nonlinear Elastic Plane Framework',
International Symposium on Use of Computers in Structural Engineering, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Newcastle upon
1956/57.
12. Falk, S., 'Die Berechnung offener Rahmentragwerke nach dem
362
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
,
EXACT METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
31.
32.
33.
34.
363
Chapter 10
10.1 Introduction
One of the earliest recorded examples of the use of models as an aid to
bridge design was the investigation of alternative designs for the tubular
girders of the Britannia Bridge over the Menai Straits by Stephenson
and Fairbairn 1 in 1846. The models in this case were to a large scale,
about one-sixth the full size, made of the same material as the bridge.
They were direct models loaded in a similar manner as the prototype,
and they were tested by loading to destruction.
In 1922, Beggs 2 introduced his indirect method of model analysis,
where the loading of the model is unrelated to the loading of the prototype. The indirect method was later simplified by Eney 3 , Pippard\
Gottschalk 5 and others. In 1932, Baker 6 devised a direct model method
for rigid frames based on the slope-deflection method of analysis.
Model study of suspension bridges has proved invaluable during the
development of designs. Mechanical solution of the live-load and
temperature stresses and deflections of a suspension bridge at Portland,
Oregon, by means of a steel model was first carried out in the USA in
1930 7 8
The use of model studies gave results so close to analytical design
values that a model analysis was adopted for the preliminary and check
design of the great Trans-Bay Bridge at San Francisco 9 . Since that time,
models have been used extensively and effectively in the design of all
major suspension bridges in North America, as well as in Europe. With
the recent introduction of cable-stayed bridges in bridge engineering,
model analysis has been widely and successfully applied in the design
of practically all cable-stayed bridges in Europe 10- 14 and in other parts
of the world.
365
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
form and of the proposed bridge type, as well as its architectural and
aesthetical aspects.
The true scale physical model, unlike the mathematical model, is
more than a structural analog. It can copy the exact degree of rigidity,
a:nd the continuity of adjacent structural members. These can be
incorporated only with difficulty in a mathematical solution.
The mathematical analysis may be so complex and tedious that a
model analysis provides a quicker solution which is sufficiently
accurate for the purpose.
It may be desirable to have an iRdependent check on a mathematical
solution of the problem.
The designer may prefer to employ tools of analysis which are free
from the calculation errors inherent in a mathematical model, such
as truncation errors.
At the present time, computer programs are no help to understanding the problems of other experts, but models are readily
intelligible.
366
10.3
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Planning
10.3 .1
In selecting the scale reduction factor for length, the following considerations must be taken into account:
(a) The range of metal shapes commercially available increases as the
size of the model becomes larger.
(b) If the cross-sectional dimensions decrease, the strain gauges are more
difficult to apply.
(c) On a larger scale model, strains and displacements will be recorded
with smaller errors than on a smaller size model.
(d) As the scale-reduction factor for length increases, the manufacturing
tolerances become more difficult to satisfy.
It should be taken into consideration that a larger length scalereduction factor permits the building of a model at a relatively smaller
cost, provided suitable structural sections are commercially available
and the connections are simple to manufacture. Also, a smaller model
requires less laboratory space; it is easier to manipulate and needs less
weight for its loading, as compared with a larger model.
In deciding on a scale-reduction factor for length, the scale effect also
should be considered. Not every detail of a model can be reproduced from
the prototype to the same scale and generally, the smaller the model, the
larger the scale effect. The scale effect also depends on the mechanical
behavior of the material, which may vary with the dimensions of the
model.
10.3 .2 .Materials
In deciding on the particular material to be used in the model investigation, the similitude conditions to be satisfied by the materials of the model
and of the prototype should be considered. If the influence of shear strain
on the magnitude of displacements is negligible, any material exhibiting
linear stress-strain properties under the planned loading conditions is
adequate, since the stresses are below the elastic limit.
367
The most suitable materials which may be used for models of cablestayed bridges are metals and plastics. These two groups display elastic
strain-stress properties up to their proportionate limits and are relatively
easy to manufacture.
The properties of metals and plastics are well described in the literature18-20 and the primary criterion to be taken into account is the manufacturing process of the various metals (steel, aluminum, copper, brass,
bronze) and plastics.
As experience indicates, steel satisfies all requirements for model
investigation to a greater degree than plastics or other metals. It is
relatively simple to manufacture and to instrument, it has a high heat
dissipation factor; its elastic properties do not change with time and it
satisfies similitude requirements for shear strain, as opposed to plastics
which do not meet this condition.
10.3.3
Fabrication methods
368
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
equal to the degree of static indeterminancy of the system. All other data
may then be obtained from conditions of static equilibrium.
To determine the ordinates of influence lines of axial forces in cables,
the axial strains have to be measured. For the influence lines of bending
moments in a girder, one method is to measure maximum strains due to
bending and to multiply them by 2EI/h such that the bending moments
are obtained.
A second method is to determine Ui> V;, ei> Vi> ei> the vertical, horizontal and rotational displacements at i and j, by employing dial gauges
only. The joint considered in this application is a girder-cable joint. The
procedure may be extended, however, to any type of joint whose displacements are in a vertical plane and may be defined by three parameters.
In order to amplify the readings and thus to reduce the errors, vertical
square bars have been soldered to the top and bottom joint bars
(Fig. 10.1).
In Fig. 10.1, a, band care the readings obtained. To determine the
unknown displacements, first will be written as a function of a and b.
DIAL GAUGE 2
\
\
DIAL GAUGE 1
DIAL GAUGE 3
369
a-b
D
2
(10.1)
v-54
c-54"
or
(10.2)
but
u+B-0'7 = a-2'2"
or
370
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(10.4)
The above expressions for u and v were obtained by solving (10.2) and
(1 0.3).
Expressions (10.4) have been verified graphically and the analytical
procedure was proved to be exact.
t:v=~>m;
(10.5)
For the case of a nonlinear elastic cable-stayed bridge system, condition
(6.5) may be disregarded, as it applies only when the nonlinearity is due
to the behavior of the material itself, and not to that of the system.
(2) Poisson's ratio for model and prototype must be equal, therefore
the scale reduction factor for Poisson's ratio is
(10.6)
Equation (10.6) represents the condition that both the model and the
prototype should be made of the same material. To neglect this condition
is equivalent to neglecting the contribution of shear strain when we compute the magnitude of the elastic displacements.
It may be pointed out here that the contribution of shear strain to the
magnitude of elastic displacements in a mathematical model, when using
371
(1 0.8)
where
372
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(5) Deflection scale factor is equal to the length scale factor, therefore
up
Urn
Lv
Lm
(10.9)
where
(JP
EP
-=E-= K(f= KE
(Jm
m
(10.10)
where
K" = scale reduction factor for unit stress
KE = scale reduction factor for moduli of elasticity
Expression (10.10) indicates that the scale reduction factor for unit
stress is equal to the scale reduction factor for modulus of elasticity.
(7) The ratio of forces in model and prototype depends on both the
length scale factor and the stress scale factor
EPL; _ EmL;
pp
pm
or
EP (Lv)z = pv = K Kz = K
(I
(10.11)
where
KP
KEKi
Kp
or
(1 0.12)
where
373
Kw
KEKL
where Kw is the scale reduction factor for the distributed load acting on
a bar.
(9) The ratio of densities of the prototype and model materials is
given by the values of the length and stress scale factors
PP LP
aP
(10.13)
or
Equation (10.13) does not apply in the case of statical loads and may
be disregarded.
Consequently, for a nonlinear elastic cable-stayed bridge system subjected to vertical statical loading, the similitude conditions are
Ky
KL
(10.14)
KA
KI
(10.15)
KEL 2
Kp
(10.16)
(1 0.17)
Kv
= 1
KI
Ki
(10.18)
KEKL
Kw
(10.19)
KM = KpKL
(10.20)
KP
(10.21)
KN = Kp
(10.22)
K0
374
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
10.5
Ks = KAKL
KI
KsKL
(10.23)
f,=fe
where P1 is the uniform distributed dead load given by the nonstructural
elements of the bridge system and fis the unit bending stress at extreme
fibers. Suffix e applies to the parameters of the bridge system with known
sectional properties and suffix n to those with sectional properties to be
determined.
Fromf,=fe, we obtain
(10.24)
Kt
PnL~ = PeL~
sn
(10.25)
se
K = K I<?-= P~+P~+P~ Kz
s
ps
e
+ pte + ple
(10.26)
375
In eq. (10.26), P' is the uniform distributed dead load given by the
structural elements of the bridge system and P 1 is the uniform distributed
live load.
