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PUMP HANDBOOK
Thinking ahead makes it possible
Innovation is the essence
GRUNDFOS PUMP HANDBOOK
Phone: (913) 227-3400 L6H 6C9 C.P. 66600 Apodaca, N.L. Mexico
Telefax: (913) 227-3500 Phone: (905) 829-9533 Phone: 011-52-81-8144 4000
Telefax: (905) 829-9512 Telefax: 011-52-81-8144 4010
www.grundfos.com
PUMP HANDBOOK
Copyright law and international treaties protect this material. No part of this material
may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior written permission from
GRUNDFOS Pumps Corporation.
Trademarks and tradenames mentioned herein are the property of their respective owners.
Disclaimer
All reasonable care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the contents of this material;
however, GRUNDFOS shall not be liable or responsible for any loss whether direct, indirect,
incidental or consequential arising out of the use of or reliance upon any of the contents of
this material.
Foreword
Today’s processes place heavy demand on pumps when it comes to optimum operation,
high reliability and low energy consumption. Therefore, we have developed the
Grundfos Pump Handbook which, in a simple manner, deals with various considerations
when sizing pumps and pump systems.
This handbook, developed for engineers and technicians who work with design and the
installation of pumps and pump systems, includes answers to a wide range of technical
questions. The handbook can either be read from cover-to-cover or in part on specific
topics.
The handbook is divided into five chapters which deal with different phases when
designing pump systems.
We sincerely hope that you will find this handbook useful in your daily work.
Section 3.1 System characteristics ..................................................96 Section 5.1 Life cycle costs equation. ........................................... 128
3.1.1 Single resistances. ................................................................................97 5.1.1 Initial cost, purchase price (Cic).............................................. 129
3.1.2 Closed and open systems............................................................. 98 5.1.2 Installation and commissioning costs (Cin)................. 129
5.1.3 Energy costs (Ce).................................................................................. 130
Section 3.2 Pumps connected in parallel and series. ..................101 5.1.4 Operating costs including labor (Co)................................. 130
3.2.1 Pumps in parallel. ...............................................................................101 5.1.5 Environmental costs (Cenv).......................................................... 130
3.2.2 Pumps connected in series........................................................ 103 5.1.6 Maintenance and repair costs (Cm)..................................... 131
5.1.7 Downtime costs (loss of production) (Cs)...................... 131
5.1.8 Decommissioning or disposal costs (Cd). ....................... 131
Chapter 4 Performance adjustment
of pumps..................................................................................................... 105
Section 5.2 Life cycle costs calculation
Section 4.1 Adjusting pump performance...............................106 – an example.................................................................................................132
4.1.1 Throttle control. ...................................................................................107
4.1.2 Bypass control........................................................................................107 Appendix..........................................................................................................133
4.1.3 Modifying impeller diameter.................................................. 108 A) Notations and units..........................................................................134
4.1.4 Speed control......................................................................................... 108 B) Unit conversion tables...................................................................135
4.1.5 Comparison of adjustment methods...............................110 C) SI-prefixes and Greek alphabet............................................. 136
4.1.6 Overall efficiency of the pump system........................... 111 D) Vapor pressure and specific gravity of water at
4.1.7 Example: Relative power consumption different temperatures. ................................................................137
when the flow is reduced by 20%........................................ 111 E) Orifice ...........................................................................................................138
F) Change in static pressure due to change
Section 4.2 Speed-controlled pump solutions ..................... 114 in pipe diameter.................................................................................. 139
4.2.1 Constant pressure control..........................................................114 G) Nozzles. ....................................................................................................... 140
4.2.2 Constant temperature control. .............................................. 115 H) Nomogram for head losses in
4.2.3 Constant differential pressure in a bends, valves, etc....................................................................... 141-150
circulating system.............................................................................. 115 I) Periodic system..................................................................................... 151
4.2.4 Flow-compensated differential J) Pump standards...................................................................................152
pressure control...................................................................................116 K) Viscosity for typical liquids as a function
of liquid temperature. ............................................................153-157
Section 4.3 Advantages of speed control..................................117
Index .......................................................................................................... 158-162
Section 4.4 Advantages of pumps with integrated
frequency converter............................................................................... 118
4.4.1 Performance curves of speed-controlled
pumps. ..........................................................................................................119
4.4.2 Speed-controlled pumps in different systems.........119
See figure 1.1.1 for liquid flow through the pump. The
inlet of the pump leads the liquid to the center of the
rotating impeller from where it is flung towards the
periphery. This construction provides high efficiency
and is suitable for handling pure liquids. Pumps
which have to handle impure liquids, such as waste-
water pumps, are fitted with an impeller that pre- Radial flow pump Mixed flow pump Axial flow pump
vents objects from getting lodged inside the pump, Fig. 1.1.2: Different kinds of centrifugal pumps
see section 1.2.5.