From P~=dAn and P;=dAe, where dis the density of the stiffening
girder material and A is the area of the girder cross-section, corresponding toM
psn
ps
(10.27)
K = (Ks/KL)P:+P;+P~ Kz
s
p
L
(10.28)
P;+P~ Kz
Pe-P;KL
(10.29)
10.6
The next procedure in the design of a cable-stayed bridge on an experimental rather than on a theoretical basis, once the layout of the bridge i.s
defined, is to select a set of sectional properties for the prototype and to
design a model according to the principles of similitude.
For the design of an actual cable-stayed bridge, after a set of internal
stresses and displacements has been obtained, it is then compared with
the corresponding stresses and displacements allowed by the specifications governing the design of that bridge. If the differences are larger
than the acceptable values specified, the sectional properties need to be
adjusted and the investigation repeated. For the adjustment of the sectional properties of a model, only the relative ratios between sectional
properties of the model elements are essential. Therefore, at least one of
these elements may be left unchanged, for instance, the stiffening girder.
The tower and bar type cables may be adjusted relatively easily by
milling. If the stiffening girder needs to be adjusted, this may be done
either by milling or by decreasing the width or the thickness of the flange
or the web thickness. Wire cables may be replaced by a new set of wires.
If the experimental data are recorded with an analog-digital computer,
the technique applied represents a convenient and practical design
method.
A practical illustration of the experimental technique which permits
376
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
the application of a small-scale structural model as a direct tool for analysis and design of cable-stayed bridges is given in the following sections.
10.7
10.7.1
The prototype
Jrs = 1,040,000.0 in
Ars = 417.0 in
Jo 2,720,000.0 in 4
Ao 496.0 in>
450'
1100'
450'
.. 1
377
enables the initial sectional properties for the design of a bridge system
with a given geometry to be obtained, if the sectional properties of a
geometrically similar bridge are known. It was assumed that the bridge
prototype has six lanes and it is supported by two box girders.
10.7.2
The model
Before the design and construction of the model was started, it was
necessary to make decisions with regard to the following factors.
1.
The main factors affecting selection of the scale reduction factors for
length are the availability of standard structural sections, the errors in
recording strains and displacements and the manufacturing tolerances.
On this basis, a scale factor KL = 100 was sei~cted.
2.
This stage of the model design consists of reduction to scale of the dimensions of the prototype, according to the similitude conditions.
In a case where the geometry selected for the bridge system to be
designed is similar to that of an existing bridge with known sectional
properties and where interior and exterior constraints of both systems
are similar, a procedure is suggested in Section 10.5, to determine the
sectional properties of the new bridge based on principles of similitude.
The sectional properties and geometry of the prototype are shown in
Fig. 10.2. The bars are marked by numbers from 1 to 31. The cables are
designated symmetrically about the towers and about the center line of
the bridge system; hence
Al = A6 = A7 = Alz
A 2 = A 5 = A 8 = A 11
A 3 = A 4 = A 9 = A 10
where AcA 12 are cross-sectional areas of the cables.
The materials assumed for the prototype were CSA G40.12 steel for
the girder and towers and wire rope bridge strand for the cables. The
modulus of elasticity of the G40.12 steel was taken equal to E= 29 000
ksi and of the cables as equal toE= 18 000 ksi.
To determine the geometry and the cross-sections of the model, first
KA and K 1 are calculated. After substitution of the value of KL = 100
into the expression (10.15), KA = K[= 10 4 and, according to relation
(10.18), KI = KI~ = 108 .
Dividing the sectional properties of the prototype by the above scale
factors, we obtain
378
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
A7
A~ =
A';
A';
A~ = A7 1 =
A72
A'3
A~ = A~ = A70 =
J~
K~
}P
=
A~
Af
KA
AP3
~
KA
496
KI -
ArB= KA
J'!Jr
frr
108
10
Afr
= 0.0042 in 2
37
=
-----;j:
10
= 0.0037 in
(10.30)
417
Ill
= 104 = 0.0417 m
10 8
KI
ATT =
42
272 X 106
4
= 0.0272 in
108
A 0 = KA = 104 = 0.0496 m
J TB
0.0105 in 2
A';
~;_ = ~~~ =
314
= 104 = 0.0314
Ill
For statical loads acting in a vertical plane, the above values may be
increased or decreased proportionally. In order to employ commercially
available sections, the above sectional properties, after multiple trials,
were increased by a factor of C= 31.6. Consequently,
A7
= A~ =
Ai
A72
= 0.332 in
= A~=
A7 1
= 0.132 in
= 0.117 in
J'FY
A5
A';
= 0.86 in
A';y = 1.57 in 2
J'TB =
A'TB =
J'Tr =
A'Tr =
0.331 in
(1 0.31)
4
1.32 in 2
0.160in 2
1.01 in 2
10.7 .3
379
AT = A~ = A'!f =
Ai = A~ = A'S =
AT2
AT1
J0
I~
4' 6"
....I
o.84
11 1 0 11
Jn = 0.162 ;~~)
An= 1.o3o/
4, 6"
380
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(a)
'
(b)
fr\
381
10.7.4 Materials
Steel was employed, as this material has the same elasticity and shear
moduli E and Gas the prototype, its manufacturing and instrumentation
is relatively simple and its elastic properties do not change in time.
10.7 .5
Fabrication
I
I
I
I
I
I
_.J
LONGITUDINAL VIEW
SECTION B-B
BOLTS
SECT I ON A-A
382
The supports of the bridge model were designed to satisfy the following
two requirements:
(a) All supports except one should be free to move horizontally, t herefore
no constraints inducing interior stresses would be applied on the
model.
(b) The end supports should be capable of taking uplift forces.
Fig. I 0.!! Uplifr forces
device. Model A
+-------------:
-1-------,----- __
l i ____ _.....
II
'
I
I
11
I
I
I
I
c~~=:~~~~~:-~==~::
I
jI
II
r-- ---,
I
I
I
I
---1
I
I
I
I
I
-~1~-:..-.:-.::::.:.:::::::
--.J
--t------------: --:
---------------- -~--,
I
1-+----.-F;pL,J - ,I Ir J
I I
I I
iI
II
II
II
l1
FRONT VI Ell
SlOE VIE\1
10.7.6
383
Similitude couditions
K y= KL
(I 0.33a)
KA = Kt
(I 0.33b)
KEKi = Kp
(10.33c)
K. =I
(1 0.33d)
(10.33e)
KgKL = K ...,
(10.33f)
K1=
KM = KpKL
(I 0.33g)
KQ = Kp
(1 0.33h)
K,... = KP
(10.33i)
10.7.7
Instmmenlalion
Fig. 10.9
of model A
General view
384
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
385
17
0 = tan
_, a - b
D
2
where
P1 = H(sin0tan8+cos8-1)- c
10.7 .8
(b)
386
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-1.0
-,
-1. 5
IL
~\
~.
fL
1!/
0. 0
,;?
\
\
-~
if
l,
0. 5
'~
1/
"l
_i\
II
\\
\\
1.0
Jj_
JL
\I\
~ _Ll
Fig. 10.14 lnf1uence
line of axial force in
cable 1
EXP.= 1.210
TH. = 1.356
'-
L E G E N D
,I
- - EX PER I MENTAL
- - - THEORET I CAL
1.5
-1.0
-1.5
0.0
1\
ll
_!.
I"\
J
_/j_
~'\- VJ
0.5
EXP. = 0.380
TH. = 0.432
&
,,
/
IL
EXP. = 0.400
TH. = 0.406
1 .0
L E G E N D
---1. 5
EXPERIMENTAL
THEORET I CAL
387
-I . 0
-I . 5
0.0
I
I
\~
'0
I
, ""'-A
0.5
--
EXP.= 0.234
TH. = 0.247
' ..,
EXP.= 0.50E
TH.= 0.627
I .0
L E G E N D
--
EXPERI~ENTAL
---THEORET I CAL
I.5
-I. 0
-I. 5
0.0
,'-- ......
,_,
/ \
EXP.= 0.187
TH. =0.255
0. 5
/
\
\
I
II'
h
/'
EXP. = 0. 536
TH.=0.611
1.0
L E GE ND
- - EX PER I MENTAL
- - - THEORET ICAL
1.5
388
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-1 . 0
- 1 5
0. 0
' ,~...