Q [GPM]
10 100 1000 10000 100000
8
1.1.2 Pump curves H
[ft]
60
η
[%]
50
The performance of a centrifugal pump is shown by
40
a set of performance curves. The performance curves 70
30 60
for a centrifugal pump are shown in figure 1.1.4. Head, 50
20 Efficiency 40
power consumption, efficiency and NPSH are shown as 30
10 20
a function of the flow. 10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Q [GPM] 0
P2 NPSH
[hp]
Normally, pump curves in Grundfos product guides Power consumption
(ft)
0.6
only cover the liquid end hydraulic performance. 0.4
20
15
power going into the pump – see figure 1.1.4. The same
Fig. 1.1.4: Typical performance curves for a centrifugal
applies for efficiency value, which only covers the pump. Head, power consumption, efficiency and NPSH
liquid end (η = ηP). are shown as a function of the flow
information. 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Q [GPM]
9
Section 1.1
Pump construction
Efficiency, the η-curve side of the pump to avoid cavitation (see section
The efficiency is the relationship between the supplied 2.2.1). The NPSHr value is measured in [ft] and
power and the utilized amount of power. In the depends on the flow. When flow increases, the
world of pumps, the efficiency ηp is the relationship NPSHr value increases, see figure 1.1.9. For more
between the power which the pump delivers to the information concerning cavitation and NPSH, go to
water (PH) and the power input to the shaft (P2 ): section 2.2.1.
PH QH . SG
ηp = = η
P2 3960 x P2 [%]
80
70
60
where: 50
10
0
For water at 68oF and with Q measured in GPM and H 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 17 5 200 225 250 275 300 325 350 375
Q [GPM]
in ft, the hydraulic power can be calculated as: Fig. 1.1.7: The efficiency curve of a typical centrifugal
pump
PH = lb of liquid per minute . H
33,000
Q . H . SG 0
P2 = Q [GPM]
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 25 0 275 300 325
15
Required)
5
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325 Q [GPM]
The NPSHr value of a pump is the minimum absolute Fig. 1.1.9: The NPSH curve of a typical centrifugal
head pressure that has to be present at the suction pump
10
1.1.3 Characteristics of the
centrifugal pump
The centrifugal pump has several characteristics
and the most important ones are presented in this
chapter. A more thorough description of the different
pump types are given at the end of the chapter.
11
Section 1.1
Pump construction
End-suction
Horizontal
Single-stage Multistage
End-suction pump = Liquid runs directly into the impeller. Inlet and outlet have a
90° angle. See section 1.1.9
In-line pump = Liquid runs directly through the pump in-line. The suction pipe and the discharge
pipe are placed opposite one another and can be mounted directly in the piping system
Split-case pump = Pump with an axially divided pump housing. See section 1.2.2
Horizontal pump = Pump with a horizontal pump shaft
Vertical pump = Pump with a vertical pump shaft
Single-stage pump = Pump with a single impeller. See section 1.1.7
Multistage pump = Pump with several series-coupled stages. See section 1.1.8
Long-coupled pump = Pump connects to the motor by means of a flexible coupling. The motor and
the pump have separate bearing constructions. See section 1.1.9
Close-coupled pump = Pump connects to the motor by means of a rigid coupling. See section 1.1.9
12
In-line
Horizontal Vertical
Split-case
Single-stage Multistage
Single-stage
13
Section 1.1
Pump construction
14
1.1.6 Casing types Fig. 1.1.18: Single-suction
Radial forces
impeller
Radial force
vane.
15
Section 1.1
Pump construction
16
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
17
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
Liquid
1.2.3 Hermetically sealed pumps Seal
Atmosphere
The penetration point of the pump liquid by the
shaft that allows it to connect to the impeller has to
be sealed. Usually, this is addressed by a mechanical
shaft seal, see figure 1.2.5. The disadvantage of the
mechanical shaft seal is its poor handling of toxic
and aggressive liquids, which consequently leads to
leakage. This problem can often be solved by using a
double mechanical shaft seal. Another solution is to
use a hermetically sealed pump.
18
Magnetic-driven pumps
Outer magnets Inner magnets
In recent years, magnetic-driven pumps have become
increasingly popular for transferring aggressive and
toxic liquids.
Can
As shown in figure 1.2.8, the magnetic-driven pump is
made of two groups of magnets: An inner magnet and
an outer magnet. A non-magnetic can separate these
two magnets. The can serves as a hermetically sealed
barrier between the liquid and the atmosphere. As
it appears from figure 1.2.9, the outer magnet is
connected to the pump drive and the inner magnet
is connected to the pump shaft. The torque from
the pump drive is transmitted to the pump shaft by
means of attraction between the inner and outer
magnets. The pumped liquid serves as lubricant Fig. 1.2.8: Construction of magnetic drive
for the bearings in the pump. Therefore, sufficient
venting is crucial for the bearings.
Inner magnets
Can
Outer magnets
19
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
Precision casting
Rolled steel
Fig.1.2.12: Roughness of material surfaces
20
1.2.5 Wastewater pumps
Normally, wastewater pumps must be able to handle Fig. 1.2.14: Wastewater pump for dry
installations
large particles (i.e. 3-inch solids) and are fitted with
special impellers to avoid blockage and clogging.
Different types of impellers include: Single-channel
impellers, double-channel impellers, three and four-
channel impellers and vortex impellers. Figure 1.2.15
shows the different designs of these impellers.
21
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
22
1.2.7 Groundwater pumps
23
Section 1.2
Types of pumps
The flow of a centrifugal pump will change to the larger seal area of the rotary pump is greater.
considerably with back pressure. Changing back The pumps are typically designed with the finest
pressure on rotary pumps will result in a minimal flow tolerances possible to obtain the highest possible
change. However, the flow of the reciprocating pump efficiency and suction capability. However, in some
is almost constant with the back pressure change. cases, it is necessary to increase the tolerances,
The performance difference between reciprocating for example, when the pumps must handle highly
pumps and rotary pumps is due to the rotary pump’s viscous liquids, liquids containing large particles or
larger seal surface area. Even though the two pumps liquids of high temperature.
are designed with the same tolerances, the loss due
24
Metering pumps
The metering pump belongs to the positive displacement electrical parts caused by the solenoid operation,
pump family and is typically of the diaphragm type. stepper motor-driven diaphragm pumps enable a
Diaphragm pumps are leak-free, because the diaphragm more steady dose of additive.
forms a seal between the liquid and the surroundings.
+
Stepper motor drive design simplifies control of
both the suction side and the discharge side of
the pump. Compared to traditional electromagnetic-
driven diaphragm pumps which provide undesirable
pulsations as well as fast wearing of mechanical and
1.2.23: Stepper motor drive
25
Chapter 1. Design of pumps and motors
• No adjustment required
28
1.3.1 The mechanical shaft seal’s • The hydrodynamic lubricating film is created by
components and function pressure generated by the shaft’s rotation.
• The spring or metal bellows press the seal faces Fig. 1.3.3: Main components of the Primary seal
Spring force
Seal gap
29
Section 1.3
Mechanical shaft seals
Start of
evaporation 1.3.2 Balanced and unbalanced shaft
1 atm Exit into
atmosphere seals
To obtain an acceptable face pressure between the
primary seal faces, two kinds of seal types exist: A
balanced shaft seal and an unbalanced shaft seal.
Fig. 1.3.5: Optimum ratio between fine lubrication Unbalanced shaft seal
properties and limited leakage
Figure 1.3.7 shows an unbalanced shaft seal indicating
where the forces impact the seal.
The thickness of the lubricating film depends on the
pump speed, the liquid temperature, the viscosity
of the liquid and the axial forces of the mechanical Contact area of seal faces
shaft seal. The liquid in the seal gap is continuously Contact area of seal faces
Hydraulic forces
Spring forces
renewed due to: Hydraulic forces
Deposits on the seal faces may cause leakage. When Several different forces have an axial impact on the
using coolant agents, deposits build up quickly from seal faces. The spring and the hydraulic forces from the
evaporation at the atmosphere side of the seal. pumped liquid press the seal together while the force
When the liquid evaporates in the evaporation zone, from the lubricating film in the seal gap counteracts
microscopic solids in the liquid remain in the seal this. With high liquid pressure, the hydraulic forces
gap as deposits, causing wear. These deposits are can be so powerful that the lubricant in the seal
seen with most types of liquid. When the pumped gap cannot counteract the contact between the seal
liquid crystallizes, it can become a problem. The best faces. Because the hydraulic force is proportionate
way to prevent wear is to select seal faces made of to the area that the liquid pressure affects, the axial
hard material such as WC (tungsten carbide) or SiC impact can only be reduced by obtaining a reduction
(silicon carbide). The narrow seal gap between these of the pressure-loaded area.
materials (approx. Ra 0.3 µin) minimizes the risk of The balancing ratio (K) of a mechanical shaft seal is
solids entering the seal gap, resulting in less buildup
of deposits.
30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
defined as the ratio between the area A and the area Comparative wear
Temperature (oC)
rates valid for water
B : K=A/B K = 1.15
K = 1.00
K = 0.85
K = Balancing ratio
A = Area exposed to hydraulic pressure
B = Contact area of seal faces
Bellows seals
Common to bellows seals is a rubber or metal bellows
which functions as a dynamic sealing element Rubber bellows seal with folding
bellows geometry
between the rotating ring and the shaft.
Advantages and
disadvantages of
Rubber bellows seals
rubber bellows seal
The bellows of a rubber bellows seal (see figure 1.3.10)
can be made of different types of rubber, such as NBR, Advantages:
Not sensitive to deposits,
EPDM, Buna-N and FKM, depending on the operating such as rust, on the shaft
conditions. Two designs are used for rubber bellows:
Suitable for pumping
solid-containing liquids
• Folding bellows
• Rolling bellows Disadvantages:
Not suitable in hot liquid and
high pressure applications
Fig. 1.3.10: Rubber bellows seal
31
Section 1.3
Mechanical shaft seals
• Preloaded spring
• Safe handling
Flushing
32
Double mechanical shaft seals
Quench liquid
and the double seal in a back-to-back arrangement. •
Pumped liquid •
This seal consists of two mechanical shaft seals Fig. 1.3.14: Tandem seal arrangement with external barrier
Pumped liquid
•
• Absorbs leakage
• Monitors the leakage rate Quench liquid
Pumped liquid •
Pumped liquid
vacuum
•
Tandem - circulation
For external barrier liquid circulation via a pressureless
tank, see figure 1.3.14. External barrier liquid from the
elevated tank circulates by thermosiphon action and/or
by the pumping action in the seal.
Pumped •
liquid •
liquid •
Pumped •
liquid
figure 1.3.15. No heat is dissipated from the system.
•
Tandem - drain
Fig. 1.3.16: Tandem seal arrangement with external barrier liquid
The external barrier liquid runs through the seal chamber
to drain
to be collected for reuse or directed to drain, see figure
1.3.16.
33
Section 1.3
Mechanical shaft seals
The back-to-back double seal consists of two shaft • Extremely wear resistant
seals mounted back-to-back in a separate seal chamber, • Very robust; resists rough handling
see figure 1.3.17. The back-to-back double seal protects the • Poor dry-running properties. In case of dry-running, the
surrounding environment and the people working temperature increases to several hundred degrees
with the pump. Fahrenheit in just a few minutes and consequently damages
the O-rings.