,_
'
EXP.= 0.147
TH. = 0. 182
--
1/
0.5
.r
~,
EXP.= 0.646
TH. = 0. 662
1. 0
L E
--
E N
EXPERIMENTAL
---
THEORETICAL
1.5
-1 . 0
-1 . 5
EXP.=-0.240
TH. =-0.294
tL
0.0
If'
v-'
'\
/j
',\
0.5
l~
1\
'.\
17
/1
J
1/
\\
\\
I
'I\
1. 0
\\
I
'\ ~
\\
EXP .= 1 .200
TH. = 1. 250
I
L E G E N D
-- EX PER I MENTAL
- - - THEORET I CAL
15
(\,
;,
350.
EXP.= 374
250.
II
IP
150.
50.
'
li
EXPERIMENTAL
I .~
200.
---THEORET I CAL
\
\
300.
100.
LEGEND
r---
TH. = 361
389
1\
1\
\
\
I
I
1\
0.
1=:...--
~-
..::.:-
-50.
Ic.~
-8.00001
I.
J'
0. 0
II
1\
0. 00001
\
\
EXP.=-0,0000110
TH. =-0.0000103
\
\
'
I
\ l/
r1
0. 00002
L E G E N D
EXPERIMENTAL
- - - THEORET I CAL
0.00003
390
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-0.00001
EXP.=-0.0000114
1 1\
L
'1\.,
0.0
0. 0000 1 1
J\
'
\
....,/
0.0000 2
EXP.= 0.0000189
TH. = 0.0000163
L E G E N D
--EXPERIMENTAL
---THEORETICAL
0. 0000 3
-0.00001
j_
1/
0. 0
lC\
EXP .= -0.0000116
TH. = -0.0000106
~.
'
.I
0.00001
!/__
i'/
1
I
I
I
//
I
I
I
\
,_,
'1
1/
0.00002
EXP
Yo.
0000213
TH. = 0.0000172
LEGEND
-EXPERIMENTAL
---THEORET I CAL
0.00003
-0.000 01
391
EXP.=-0.0000116
I~
TH. =-0.0000115
'\
1/
'
0. 0
I
I
I
d
if
0. 0000 1
!I
\\
if
if
0. 00002
\\
\\ ,''l
-~ -/
v
I
I
-0.000 01
L E G E N D
-
EXPERIMENTAL
---THEORET I CAL
EXP. =-0.0000071 0
TH. =-0.0000064 3
AA~
1/
~I
0 0
\.,,
,1
rt
\1,,
I,
!I
,'f
~I
0. 0000 2
0. 00003
.......
71
~I
,J
II
0. 0000 1
/""
EXP.= 0.0000264
TH. = 0. 0000220
"
/}
\ I
\V
L E G E N D
-EXPERIMENTAL
---THEORETICAL
392
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
-0.00001
EXP, =-0.00000204
TH, =-0.00000183
0.0
v p:,. ~
"" "" - -/
',
EXP .= 0.00000570
TH. = 0.00000459
0. 00001
0.00002
LEGENO
-EXPERIMENTAL
___ THEORETICAL
0. 00003
Before loading, the model sections and loading rods were calibrated in
order to determine whether the data obtained from the strain-gauge
readings corresponded to the assumptions regarding modulus of elasticity and linearity of stress-strain distribution. Strain and displacement
readings recorded were converted to bending moments and axial forces
employing eqs. (1 0.33g)-(l 0.33i) and then plotted; the experimental
values obtained were compared with the theoretical values calculated on
a mathematical model.
The influence lines of axial forces in cables are represented in Figs.
10.14-10.19, and the influence line ofbending moment at intermediate
support in Fig. 10.20. The influence lines of vertical deflections are
represented in Figs. 10.21-10.25, and the influence line of horizontal
displacement at the top of the tower in Fig. 10.26.
The influence line ordinates of the bending moments are given in
inches and the influence-line ordinates of displacements are given in
in/lb.
10.8
Nonlinear behavior
This section describes an experimental procedure to determine the nonlinear behavior of a cable-stayed bridge 34 .
393
The nonlinearity of a cable-stayed bridge is caused by large displacements of the structure and bending-moments-axial-forces interaction.
Relations between stresses and strains at any cross-section are assumed
to be linear.
The technique used consists in loading a structural model of a cablestayed bridge with dead and live loads applied according to the configuration of influence lines, in order to get the most critical axial forces in
cables and bending moments in the stiffening girder. The loads are
applied in two steps. First, a fraction of the dead and live loads is applied
in such a way that the displacements of the system remain small and its
behavior is linear. Then, the model is loaded with its full dead and live
loads under which it displays its real nonlinear behavior. A second set of
strains is recorded for this case. By comparing the two readings, that is,
by dividing the second reading into the first one, the nonlinearity of the
system is determined.
10.8.1
Jrr-:7~
506,000 in4
A3 = 105 in 2
-----"-\
Joz~2,500,000i.n 4
J 01 =2,720,000 in4
Joz ~ 2,500,000 in 4
i n4
39-t
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Jrs 0.00284 in 4
Jrr 0.00134 in 4
~. 0 .00251
inl
3x9"
3x9"
I
IJOl 0. 00690 In
Jo1 0.00750 in 41
:Jo10.00750 in'
I
I
10'0
(a)
(b)
(c)
11
395
(a)
396
Fig. I 0.31 '\nnlineari~
ol cahle 6 under the
actiun of a 'ertical
concentrJtcd load at
joint 7
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
723
- _________ - _______ -
__
700
nonlinear
~/
'/
'/
I
600
'/
'/
'/
'/
'/
'/'-.I
in~ar
'/
soo
'/
400
300
P( I b)
2P
3P
. SP
397
I
2
3
4
5
6
1018.00
555.00
495.00
540.00
584.00
976.00
965.00
540.00
490.00
530.00
565.00
925.00
+5.50
+2.78
+ 1.02
+ 1.85
+3.86
+5.52
113.00
607.00
565.00
+7.42
4.91
25.51
24.55
+3.90
1.15
6.30
5.75
+9.55
10.9
This section describes an experimental procedure to determine the posttensioning forces required in cables in order to reduce the bending
moments and displacements of the stiffening girder and towers of a
cable-stayed bridge 35 .
The technique employed consists of determining bending moments
and displacements under the action of dead load, and bending moments,
axial forces and displacements due to unit forces applied successively
398
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
along each cable of the system. From these data, post-tensioning forces
required in cables to reduce bending moments and displacement due to
dead load are determined as follows.
10.9 .1
X1
X2
x3
=
=
=
X6
Xs
x4
=
=
=
X7
Xs
x9
= X 12
= Xu
= xlO
(10.35)
(10.36)
where
Mar
Ml+M6+M7+Ml2
}
r
r
r
r
M~ = M;+M;+M~+M; 1
M~
(10.37)
M;+M;+M;+M;o
xl' x2 and x3 and two of the three unknown post-tensioning forces may
be selected arbitrarily.
If the sum of the unit stresses due to dead load and post-tensioning is
specified, however, to be identical for cables I, 2, and 3-, that is
(10.38)
where N {is the final post-tensioning force in cable i and A; is the crosssectional area of cable i, then, for a given value of C 0 , the post-tensioning
forces in cables X 1 , X 2 , X 3 may be calculated as follows.
399
Fi[(. I 0.33
Post-
tensioning f(>rces in
x3
a11Xz+a12X3 = All+A12Xt
(10.39)
where
(10.40)
and
At
A11 = - N3-N1
A3
A 12
Azt
A1
= -
A3
N~-N~
Az
-N3-Nz
A3
(10.41)
A
A 22 = ___2 N~- N~
A3
In eqs. (10.40) and (10.41), N;; N,"and N;~ where i varies from 1 to 12,
are axial forces in cables due to unit loads applied as shown in Figs.
10.34(a-c). Solving the system of eqs. (10.39), X 2 and X 3 may be
expressed as
= B 11 +B 12 X 1}
X 3 = B 21 +B 22 X 1
X2
where
(10.42)
400
CABLE-STAYEO BRIDGES
(10.43)
M~+B 12 M~+B 22 M~
(10.45)
'"'
~1
1~
10. 9.2
401
(10.47)
(C 0 -1)[DJt 1 *[J}
(10.48)
References
l. Clark, E., Britannia and Conway Tubular Bridges (2 vols.), vol. I,
Day and Day, London, 1850.
2. Beggs, G. E., 'An Accurate Mechanical Solution of StaticallyIndeterminate Structures by the Use of Paper Models and Special
Gages', Proc. Am. Concr. lnst., 18, 58, 1922.
3. Eney, W. ]., 'New Deformeter Apparatus', Engng. News Rec, 221,
16 February, 1939.
4. Pippard, A. J. S. and Sparkes, S. R., 'Some Experimental Solutions
of Certain Structural Problems', Proc. Inst. civ. Engrs, 4, 79,
1936-37.
5. Gottschalk, 0., 'Mechanical Calculation of Elastic Systems', }.
Franklin lnst., 202, 61-87, July, 1926.
6. Baker, J. F., The Mechanical and Mathematical Stress Analysis of
Steel Building Frames, Institution of Civil Engineers, Selected
Engineering Paper No. 131, 1932.
7. Beggs, G. E., Timby, E. K. and Birdsall, B., 'Suspension Bridge
Stresses Determined by Model', Engng. News Rec., 828-832, 9 June,
1932.
8. Steinman, D. B., 'Rope-Strand Cables Used in New Bridge at Portland, Oregon', Engng. News Rec., 272-277, 13 February, 1930.
9. Beggs, G. E .., Davis, R. E. and Davis, H. E., 'Tests on Structural
Models of Proposed San Francisco-Oakland Suspension Bridge',
Univ. Calif Pubs. Engng, 3 (2), 59-158, 1933.
402
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
10. Beyer, E. and Schmidt, H., 'Entwurfsbearbeitung und Modellversuche', Nordbrucke Dusseldorf, Landeshaupstadt Dusseldorf,
1958, pp. 28-36.
11. Tamms, F. and Beyer, E., Kniebrucke Dusseldorf, Beton-Verlag
Gmbh, Dusseldorf, 1969.
12. Troitsky, M.S. and Lazar, B., Model Investigation ofCable-Stayed
Bridges, Report No. 1, Sir George Williams University, Montreal,
Canada, 1969.
13. Feige, A., 'The Evolution of German Cable Stayed Bridges: An
Overall Survey, Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 12, 523-532, December,
1966.
14. Brown, C. D., 'Design and Construction of the George Street
Bridge Over the River Usk at Newport, Monmouthshire', Proc.
Inst. Civ. Engrs, 32, 31-52, 1965.
15. Troitsky, M. S. and Lazar, B. E., 'Model Analysis and Design of
Cable-Stayed Bridges', Proc. Inst. Civ. Engrs, 48, 439-464, March
1971.
16. Rocha, M. M., 'Portuguese Practice in Model Tests', Eng. Dig.
Toronto, 21-25, July, 1958.
17. Hossdorf, H., 'Model Analysis Versus Computer', Space Structures:
The International Conference, University ofSurrey, Ed. Davies, R. M.,
Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford and Edinburgh, 1966, pp.
391-395.
18. Roll, F., 'Materials For Structural Models', ASCE J. Struct. Div.,
1353-1381, June, 1968.
19. Fialho,]. F. L., 'The Use ofP1astics for Making Structural Models',
Bull. Rilem (8), 65-74, September, 1960.
20. Kinney, G. F., Engineering Properties and Applications of Plastics,
Wiley, New York, 1964.
21. McCoy, R. H., Development of Modelling Techniques for Steel
Structures, Technical Report R63-45, Department of Civil Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., USA, August, 1964.
22. Little, W. A. and Foster, D. C., Fabrication Techniques for Small
Scale Steel Models, Technical Report R66-45, Department of Civil
Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, Mass., USA, 1966.
23. Breen,]. E., 'Fabrication and Tests of Structural Models', ASCE
}. Struct. Div., 1339-1352, June, 1968.
24. Langhaar, H. L., Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models,
Wiley, New York, 1951.
25. Murphy, G., Similitude in Engineering, Ronald Press, New York,
1950.
26. Beaujoint, N., 'Similitude and Theory of Models', Bull. Rilem (7),
14--39, June, 1960.
403
Chapter 11
11.1
Introduction
11.1.1
405
When considering the effect of wind on a cable-stayed bridge, three different aerodynamic mechanisms can be distinguished that may cause
significant oscillatory behavior.
11.1.2
The most obvious effect of the wind is due to the action of gusts. The
wind-gust components affect the periodicity of the vortex shedding,
tending to make it less regular and producing weaker excitation over a
wider range of wind speed.
11.1.3
Vortices are formed at the points where the air flow separates from the
surface of a structure. They may break away into the wake at regular
intervals causing a periodic variation of force on the structure.
Excitation due to the periodic formation of vortices in the air-flow in
the wake of the structure is primarily dependent on details of the shape
of the cross-section. If the structure is rigid and the incident flow steady,
the vortex formation would be very precisely periodic at a frequency
proportional to the wind speed.
With a flexible structure, there is a resonant excitation at a critical
wind speed, and the effect of motion of the structure is to modify the
vortex frequency so as to synchronize the excitation with the motion
over a range of wind speeds.
11.1.4
406
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
407
408
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.3
11.3 .1
90
-r----~---L-----------~
"'Yv
__.---
Fig. 11.1
1To I SPLACEMENT
Wind forces
where
Pa =
-iP V2
11.3 .2
409
1dV
a+-V dt
(11.3)
If dCL/da is positive, the change in lift tends to oppose the motion, and
can lead to limited but damaging oscillations.
If dCL/da is negative, the change in lift acts in the same sense as the
motion and tends to increase it, leading to oscillations of catastrophic
proportions. In both cases, the steeper the slope, the greater is the rate of
amplification of the oscillations.
If dCL/da is zero, the motion is unaffected by the wind force. According
to Steinman's theory, a desirable cross-section should have dCL/da
equal to zero.
A similar consideration may be applied to torsional oscillations, when
under steady conditions, the lift force is, in general, displaced from the
axis of rotation and causes a torque about this axis. The torque can be
expressed as
(11.4)
where CT is a dimensionless torque coefficient depending on a. Steinman
suggested that a zero slope, dCT/da, or preferably a slight negative slope,
is desirable.
Simple model tests may be used to find static lift graphs, and according
to the Steinman theory, with the requirement that
and
dCT = 0
da
(11.5)
0.06
-0.08
410
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.4
11.4 .1
Vortex shedding
When we consider the flow of air around a cylinder at rest, eddies are shed
periodically from the cylinder, forming the Karman vortex trai1 5 (Fig.
11.3).
The analysis for steady flow shows smooth curving lines with stagnation
points at opposite ends of the diameter parallel to the flow. These points
develop at the leading edge, however immediately after, an area of
turbulence develops at the rear stagnation point. This area spreads and
forms an eccentric eddy which eventually is carried away downstream. It is
followed by a second vortex from the other side, and so on. Each time an
eddy is released, an unbalanced lateral force acts on the cylinder. If the
cylinder is free to vibrate laterally, the alternating lateral forces may
impose on it a forced vibration with a frequency equal to the eddy
frequency.
The frequency of successive forces is given approximately by
J=
SV/d
(11.6)
where
d =the diameter of the cylinder
V =the velocity of the wind
S =a dimensionless parameter known as the Strouhal number.
The Strouhal number varies with the form of the section and is about
0.2 for a cylinder.
411
shallow section;
perforation of edge girder;
fitting a soffit to close off the spaces between the main girders;
fitting tapered fairings to the side faces; and
use of deflection flops on the deck edges.
11.4.2 Flutter
Under pressure of wind, the bridge deck may oscillate in a mode including
both transverse displacements and torsional notation, which is called
flutter. Bleich7 was the first author who pointed out the relation to the
flutter speed of aircraft wings. He distinguished clearly between flutter
and the effect of staggered vortices and expressed the opinion that two
degrees of freedom-bending and torsion-at least are necessary for
oscillations of this kind. Bleich8 developed a simplified practical method
of design against flutter by determining the critical speed of the wind
action.
Since, for a given configuration of the bridge, the aerodynamic force
increases rapidly with the wind speed, while the elastic stiffness is independent of the wind, there may exist a critical wind speed at which the
structure becomes unstable. Such instability may cause excessive deforma~s, and may lead to the destruction of the bridge.
\ Two pre-calculated tables provide the data from which the response of
the structure to wind action could be, at least approximately, predicted.
The critical velocity may be computed from the formula
412
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(11. 7)
where
w = the flutter frequence
2b = the width of the bridge deck
Kc = wb/ V, the nondimensional ratio
V = the wind velocity
of the system
w2
= sb/m
where
413
"
" .,
u
c
Q.
...
E<.> u
<I)
> >
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
"--'-...
Q2
c:=::::J
I
2.0
w Torsiol'l/wBending
2.5
.,~
>
~
0.1
0
1.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
11.4.3
J
<
1.0
I~
I
=a
Fig. 11.4 Flutter speeds
!(Jr different bridge crosssectional configurations
Turbulenre
Vibrations
Vibrations cover the oscillatory motion of the bridge system and its
dynamic conditions. This motion may he of regular form which is
repeated, or it may he irregular or of a random nature. Vibrations are
accompanied by, or are produced by, forces which vary in an oscillatory
414
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Introduction
415
W + U = E = const
(11.8)
where
416
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.6
Both model tests and full-scale experience indicate that the modes and
frequencies of oscillation of cable-stayed bridges are little affected by the
wind and remain closely similar to those calculated. This problem was
investigated and was proposed, as a general theory, by Goschy 14 .