The pressure in the seal chamber must be 14.5-29 psi higher
than the pump pressure. The pressure can be generated If a certain pressure and temperature are exceeded, the
by: seal may generate noise. Noise is an indication of poor
seal operating conditions that, in the long term, may cause
• An existing, separate pressure source. Many wear of the seal. The limits of use depend on seal face
applications incorporate pressurized systems. diameter and design.
• A separate pump, e.g. a metering pump A WC/WC seal face pair might be noisy during the break in
period. Usually the noise dissapears after a couple of days
1.3.4 Seal face material combinations of operation. In some cases noise may last up to
3-4 weeks.
What follows is a description of the most important
material combinations used in mechanical shaft seals for
34
Silicon carbide/silicon carbide In warm water, the Q 1P / Q 1P face material pair generates
less noise than the WC/WC pair; however, noise from
Silicon carbide/silicon carbide (SiC/SiC) is an alternative porous SiC seals must be expected during the running-in
to WC/WC and is used where higher corrosion resistance wear period of 3-4 days.
is required.
Q 1G self-lubricating, sintered SiC
The SiC/SiC material pair has the following features:
Several variants of SiC materials containing dry lubricants
• Very brittle material requiring careful handling are available on the market. The designation Q1G applies
to a SiC material which is suitable for use in distilled or
• Extremely wear resistant demineralized water, as opposed to the above materials.
• High resistance to corrosion. SiC (Q 1s, Q 1P and Q 1G ) hardly Pressure and temperature limits of Q 1G / Q 1G are similar to
corrodes, independent of the pumped liquid type with those of Q 1P / Q 1P.
the exception of water with very poor conductivity, such as
demineralized water, which attacks the SiC variants Q 1s The dry lubricants, such as graphite, reduce the friction in
and Q 1P. Q 1G is also corrosion - resistant in demineralized case of dry-running and are critical to the durability of a
water seal during dry-running.
• In general, these material pairs have poor dry-running Carbon/tungsten carbide or carbon/
properties. However, the Q 1G / Q 1G material withstands silicon carbide features
a limited period of dry-running due to the graphite
content of the material Seals with one carbon seal face have the following
features:
For different purposes, SiC/SiC variants include:
• Brittle material requiring careful handling
Q 1s, dense-sintered, fine-grained SiC
• Are worn by liquids containing solid particles
A dense-sintered, fine-grained SiC with a small amount of
tiny pores. • Good corrosion resistance
For a number of years, this SiC variant was used as a • Good dry-running properties (temporary dry-running)
standard mechanical shaft seal material. Pressure and
temperature limits are slightly below those of WC/WC. • Self-lubricating properties (of carbon) make the seal
suitable for use even with poor lubricating conditions
P
Q 1 , porous, sintered, fine-grained SiC (high temperature) without generating noise. However,
such conditions will cause wear of the carbon seal face
This porous-sintered SiC variant has large circular closed leading to reduced seal life. The wear depends on
pores. The degree of porosity is 5-15% and the size of the pressure, temperature, liquid diameter and seal
pores is Ra 10-50 µin. The pressure and temperature limits design. Low speeds reduce the lubrication between
exceed those of WC/WC. the seal faces resulting in possible increased wear
However, since the distance that the seal faces have
to move is reduced, a shorter seal life may not be
experienced
35
Section 1.3
Mechanical shaft seals
• Metal-impregnated carbon (A) offers limited corro- • The centrifugal pumping action of the seal’s rotating
sion resistance, but improved mechanical strength and parts increases power consumption dramatically with
heat conductivity, thus reducing wear the speed of rotation (to the third power)
• With reduced mechanical strength, but higher • The seal face friction
corrosion resistance, synthetic resin-impregnated Friction between the two seal faces consists of
carbon (B) covers a wide application field. Synthetic – friction in the thin liquid film and
resin-impregnated carbon is suitable for drinking – friction due to points of contact between the seal faces
water
The amount of power consumed depends on seal design,
• The use of carbon/SiC for hot water applications may lubricating conditions and seal face materials.
cause heavy wear of the SiC, depending on the
quality of the carbon and water. This type of wear
primarily applies to Q1 S/carbon. The use of Q1 P,
Power loss (hp)
Q 1G or a carbon/WC pair causes far less wear. Thus, 0.25
0.1
3600
0.05
Energy consumption
36
Energy consumption is, especially in connection with
Standard pump 50 ft WCH; 2 inch shaft
packed stuffing box, an important issue. Replacing
Energy consumption
a stuffing box with a mechanical shaft seal leads to
Stuffing box 2.0 kwh
considerable energy savings, see figure 1.3.19.
Mechanical shaft seal 0.3 kwh
Leakage
Stuffing box .02 GPD (when mounted correctly)
Noise Mechanical shaft seal .005 GPD
The choice of seal face materials is critical for the Fig. 1.3.19: Stuffing box versus mechanical shaft seal
function and the life of the mechanical shaft seal.
Noise is generated as a result of the poor lubricating
conditions in seals handling low viscosity liquids. The
viscosity of water decreases with increasing temperature. psi
conditions. A speed reduction has the same effect, see 150 Speed at 3600 rpm
figure 1.3.20. 100
Speed at 3000 rpm
Speed at 1800 rpm
50
Speed at 1200 rpm
0
Leakage 0 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 °F
37
Chapter 1. Design of pumps and motors
1.4.1 Standards
1.4.2 Motor start-up
1.4.3 Voltage supply
1.4.4 Frequency converter
1.4.5 Motor protection
Section 1.4
Motors
1.4.1 Standards
NEMA IEC
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
sets standards for a wide range of electric products, including sets standards for motors used in many countries
motors. NEMA is primarily associated with motors used in around the world. The IEC 60034 standard contains
North America. The standards represent general industry recommended electrical practices that have been
practices and are supported by the manufacturers of electric developed by the participating IEC countries.
equipment. The standards can be found in NEMA Standard
Publication No. MG1. Some large motors may not fall under
NEMA standards.