Let us analyse the general type of vertical vibration of a cable-stayed
bridge, shown in Fig. 11.5.
11.6.1
~ystem
(11.12)
dW= dmz
where
dm = the mass element of the cable
v = the velocity of the cable element under consideration.
COS WvT =
El
417
In the case of rigidly fixed towers, the kinetic energy may be considered
as consisting of two terms :
(11.17)
where
d wl = the kinetic energy of the stiffening girder
d W 2 = the kinetic energy of the cables.
The first term of the right-hand side of eq. (11.17) has the following
form:
(11.18)
where p denotes the uniformly distributed dead load of the superstructure.
and for the loaded bridge, this is the sum of the dead weight and uniformly
distributed portion of the live load.
The second term may be expressed as follows:
(11.19)
where
Pc = the weight of the cable per unit length
IJ(s) = the vertical displacement of the cable element ds
g = acceleration due to gravity.
IJ(s) = 'lc(sfsc)
and by substituting this value into eq. (11.19), we obtain
2
2 'lc 2
dw2 -_ Pc
2 wv 2 s
sc
(11.21)
where
sc = the length of the inclined cable
IJc = the maximum deflection of the vibrating stiffening girder at the
cable attachment.
The total kinetic energy of the bridge system is determined by integration over the entire length of the stiffening girder and by summation of
the terms corresponding to the m pairs of cables attached to the girder,
418
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
(11.22)
11.6.2
= 1JL PIJ(x) dx
(11.23)
It is equal to the strain energy, or the internal work during the deformation of the structure, expressed by the formula
(11.24)
where
V 1 = the strain energy of the stiffening girder
V2 = the strain energy of the cables
v3 = the internal work performed by the cable forces due to second-order
deformations.
M = - EldziJ(x)
dx 2
(11.25)
the equation for the flexural strain energy of the stiffening gir.der becomes
vl =! I
2
JL
M2dx
EI
=! I EI [d21J(x)Jdx
2 JL
dx 2
(11.26)
(11.27)
419
v2 =
m EA 2 2
c !I c sm r:xc
1 "
2 L...
c= 1
(11.31)
Sc
Due to the vibration of the structural system, second-order deformations occur, and cause the cable force to change periodically in magnitude.
Using the notations shown in Fig. 11.7, the increase and decrease of
the vertical component of the cable force can be expressed as
(11.32)
and
420
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
'l(x}
_IJ_co_s_Q(_c
(11.34)
and the additional force in the cable can be determined after substituting
(11.34) into (11.33)
(11.35)
where Xc is the cable force due to dead load or due to dead and live loads.
The work done by the internal forces in the cable due to second-order
deformations is given by the expression
v3
c= 1
c= 1
Sc
v3
11.6.3
1
=-
2::
cos 2 Q(
xc _ _ _cl]~
2 c= 1
(11.36)
5c
.~ystem
As the energy equations are now known, the frequency of the vertical
flexural vibrations can be determined by Ritz's method.
By equating sums of the total kinetic energy according to eqs. (11.17),
(11.18) and (11.21) with the total potential energy expressed by eqs.
(11.24), we obtain
or
421
(11.38)
nvo = wvf2n
11.7
(11.39)
Torsional vibrations
Between the torsional and flexural deformations there exists the following
15
relationship, proposed by Goschy 16 (Fig. 11.8):
ry(x) = bl/J(x)
(11.40)
where
If the stiffening girders are able to undergo free vibrations (SaintVenant's type of torsion), the 'twist', or the angular rotation per unit
length, is
dl/J(x)
dx
Mr
GJr
(11.41)
422
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.7 .1
Substituting (11.40) into eq. (11.22), we obtain for the kinetic energy of
the torsional vibration the equation
WT =
w~
( ( JG t/J
2 g)LAG
(x) dx+ b
&
3c=1g
t/J~sc)
= w~WT
11.7 .2
(11.42)
After substituting (11.40) into eq. (11.37), we obtain for the potential
energy of the torsional vibration, the following equation:
b2
b2
,/,2
c COS r:xc'l' c
sc
(11.43)
where
wT = the circular frequency of the torsional vibration
JG = the polar moment of inertia of the stiffening girders and the deck
with respect to the center of gravity of the cross-section of the
bridge
AG = the cross-sectional area of the stiffening girders and the deck
t/1 c = the angular rotation of the cross-section of the bridge at the point
of anchorage of the cable
G = E/2(1+v) =the shear modulus
GJG = ~ {JG L v 3 h = the torsional stiffness of the open cross-section of
the bridge
f3 = the cross-sectional shape factor of the bridge
v = Poisson's ratio.
11.7 .3
When we consider only the warping resistance, we may use the known
formula for the torsional moment:
=
T
(11.44)
423
Further, it follows from eq. (11.44) for the potential energy of the
stiffening girders, with C T as twisting constant for the cross-section of the
bridge, that
VT = G]G
2
(11.45)
The potential energy of the stiffening girder, having a closed crosssection, shown in Fig. 11.9, could be determined from the equation
vc =
!G
4A~
~(1/v) du
(11.46)
where
thickness v
CT = the twisting resistance of the hollow cross-section
4A 2
and
AG = 2a x 2b
To determine the frequency wT and finally the torsional vibration from
WT
nT=-
2n
(11.47)
let us put the difference of the maximum values of the potential and
kinetic energy as equal to 0, or
max VT-max WT = 0
424
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.7 .4 Floor beams are not rigidly connected to the stiffening girders
It should be noted that the determination of the torsional vibrations can
be substantially simplified when the floor beams are not rigidly connected
to the stiffening girders as it is shown in Fig. 11.8 (b). And, because in
this case the deformation work is greater, the frequencies of the beams
are also greater. Due to the deformation shown in Fig. 11.8 (b), there
exists between the potential energies of the torsion and the bending, the
following relation
(11.48)
and the kinetic energy of the torsion could be determined from the
following expression
Wr =
(11.49)
)<JG/A).
11.7.5 Influence of the displacement of the tower and the deflection of the
stiffened girders on the value of the energy
Let us consider the approximate procedure in the case of a movable,
rocker-type tower (Fig. 11.10). The attachments between the cables and
tower are different; the upper cable designated by C is fixed, but the
bottom cable designated by i is movable, having rocker type supports.
The attachment point c of the cable C deflects with the stiffening
girder to the position c1 . The amplitude Yfc = cc 1 causes elongation of
the cable equal to Yfc sin ac.
From the geometric relations, we find
(11.50)
R
A 11
Yfc Sin Pc = LJ.Sc
+ LJ.
Ah'
R
COS Pc
A "
= LJ.Sc
COS /Jc
+ LJ.Sc A
'
COS
(Xc
(11.51)
and
11
CSC
COS
_ L
Yfc -
2
(XC
c1'fc
(11.52)
{;
425
C1
dW~ =
dm
T
(ti +~ )w~ ds
2
(11.53)
se
and
W'2
W'
= _2
w~
s' L2
=Petie2 [ ~ (1+L2)+~
2g 3
e
3 e
(11.55)
and when the number of the cables fixed to the tower is n, then the total
kinetic energy of the cables is
L 2]
w; = 1 L Petie2[~ (l+L;)+~
11
e= 1
(11.56)
426
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
W'
= W~ = P;
w~
(tJf( +tJf;s;)
2g
(11.57)
In the case of r equally supported cables the total energy of the cables is
w;
t ~ (tJ?s; +tJi;s;)
2i=lg
(11.58)
When the towers are supported by rockers, the kinetic energy of the towers
should be taken into consideration.
The horizontal displacement of the tower top at the attachment of the
cables C is, according to eq. (11.52),
If we denote
h 1 = the height of the tower
dm 1 = mass of the tower per unit length
p1 = the distributed weight of the tower
~ = the displacement of the tower,
the reduced kinetic energy of the tower may be determined from the
displacement of the tower as follows:
w~
w;
Wv
dmt
2
rh, ~2 dh
Jo
(11.59)
W' _
3 -
1
2
f,1...
c= 1
1!!_ L 2
ctJc2 '!3!_
(11.61)
'
Pc
+IIScSc COS
2
COS ll.c
427
Since
(11.63)
the potential energy of the cables, rigidly connected to the towers, is
1
A2-
n EA
c c 1Jc2
1_ '\'
2 L,
c= 3
Sln
2/3c
(11.64)
II
esc
From eqs. (11.30) and (11.63), the relation between the forces of the
cables rigidly connected and the towers supported by the rockers is
clearly
(11.65)
Due to this relation, and considering the second-order deformations of
the n cables, the potential energy may be calculated as follows:
(11.66)
where x; indicates the force in the cables~.
The change in the length of the cables i, placed over the frictionless
support, could be expressed as a function of the deflection of the stiffening
girder
(11.6 7)
A" _
1_
2-2L,
(11.69)
f3 ( .- .sm
rxi
x.~
1
1J
1
1J11
f3
5i
i=t
sm i
r
1_ "
L,
)2
II
(11. 70)
Ritz's method is applicable because the symmetrical and antisymmetrical forms can be approximated respectively by series of the form
ak sin
2kx
and
428
11.8
11.8.1
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Damping
Introduction
11.8.2
Damping capacities
wui f 2
zg
11 dx
(11.71)
where
w
429
and the proportion of the energy lost in one cycle, known as the damping
capacity, is
(11.75)
Equation (11. 7 5) also expresses the proportion of energy gained if
excited forces cause an increase of ~'11 in the amplitude.
Damping capacity may be defined as the measure of capacity of a
material to absorb mechanical energy during elastic straining. The
damping forces can be conveniently classified as
(a) structural (hysteresis, bearing and rivet friction, plastic yielding of
deck and other elements, etc.) and
(b) atmospheric (opposing inertial and viscous forces from still or moving
air).
It is the combined effect of all damping forces which causes any observed
decay in the amplitude. In order to understand the damping action, therefore, it is necessary first to consider the character of structural, viscous,
hysteresis, friction and atmospheric damping.
430
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.8.3
Structural damping
11.8.4
Viscous damping
., -roe
-cgt/2w
in which
1Jo
1J
(11.76)
431
(11. 77)
in which
6 = __!L = !!!_
2wN mw
N being the frequency in cycles per second and w= 2nN being the
circular frequency in radians per second. The quantity 6 is called the
logarithmic decrement, and for viscous damping it is constant for all
amplitudes during a given vibration but is reduced if the frequency w is
increased without changing c or m.
If t = 2rt/ w, the length of one cycle, then N 1 = 1 and eq. (11. 77)
expresses the ratio of two successive amplitudes
IJ1 I1Jo = e
-{)
(11.78)
Thus
or
(11. 79)
432
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.8.5
Hysteresis damping
+F
+'1,
Fig. 11.11
-F
Hysteresis
loop
The area enclosed within the stress-strain curves for a complete, closed
cycle represents force times distance and indicates the energy lost per
cycle. Both the stress and the strain vary directly with the amplitude ofthe
displacement. Therefore, the energy loss is a constant times 17 2 .
For this reason, some authors consider the energy loss arising from
hysteresis as the work done by a damped force which is proportional to the
amplitude and in phase with velocity or as equal to C17 cos wt, and the
work it performs in a cycle is Cn1] 2 , C being a constant, the damping force
per unit amplitude to be determined experimentally.
The damping capacity then is
t/1
Cn1J 2
2nC
2
2
= mW 1] /2 - mw 2
(11.80)
433
While eq. (11.80) indicates tjJ to be independent of the amplitude 1'], tests
show that it increases slowly with amplitude and stress. This means that
the damping force actually increases as some fractional power of 11 a little
greater than tjJ.
11.8.6
The friction force is constant and does not depend upon the amplitude or
frequency; the work it does in a cycle may be expressed as some constant
C1 , times 1J. The damping capacity, the proportion of energy of vibration
damped out per cycle, is then
(11.81)
For such damping, the logarithmic decrement decreases as the amplitude increases. The curve of the decay of amplitude, plotted against time,
is a straight line, rather than the experimental curve in eq. (11. 77).
Notwithstanding the general statement above, Bleich has shown that
under certain conditions, the movement of a frictional force may be
proportional to the square of the movement of the oscillating mass, so that
its work varies as 17 2 and it then has the character of hysteresis damping.
However, this second type of friction damping is small.
V
C
=
=
434
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
2 3
= C2 w 17 = 2C2 1J
2 2
mW 1J /2
m
(11.83)
11.8.8
The oscillations of the cable stays under dynamic wind action are due to
their flexibility and high stresses. These oscillations may be local,
performed only by a few cables, or global, when the whole cable system,
including the stiffening girders and pylons, is in motion.
Local oscillations generally occur in individual long, slender cables.
They develop due to vortex shedding under wind action. High oscillation
amplitudes occur if the wind speed reaches an intensity such that
frequency of the vortex shedding coincides with a natural frequency of one
or more cables in the system. Global oscillations occur in the multi-cablestayed system. In the case of the three-span cable-stayed bridge with a
symmetrical layout, the modes of vibration are either symmetrical or
antisymmetrical depending on the layout of the bridge. Generally, at the
first symmetrical mode the main span and side spans oscillate vertically
out of phase and the pylons oscillate horizontally.
For the attainment of aerodynamic stability, it is important to separate
the frequencies of the corresponding vertical and torsional modes. This is
because the critical oscillation occurs when the frequencies of the two
basic modes coincide. It may happen when the difference between the
natural frequencies of the modes is small.
The most important stabilizing factor is the system damping due to
interference between the various natural frequencies of many cables. In a
multi-cable-stayed structure the cables are of different lengths and have
different frequencies under wind action. Therefore, the behavior of the
stays tends to disturb the formation of the first or second mode of
435
Introduction
AERODYNAMIC MODEL
436
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
tions, taking into account energy, time, inertia, acceleration, mass, and
moment of inertia, as well as elastic and damping forces. Frequency,
resonance and phase become controlling elements.
If all the properties of an aerodynamical model of the entire bridge are
properly scaled from the prototype, the model moves in the same manner
as the prototype would under the same conditions. Thus, its motion,
distortion, velocity, frequency, acceleration and inertial and elastic forces
represent those of the prototype to appropriate scales.
Model tests are of two kinds:
(c)
All three groups are used in studies of the structural response to air
flow and aerodynamic stability. The response of the model has a constant
and a time-dependent component, periodic, harmonic and random,
similar to the full-scale structure. Strains in the load-carrying elements
of the model produce geometric changes in the whole structure.
437
438
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
simple sectional-model test method and that the costly and time-consuming use of a full model for this purpose was not essential.
The conditions for dynamic similarity between model and full-scale
bridge have been discussed by Farquharson26 and Frazer and
Scruton 22 27 .
(11.84)
(1)
where
V = the mean wind speed
D = the model width
Nv and N 6
The velocity scale of the test is derived from eq. (11.84) so that
vm
vp
NmDm
NPDP
and
(11.85)
Vm
NmDm
(11.86)
439
where m and J are the mass per foot span and the mass moment of inertia
per foot span and p is the air density.
This requirement states that the inertia of the model must be correctly
to scale.
(3)
VD/v
where vis the kinematic viscosity of air. In many circumstances, serious
errors can arise if the model and full-scale values are not comparable.
Although it becomes impractical for bridge tests to even approach fullscale values of the Reynolds number, it is well established that for sharpedged bluff bodies, flow similarity is practically achieved even for quite
large discrepancies between model and full-scale values.
11.9 .3
The values of the critical reduced velocity Vc/N0 D, VcfNvD found by the
model tests may be applied to the full-scale ~ridge with the appropriate
values of structural damping given before. Hence, by substituting the
calculated frequency N for the mode of oscillation under consideration
and the dimension D of the full-scale bridge in the critical reduced
velocity, the critical wind speed for the start of oscillations can be found.
At this speed, the overall damping of the bridge is zero, or
(11.87)
440
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
If the model tests show the bridge to be unstable, that is, the value of
either bew or bzw found on the model has a negative value in excess of the
the positive value assumed for the structural damping of the bridge,
attempts to introduce the required stability can be made by suitable
modifications to the aerodynamic shape of the suspended structure. In
some instances, it may be possible to stiffen the structure in order to
increase the natural frequencies, and hence the critical wind speed, so that
the oscillations do not occur within the range of winds expected at the site.
For instability due to buffet, the external shape of the bridge is of
secondary importance compared with its natural frequencies and with the
location and configuration of the obstacle causing the turbulent wake.
The prediction of buffet amplitudes on the full-scale bridge from
sectional-model tests is rather uncertain. A basis for an approximate
assessment has been suggested by Scruton 24 25 .
11.10
11.10.1
An ideal section of the bridge is one that produces no lift and small drag.