40
Introduction to potentially explosive Area Classification
atmospheres Process plants are divided into Divisions (North American
method) or Zones (European and IEC method) according
Potentially explosive atmospheres exist where there to the likelihood of a potentially explosive atmosphere
is a risk of explosion due to mixtures of gas/air, vapor/ being present.
air, dust/air or other flammable combinations. In such Note: North American legislation now allows Zones
areas there is a need to eliminate ignition sources such to classify areas, and when used, the IEC Zone method
as sparks, hot surfaces or static electricity which may is followed. See figure 1.4.3.
ignite these mixtures.
When electrical equipment is used where there is
risk of explosion, the area must be so designed and Gas Groups (plus dusts and fibers)
constructed to avoid sources of ignition capable of There are two main gas groups: Group I - Mining only
igniting these mixtures. Before electrical equipment and Group II - Surface Industries.
can be used in a potentially explosive atmosphere, These categories are used in European and I.E.C.
a represenative sample must be fully tested and groupings.
certified by an independent authority such as UL in Group I gases relate to underground mining where
the U.S.A. methane and coal dust are present.
This information is intended as a guide only, and further Group II gases relate to surface industries and
expert guidance should be sought before placing are sub-grouped according to their volatility. This
the equipment into service or before maintaining enables electrical equipment to be designed with
or repairing any item of equipment in a potentially less onerous tolerances if it is to be used with the
explosive atmosphere. Where showing comparisons, least volatile gases. See figure 1.4.4.
i.e., North American and European practices, these may
be approximations and individual standards/codes of
practice should be observed for precise details.
European & IEC Classification Definition of zone or division North American Classification
Zone 0 (ga ses) A n a rea in which a n explosive mixture is C la ss I Division 1 (ga ses)
Zone 2 0 (dusts) continuously present or present for long periods C la ss II Division 1 (dusts)
Zone 1 (ga ses) A n a rea in which a n explosive mixture is C la ss I Division 1 (ga ses)
Zone 2 1 (dusts) likely to occur in norma l opera tion C la ss II Division 1 (dusts)
Zone 2 (ga ses) A n a rea in which a n explosive mixture is not C la ss I Division 2 (ga ses)
Zone 2 2 (dusts) likely to occur in norma l opera tion a nd if it C la ss II Division 2 (dusts)
occurs it will exist only for a short time Class III Division 1 (fibers)
Class III Division 2 (fibers)
Fig. 1.4.3: Area Classification
41
Section 1.4
Motors
North American practice for general electrical requirements, e.g. light fittings.
After successful testing, a listing is issued allowing
Sample equipment and supporting documentation the manufacturer to place the product on the market.
are submitted to the appropriate authority, e.g U.L., The product is marked with the certification details
F.M., C.S.A. Equipment is tested in accordance with such as the gas groups A,B,C,D and the area of use,
relevant standards for explosion protection and also e.g. Class 1 Division 1.
42
Temperature Temperature Classification
Maximum Surface Temperature
North America European/IEC
T1 T1 842 ° F
Hot surfaces can ignite explosive atmospheres. To prevent T2 T2 5 7 2° F
T2 A 5 3 6° F
this from happening, all electrical equipment intended T2 B 5 00° F
for use in a potentially explosive atmosphere is classified T2 C 4 4 6° F
T2 D 41 9° F
according to the maximum surface temperature it will
T3 T3 3 92 ° F
reach while in service. This maximum temperature is T3 A 3 5 6° F
T3 B 3 2 9° F
normally based on a surrounding ambient temperature of T3 C 3 2 0° F
104° F (40° C). This temperature can then be compared to T4 T4 27 5 ° F
the ignition temperature of the gas(es) which may come T4A 2 4 8° F
T5 T5 21 2° F
into contact with the equipment and a judgement can be T6 T6 185° F
reached as to the suitabillity of the equipment to be used Fig 1.4.6����������������������������
:���������������������������
Temperature classification
in that area, see figure 1.4.6.
and the second digit stands for protection against
ingress of water, see figure 1.4.7.
NEMA Motor Enclosures
Drain holes enable the escape of water entering the
The following describes NEMA Motor Enclosures:
starter housing, i.e., through condensation. When
the motor is installed in a damp environment, the
• Open Drip Proof (ODP)
bottom drain hole should be opened. Opening the
Internal fan pulls air in, blows it across windings
drain hole changes the motor’s enclosure class from
inside motor and exits opposite drive end. Motor is
IP55 to IP44.
protected from drops of liquid or particles falling at any
First digit Second digit
angle from 0-15 degrees.
Protection against contact and Protection against
ingress of solid objects ingress of water
• TEFC-Totally Enclosed
0 No special protection 0 No special protection
External fan pulls air in through fan cover and blows it over
1 The motor is protected against 1 The motor is protected against
the exterior (only) surface of the motor. More resistant to solid objects bigger than vertically falling drops of water,
55 mm, e.g. a hand such as condensed water
the liquid and particles.