Therefore, the tendency is to design the structure streamlined so that no
separation occurs. Then flutter, if any, will be of the classical type, whose
critical speed is higher than that of the stall flutter and can be predicted
with good accuracy.
For aerodynamic stability, it is generally beneficial to design the
structure so as to minimize the projected area presented to the wind, so as
to reduce the magnitude of the aerodynamic forces. This follows from the
fact that the aerodynamic forces are proportional to the vorticity strength,
which in turn is proportional to the profile drag. A reduction in projected
frontal area decreases the profile drag, and therefore reduces the effective
aerodynamic force.
The aerodynamic stability of a long span bridge can best be established
by shaping the bridge in such a way that
441
70.84'
1-
~I
442
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
75 1 -0"
I
105 1 -0"
t
8.2 I
5.B
CABLE
14.9
. I
1
41
16.4 1
~--------------~75
29 5 I
95.12'
n n'', ,, , , , ,
"""'"""'~
443
AS BUILT
~-"'_ _'_'-"~'i'_"'_'"-'--~
AS TESTED, GAVE WIND STABILITY
bridge has so far not shown any wind oscillations. This is attributed to the
low elevation of the bridge deck above water level and to turbulence of
wind caused by surrounding buildings.
The study, undertaken to prevent oscillations in case they would occur,
indicatedthat a lining outside the main girder, as shown in Fig. 11.17,
would be sufficient to produce stability. On the basis of this study, a crosssection was proposed with two triangular hollow boxes along the edges,
between which the deck structure is open. The slope of the soffit plate of
the edge boxes should not exceed an angle of about 35.
This idea was recently applied successfully to the Longs Creek Bridge
in Canada. This structure is a cable-stayed, orthotropic girder bridge,
having a main span of 713 ft 4 in (217 m) and a total length of 1092 ft
(333 m) (Fig. 11.18). When erected, it was observed that the bridge
would vibrate in vertical flexure when the wind velocity normal to the
bridge was in the range 25-30 mph (40-48 kph). Amplitudes as high as 8
in (20 mm) were obtained.
Wind-model investigations 37 indicated that the behavior of the bridge
could be duplicated in the model experiments. Various modifications to
444
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
the external shape were examined and the finally adopted one included
soffit plating between the girders and triangular edge fairings which
consist of a horizontal extension of the soffit plating and a sloping web
(Fig. 11.19).
Since being modified, the bridge has been exposed to severe winds and
no motion of the bridge has yet been observed.
Such structures show practically no uplift and no pitching moment
under small angles of wind attack as they correspond to high wind
speeds. Closing the bottom produces onl) a slight improvement. The
wind drag, i.e. its horizontal component, is also very low, only about~ of
that of the old type of suspension bridge, which means a saving in many
respects.
The total depth of such a cable-stayed bridge deck can be as lo" as
6.5- 11.5 ft (2- 3.5 m) for highways and 13 20 ft (4-6 m) for railroad
bridges, depending mainly upon the relationship of live load to dead load
and the ratio between side and main span, but being almost independent
of the length of the main span.
11.10.2
Superiori~)'
ofcable-stayed bridges
445
446
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
11.11
Conclusions
References
1. Steinman, D. B., 'Rigidity and Aerodynamic Stability of Suspension
Bridges', Trans. Am. Soc. civ. Engrs., 110, 439-580, 1945.
2. Steinman, D. B., 'Problems of Aerodynamic and Hydrodynamic
Stability', Proceedings of the Third Hydraulic Conference, University
oflowa, 1947, pp. 136-164.
447
448
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
449
Chapter 12
12.1
Introduction
12.2
Loading conditions
Table 12.1
I >oad length
(ft)
0-600
601-800
801-1000
1001-1200
1201-over
640
640
640
600
560
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
451
Shear
(!b)
18 000
9 000
0
0
0
26 000
13 000
0
0
0
Dead load.
Live load.
Impact of the live load.
Wind loads.
Erection.
Factors, when they exist: longitudinal, centrifugal and thermal
forces, earth pressure, buoyancy, shrinkage stresses, ice and current
pressure and earthquake forces.
12.2.2
12.3
12.3.1
Design assumptions
Span arrangement
452
12.3.2
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Stay geometry
12.3.3
(1) For steel decks solid web girder types are used, either two main !girders or multiple I -girders, single, twin or multi cell rectangular box
girders, or single or twin trapezoidal box girders. For steel bridges,
the box girder with an orthotropic deck is very efficient.
(2) For concrete decks, cast-in-place concrete box girder structures and
precast prestressed segmental construction has been used.
(3) Composite decks generally consist of edge and transverse steel
beams covered by precast concrete slabs.
12.4
Pylons
The type of pylon used is based on site conditions, design, aesthetics and
cable geometry. The various types are the A-frame, diamond, delta, and,
for multi-span structures, the A-frame (Maracaibo).
The ratio of pylon height above the bridge deck to center span length
for a three-span structure should preferably be in the range of 0.6-0.2.
For a two-span asymmetrical structure the longer span may be equivalent
to one-half the span of a three-span symmetrical structure.
To optimize the quantity of cable steel required, it is desirable to
increase the ratio of the pylon height to span length to 0.3 for the
radiating type and 0.4 for harp type.
12.5
Analysis
453
girders are combined to compensate for dead-load deflection. Considering the structure as simply supported at its cable pick-up points, a
moment diagram may be constructed as for a beam with an assumed total
load. The moment diagram can then be adjusted by assigning the desired
end moments, from which the end shears are calculated. These end
shears are converted to cable forces and then applied to the pylon. The
stresses at any section of the bridge system resulting from the
aforementioned forces and moments may then be evaluated. For a
preliminary design, the stresses under any given load can be efficiently
determined by a computer. It involves the determination of approximate
cable stresses under dead load on the girder plus live load and additional
cable tension. For this analysis, the support provided by the steel cables
should be assumed as nonyielding for dead load and elastically supported
for live load by utilizing an equivalent cable modulus of elasticity or
equivalent stiffness.
The nonlinearity of the bridge, which involves the nonlinear behavior
of the steel cable due to change in sag under various tensions and also
the combined effect of the bending moments and axial forces in the
girder and pylon, should be checked to determine the effect on the stress
distribution.
12.6 Cables
12.6.1
12.6.2
o.{elastici~y
FCif = I
+ [ (WL) 2 AF/12T1]
where
(12.1)
454
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
~ T~ AE/24'fl'fl:J
.
22
(1 . )
where the subscripts i and f represent the initial and final values of
tension during the load increment. Some designers apply the concept of
equivalent stiffness after the formula:
(A E) eq = AE -
12.6.3
AE
+ [12T I AE (WL)
(12.3)
Prestretching
12.7
The cables may be continuous and pass through the pylon, supported on
saddles, or may be terminated at the pylon.
12.7.1
Cable saddles
12.7.2
Endfittings
455
end of a cable are broomed out, cleaned and immersed in a flux solution,
then placed in the basket of the socket, which is then filled with molten
zinc or with epoxy mixtures.
With swaged fittings, the cable end is inserted into a close-tolerance
hole in the end of the fitting which is then placed in a die block of a
hydraulic press. The die block is closed under pressure and the softer
steel of the fitting flows plastically around the harder steel wires.
12.8
Protection
12.9
Camber
12.10
Temperature
456
12.11
12.11.1
CABLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Aerodynamics
General
12.11.2
The critical wind velocity, ~,, associated with vortex shedding should be
considered according to formula:
NaD
5=---
(12.4)
where
S = Strouhal number
~~ =
12.11.3
Wind tunnel tests are made to determine the wind velocity causing
aerodynamic instability, using either full or sectional bridge models.
12.11.4
For the box section, plate girders and stiffened truss, the ratio of
torsional to flexural frequencies should be greater than 2.
12.12
Fatigue
According to tests at Lehigh University, the fatigue life of the strand was
defined as the number of cycles before the first wire broke and the
loading range had more effect on the fatigue life than the magnitude of
457
12.13
Fabrication
12.14
12.14.1
Erection
Erection plans and calculations
12.14.2
12.14.3
458
12.14.4
C: \BLE-STAYED BRIDGES
Erection stresses
Erection loads should include wind and erection equipment and stresses
from the application of construction loads during erection should not
exceed the allowable stresses.
12.14.5
Cable installation
12.14.6
12.15
12.15.1
Inspection
General
12.15.2
Co-operation
12.15.3
Samples
Samples of material for the cables may be requested by the engineer for
separate testing.
12.15.4
Limitations
12.15.5
459
Records
12.15.7
Installation
The inspector should determine that cables are installed with striping in
the proper relative position.