2 The motor is protected against 2 The motor is protected against
• Washdown - Totally Enclosed Spray Proof objects bigger than 12 mm, e.g. vertically falling drops of water,
a finger even if the motor is tilted at an
Corrosion-resistant. There can be a HP limit for rolled angle of 15 degrees
3 The motor is protected against
steel frame motors. Cast Iron finned motors do not meet solid objects bigger than 25 mm, 3 The motor is protected against
i.e. wires, tools, etc. water spray falling at an angle
FDA requirements. of 60 degrees from vertical
4 The motor is protected against
• Explosion Proof (xp) solid objects bigger than 1 mm,
e.g. wires
4 The motor is protected against
water splashing from any
Enclosed motor designed to withstand an explosion 5 The motor is protected against
direction
of a specified dust, gas or vapor according to explosive ingress of dust 5 The motor is protected against
water being projected from a
environment standards. 6 The motor is completely
dust-proof
nozzle from any direction
protection against contact and ingress of solid objects, Fig 1.4.7: Two-digit IP enclosure class identification (IEC)
43
Section 1.4
Motors
Frame size
2F
Distance between
Fig 1.4.8: Frame size holes
Insulation class
Hot-spot overtemperature
[°f] 356
The insulation class is defined in the NEMA standard 15
and tells something about how robust the insulation 311
10
system is relative to motor operating temperatures. 266
248 10
The life of an insulation material is highly dependent
on the temperature to which it is exposed. The various
insulation materials and systems are classified into Maximum temperature increase 176 221 257
B F H
44
1 2 3
Frame Size Shaft end Rated power (TEFC Motors)
(C-face motors) diameter 2-pole 4-pole 6-pole 8-pole
[in] [HP] [HP] [HP] [HP]
42C 0.375 In these fractional size motors, specific frame assignments
48C 0.5 have not been made by horsepower and speed. It is possible
56C 0.625 for more than one HP and speed combination to be found in a
66C 0.75 given frame size.
143TC 0.875 1.5 1
145TC 0.875 2 1.5, 2.0 1
182TC 1.125 3 3 1.5 1
184TC 1.125 5 5 2 1.5
213TC 1.375 7.5 7.5 3 2
215TC 1.375 10 10 5 3
254TC 1.625 15 15 7.5 5
256TC 1.625 20 20 10 7.5
284TC 1.875 25 15 10
286TC 1.875 30 20 15
284TSC 1.625 25
286TSC 1.625 30
324TC 2.125 40 25 20
326TC 2.125 50 30 25
324TSC 1.875 40
326TSC 1.875 50
364TC 2.375 60 40 30
365TC 2.375 75 50 40
364TSC 1.875 60
365TSC 1.875 75
404TC 2.875 60 50
405TC 2.875 100 75 60
404TSC 2.125
405TSC 2.125 100
444TC 3.375 125 100 75
445TC 3.375 150 125 100
444TSC 2.375 125
445TSC 2.375 150
Fig 1.4.10: The relationship between frame size and power input
45
Section 1.4
Motors
Star/delta starting (SD) Reduction of starting current by a factor of 3. Current pulses when switching over from star to delta.
(Y/∆) Not suitable if the load has a low inertia.
Reduced locked-rotor torque.
Autotransformer starting Reduction of locked-rotor current and torque. Current pulses when switching from reduced to full voltage.
Reduced locked-rotor torque.
As the name suggests, direct-on-line starting (DOL) As the name states, autotransformer starting makes
means that the motor is started by connecting it use of an autotransformer. The autotransformer
directly to the supply at rated voltage. Direct-on- is placed in series with the motor during start and
line starting is suitable for stable supplies as well varies the voltage up to nominal voltage in two to
as mechanically stiff and well-dimensioned shaft four steps.
systems, i.e. pumps. Whenever applying the direct-
on-line starting method, it is important to consult local Soft starter
authorities.
A soft starter is a device which ensures a soft start of
Star/delta starting a motor. This is done by raising the voltage within a
preset voltage rise time.
The objective of this starting method, which is used
with three-phase induction motors, is to reduce Frequency converter starting
the starting current. Current supply to the starter
windings is connected in star (Y) configuration Frequency converters are designed for continuous
for starting. Current supply is reconnected to the feeding of motors, but they can also be used for soft
windings in delta (∆) configuration once the motor starting.
has gained speed.
46
1.4.3 Voltage supply Typical North America voltage examples
60 Hz
The motor’s rated voltage lies within a certain voltage 60 Hz motors come with the following voltages:
range. Figure 1.4.12 shows typical voltage range
• 1 x 115 – 230 ∆ / 346 – 400 Y
examples for 60 Hz motors. • 1 x 115/208-230
• 1 x 208-230
• 1 x 230
According to the NEMA standard, the motor has to • 3 x 208-230/460
be able to operate with a main voltage tolerance of • 3 x 230/460
• 3 x 575
± 10% from the lowest and highest voltage in the
range.
Fig 1.4.12: Typical voltages
47
Section 1.4
Motors
48
Motor efficiency Motors can fail due to overload for long periods of
time so are often intentionally oversized and operate
In general, electric motors are quite efficient. Some at 75% to 80% of their full load capacity. At this
have electricity-to-shaft power efficiencies of 80- level of loading, motor efficiency and power remain
93% depending on the motor size and sometimes relatively high, but when motor load is less than 25%,
even higher for bigger motors. There are two types of efficiency and power decrease.
energy losses in electric motors: Load-dependent and
load-independent losses. Motor efficiency drops quickly below a certain
percentage of rated load. Therefore, it is important
Load-dependent losses vary with the square of the to size the motor so that losses associated with
current and cover: running the motor too far below its rated capacity
are minimized. It is common to choose a motor that
• Stator winding losses (copper losses) meets the power requirements of the pump.
• Rotor losses (slip losses)
• Stray losses (in different parts of the motor) 1.4.5 Motor protection
Load-independent losses in the motor refer to: Motors are usually protected against high
temperatures that can damage the insulation
• Iron losses (core losses) system. Depending on motor construction and
• Mechanical losses (friction) application, thermal protection can also prevent
damaging temperatures in the frequency converter
Motors are categorized according to efficiency. The if it is mounted on the motor.
most important classifications are Environmental
Protection Act in the US (EPact) and CEMEP in the Thermal protection varies with motor type. Motor
European Union (EFF1, EFF2 and EFF3). construction and its power consumption must be
1 100
considered when choosing thermal protection.
Generally, motors must be protected against the
0.8 80
following:
0.6 60
Percent
0.4 40
Fig 1.4.14: Efficiency vs. load the windings:
and power vs. load
0.2 20 Efficiency
(schematic drawing) • Slow overload
Power factor
• Long start-up periods
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Per cent of rated load • Reduced cooling / lack of cooling
100 • Increased ambient temperature
100 hp
90
10 hp • Frequent starts and stops
80
70 1 hp
• Frequency fluctuation
60
• Voltage fluctuation
Efficiency %
50
Fig 1.4.15: The relationship Errors causing fast temperature increase in
40
between efficiency and rated
30
load of different the windings:
20 sized motors (schematic • Blocked rotor
drawing)
10
• Phase failure
0
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175
Percent of rated load
49
Thermal protection Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC thermistors) can
be fitted into the windings of a motor during production
A motor’s thermal protection (TP) is provided by a or afterwards. Usually three PTCs are fitted in series; one
temperature-sensing device that is built in to the in each phase of the winding.They can be purchased
motor. When motor temperature becomes excessively with trip temperatures ranging from 194°F to 356°F.
hot due to failure-to-start or overloading, the sensor PTCs have to be connected to a thermistor relay which
device shuts off the motor. This is especially important detects the rapid increase in resistance of the thermistor
for motors that start automatically, are unattended, when it reaches its trip temperature.
or for motors that are located remotely or operated
off-sight. Thermal switch and thermostats
Thermal switches are small bi-metallic switches that
The basic types of temperature sensing devices include: change state due to the temperature. They are available
• Automatic Reset - The thermal protector with a wide range of trip temperatures; normally open
automatically restores power after the motor cools. and closed types, with closed being the most common.
Note: This should not be used where unexpected One or two, in series, are usually fitted in the windings
restarting would be hazardous. like thermistors and can be connected directly to the
circuit of the main contactor coil, requiring no relay. This
• Manual Reset - Power to the motor is type of protection is less expensive than thermistors;
restored by pushing an external button. This type however, it is less sensitive and is not able to detect a
is preferred where unexpected restarts would be locked rotor failure.
hazardous.
Thermal switches are also referred to as Klixon thermal
• Impedance Protected - The motor is designed to switches and Protection thermal overload (PTO). Thermal
protect itself under locked rotor (stalled) switches always carry a TP111 designation.
conditions, in accordance with UL standards.
Single-phase motors
Single-phase motors normally come with thermal
According to the IEC 60034-11 standard, the thermal
protection. Thermal protection usually has an
protection (TP) of the motor has to be indicated on the
automatic reclosing. This implies that the motor has
nameplate with a TP designation. Figure 1.4.16 shows
to be connected to the main voltage supply in a way
an overview of the TP designations.
to ensure that accidents caused by the automatic
reclosing are avoided.
Symbol Technical overload with Number of levels and Category 1
variation (1 digit) function area (2 digits) (3 digits) Three-phase motors
TP 111 1
Only slow
1 level at cutoff
2
Three-phase motors have to be protected according
TP 112
TP 121
(i.e. constant 2 levels at emergency 1 to local regulations. This kind of motor usually has
overload) signal and cutoff 2
TP 122 contacts for resetting in the external control circuit.
TP 211 1
Slow and fast 1 level at cutoff
TP 212 2
(i.e. constant overload
TP 221 and blocked condition ) 2 levels at emergency 1
TP 222 signal and cutoff 2
PTC thermistors
TP 311 Only fast
(i.e. blocked condition)
1 level at cutoff
1
TP 312 2
Indication of the permissible temperature level when the motor is exposed to thermal
overload. Category 2 allows higher temperatures than category 1 does.
50
Space Heater The fixed bearing in the drive end can be a deep-groove
ball bearing or an angular contact bearing.
A heating element ensures the standby heating of
the motor and is used with applications that struggle Bearing clearances and tolerances are stated according
with humidity and condensation. By using the space to ISO 15 and ISO 492. Because bearing manufacturers
heater, the motor is warmer than the surroundings, must fulfill these standards, bearings are internationally
and thereby, the relative air humidity inside the motor interchangeable.
is always lower than 100%.
In order to rotate freely, a ball bearing must have a
certain internal clearance between the raceway and
the balls. Without this internal clearance, the bearings
can be difficult to rotate or they may seize up and
be unable to rotate. Conversely, too much internal
clearance will result in an unstable bearing that may
generate excessive noise or allow the shaft to wobble.