12.15.8
Perfimnance tests
References
1. The American Society of Civil Engineers, 'Tentative Recommendations for Cable-Stayed Bridge Structures', ASCE J. Struct. Div.,
Proc., 103, No. ST 5, 929-939, May, 1977.
2. The American Society of Civil Engineers, 'Commentary on the
Tentative Recommendations for Cable-Stayed Bridge Structures,'
ASCEJ. Struct. Div., Proc., 103, No. ST 5, 941-959, May, 1977.
Author Index
AUTHOR Il\DEX
461
462
AUTHOR INDEX
Subject Index
464
SUBJECT l:\DEX
bridge (continued)
strand, 80
Yibration, 414
Bridge of the Isles, Canada (1962), 98
Brooklyn Bridge, uSA (1883), 13
Brotonne Bridge, !'ranee (1977), 130, 131,
132, 133, 134
buckling, 17 S
butTer, 99
buffeting, 413
buffeting amplitude, 440
Bundesalle footbridge, Germany, 166, 167
buoyancy, 107, 4SI
cable
anchorage, 68, 127, IS3, 208, 210
f(Jrce, 204, 229, 255, 264
inclination, 236
installation, 4S8
locked-coil construction, 182
saddle, 454
sag, 224
socket, 197
stay, 67, 103, 130, 148
tension, 188, 220, 454
truss, 103
cable-stayed bridge, 31, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38,
39, 42, 80, 85, 91, 114, 132, 147,167, 176,
404, 44S
camber, 161, 45S
Canal du Centre Bridge, Belgium, 160
cantilever span, 116
cantileYer tower, 287
cantileYered system, 2S9
C:assagne Bridge, !'ranee, 16, 17
cast-in-place deck, 117
catenary, 187, 242, 304
cellular box girder, 72, 82, 121
central span, 123
central spine, 80
central tower, 70
circular frequency, 416, 422, 428
coefficient of overloading, 191
column matrix, 300
column vector, 34S
combined railroad-highway bridge, 99
componental displacement, 258
composite
bridge, 147
cable-stayed bridge, 148
deck, 147, 148, ISO, 4S2
computer program, 228, 230, 273, 274, 277,
280, 321, 326, 365
concentrated live load, 451
concrete
box girder, 91
bridge, 114
deck, 131, 452
pylon, 132, 138, 147, ISO
tower, 40, 63, 64, 98, 99, liS, 119
constructional stretch, 185
continuous
beam, 117, 248
deck, 121
SGBJECT 1!\DEX
similarity, 43R
stahilitv, 414
wind a~tion, 410
Dywidag har, 16R
earth pressure, 451
earthquake force, 451
East Huntington Bridge, USA, 14R, 150
ecology, 36
economy, 34, 3R
edge fairing, 444
elastic displacement, 234
elastic support, 103, 231, 248, 266, 267
Elhe River Bridge, Germany (193R), 17
electronic computer, 1
elliptical pier, 136
elongation of the cahle, 219, 235, 243
end fitting, 454
endurance, 192
energy of vibration, 428
em-elope of bending moment, 276
epoxy asphalt, 67
epoxy resin, 127
erection
bridge, 457
device, 457
load, 458
stress, 458
erection of cahle-stayed system, 219
Eric Harvie Bridge, Canada (1982), 167, 168
Erskine Bridge, Scotland, 84, 85, 86, 214,
217
equivalent
lane loading, 451
modulus of elasticity, 187, 224, 228, 320,
453
spring constant, 26 7
stiffness, 454
eury1hmy, 38
fairing plate, 67
fan stav svstem, 20, 21
fan-rype ~ahle, 61
Faro-Folster Bridge, Denmark (1985), 68, 69
fatigue
fracture, 192
life, 456, 457
limit, 457
strength of cable, 193
test, 80, 191, 192, 193
fictitious support, 337
field
fabrication, 459
inspection, 459
matrix, 300
finite element method, 323, 328
first-order theory, 251, 358, 359
five-moment equation, 266
fixed
anchorage, 84
base, 178
hearing, 98
flanking span, 123, 238
flatter, 411, 440
465
466
SUBJECT INDEX
hinged tower, 25
Hooke's law, 223
horizontal clearance, 67
hydraulic damping, 432
hydraulic jack, 115
hyperbolic function, 333
hysteresis, 430
hysteresis damping, 432
ice, 451
ideal modulus of elasticity, 186, 187, 190,
225, 273
imaginary load, 307, 308
immovable saddle, 199
impact, 451
inclined
cable, 121
stay, 161
tower bridge, 91, 92, 94
indirect method, 364
influence
coefficient, 276
line, 271, 274, 276, 303, 304, 308, 309,
346, 368, 376, 385, 392
temperature, 258
inertia force, 414
initial amplitude, 43
inspection, 458
instrumentation method, 367
interaction procedure, 230
cable, 94
strand, 171, 180, 182, 183
wire rope, 184, 191, 193, 197
logarithmic decrement, 431, 432, 433, 434,
439
longitudinal
girder, 98
load, 348
rib, 59, 70
stiffener, 89
Longs Creek Bridge, Canada, 443
Luling Bridge, USA, 68
lumped mass, 227
SUBJECT INDEX
467
plastic flow, I OS
plate girder, 152, 411
polar moment of inertia, 295
Polcevera Creek Viaduct, Italy (1966), 120
polyethylene
coating, 80, 89
pipe, 130, 203
tubing, 159
Pont de Ia Bourse, france (1969), 161, 162
pontoon bridge, 105
portal tower, 24, 103, 118
post
stressed cable, 107
stressing, I 03
tensioning, 117
tensioning cable, 279
tensioning force, 278, 397, 398, 399, 401
potential energy, 414, 415, 418, 422, 423,
427, 429
precast
beam, 138
concrete deck, IS 2
concrete slab, I 03, 147
prefabricated
cable, 143
deck, 117
structure, 119
prestressed
anchorage, 76, 127, 129, 141, 164
cable, 106, 123, 133
concrete, 130, 162
concrete bridge, 139
concrete girder, 29
deck, 164
slab, 140
truss, 97
prestressing force, 345
prestretching, 80, 454
prestretching load, 185
pretensioned cable, 171
pretensioned steel strand, 121
prototype, 370, 376
pylon, 61, 89, 99, 103, 133, 452, 453
Quincy Bridge, USA, 148, 150, 151
radial
cable, 148, 157
cable-stayed bridge, 249
stay system, 20, 21
railroad
bridge, 95, 97, 114
cable-stayed bridge, 99
Railway Bridge, Yugoslavia (1978), 99
reduction method, 297, 300, 303
Rees Bridge, Germany (1967), 50, 51
reinforced concrete girder, 29, 163
reinforced concrete tower, 48, 97
resonance, 407, 414
Rhone River Bridge, france (1888), IS
rigid diaphragm, 335
rigidity of box section, 70
River Dnepr Bridge, USSR, 58
River Parana Bridge, Argentina, 123, 125
468
SUBJECT INDEX
rocker
bearing, 92, 157
tower, 346
Rokko-Ohbashi Bridge, Japan, 59, 61, 62
roller, 347
roller saddle, 325
rope
twisted strand, 183
twisted wire, 182
Rother Bridge, England, 168, 169
rubber
asphalt, 80
bearing, 94
Saale Bridge, Germany (1824), 8
saddle bearing, 82
safety factor, 121, 197
sag
effect, 193
ratio, 242
Saint-Nazaire Bridge, France (1974), 55, 57
Saone River Bridge, France, 14, 15
scale
fuctOG 371, 372, 373
model, 365, 410
second order
deformation, 418, 419, 420, 427
theory, 270, 354, 358, 359
sectional model, 62, 80, 432, 436, 437, 438
seismic
disturbance, 127
load, 348
semicircular saddle, 194, 201
Severin Bridge, Germany, 45, 46, 178, 199,
200, 204, 207, 355, 431, 432
Severn Bridge, UK, 441, 442
shear
centre, 338, 340
lag, 61
shell element, 326
Shiller Street Bridge, Germany (1961), 157,
!58
shrinkage, 147, 162
shrinkage stress, 451
similitude requirement, 383
simplified aeroelastic model, 436
simulation
loading, 459
method, 309
single
box girder, 27, 70
cell box girder, 136
plane cable, 70, 282
plane stays, 13 6
plane system, 23, 72
pylon, 136
span, 104
strand anchorage, 203
tower, 24, 78, 80, 148
Sitka Ilarhor Bridge, USA (1972), 148,
149
Skew bridge, 87, 139
slenderness ratio, 358
sliding form, 63
SUBJECT INDEX
i'
469