51
Section 1.4
Motors
Strong outward pull Fixed angular contact bearing Deep-groove ball bearing (C3)
on the shaft end
Moderate forces.
Primarily outward pull on Fixed deep-groove ball bearing (C3) Deep-groove ball bearing (C3)
the shaft end (partly
hydraulically relieved in
the pump)
Small forces
(flexible coupling) Fixed deep-groove ball bearing (C3) Deep-groove ball bearing (C3)
Strong inward Deep-groove ball bearing (C4) Fixed angular contact bearing
pressure
Fig:1.4.19: Typical types of bearings in pump motors
Motors with permanently lubricated bearings The grease zerks are visible and are easily accessible.
For closed permanently lubricated bearings, one of The motor is designed so that:
the following high temperature resistant types of
• there is a flow of grease around the bearing
grease are normally used:
• new grease enters the bearing
• old grease is removed from the bearing
• Lithium-based grease
• Polyurea-based grease Motors with lubricating systems are normally labeled
on the fan cover and are supplied with a lubricating
instruction. Apart from that, instructions are given in
Motors with lubrication system the installation and operating instructions.
Many integral size motors have lubricating nipples
for the bearings both in the drive end and the non- The lubricant is often a lithium-based, high
drive end. This may vary by manufacturer. temperature grease. The basic oil viscosity must be:
52
Chapter 1. Design of pumps and motors
53
Section 1.5
Liquids
The viscosity of a liquid changes considerably with the Water 68 62.4 1.004
change in temperature; hot oil is thinner than cold oil. As Gasoline 68 45.75 0.75
you can tell from figure 1.5.1, a 50% propylene glycol liquid Olive oil 68 56.18 93
increases its viscosity 10 times when the temperature 50% Propylene glycol 68 65.11 6.4
50% Propylene glycol -4 66.23 68.7
changes from +68 to –4oF.
Fig. 1.5.1: Comparison of viscosity values for water and a few
For more information concerning liquid viscosity, go to other liquids. Density values and temperatures are also shown
Appendix K.
54
1.5.2 Non-Newtonian liquids freezing. When glycol or a similar antifreeze agent
is added to the pumped liquid, the liquid obtains
The liquids discussed so far are referred to as properties different from those of water. The liquid
will have a:
Newtonian fluids. The viscosity of Newtonian liquids
is not affected by the magnitude and the motion that
• Lower freezing point, tf [°F]
they are exposed to. Mineral oil and water are typical • Lower specific heat, cp [btu/lbm °F]
examples of this type of liquid. On the other hand, • Lower thermal conductivity, λ [btu ft/h ft2 °F]
the viscosity of non-Newtonian liquids does change • Higher boiling point, tb [°F]
when agitated. • Higher coefficient of expansion, β [ft/°F]
• Higher density, ρ [lb/ft3]
A few examples of non-Newtonion liquids include: • Higher kinematic viscosity, ν [cSt]
• Dilatant liquids, like cream, exhibit a viscosity
These properties must be considered when designing
increase when agitated
a system and selecting pumps. As mentioned, the
higher density requires increased motor power and
• Plastic fluids, like ketchup, have a yield value which the higher viscosity reduces pump head, flow rate
must be exceeded before the flow starts. From that and efficiency resulting in a need for increased motor
point on, the viscosity decreases with an increase power, see figure 1.5.2.
in agitation
55
Section 1.5
Liquids
Pump curve corrections for pumps handling Fig. 1.5.3: It is possible to determine the correction factor for head
and power consumption at different flow, head and viscosity
high viscous liquid
values
Based on knowledge about required duty point,
flow (QS,), head (HS,) and kinematic viscosity of the
pumped liquid, the correction factors of H and P2 can
be found, see figure 1.5.3.
56
Figure 1.5.3 is read in the following way: H
HW = kH . HS
Mixture
ρs
P2S = kP2 . P2w .
( )
ρw
Qs
3
Q
P
where
HW : is the equivalent head of the pump if the P2s
Mixture
ρ 5
pumped liquid is “clean” water ( )
P2S = KP2 . P2w . ρ s
w
P2w Water
P2W : is the shaft power at the duty point (QS,HW) 4
when the pumped liquid is water
The pump selection is based on the normal data • Read the power input P2w at the duty point (Qs,Hw),
sheets/curves applying to water. The pump should see figure 1.5.4 lines 3 and 4
cover the duty point flow and head, and the motor
should be powerful enough to handle the power • Based on P2w, kp2, ρw, and ρs calculate the cor-
input on the shaft. rected required shaft power P2s, see figure 1.5.4, lines
4 and 5
Figure 1.5.4 shows how to proceed when selecting a
pump and testing whether the motor is within the • Check if P2s is less than P2 max of the motor. If that is
power range allowed. the case, the motor can be used. Otherwise select a
more powerful motor
57
Section 1.5
Liquids
50
4
ρS
P2S = kP2 . P2w . 2
ρw 0
Q [GPM]
Fig. 1.5.5: Pump performance curves
1049
P2S = 1.15 . 3.8 . = 4.6 hp
998
58
Chapter 1. Design of pumps and motors
60
1.6.2 Types of corrosion
Uniform corrosion
Uniform or general corrosion is characterized by
corrosive attacks spreading evenly over the entire
surface or on a large part of the total area. General
thinning continues until the metal is broken down.
Uniform corrosion results in waste of most of the
metal. Fig. 1.6.3: Uniform corrosion
Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a localized form of a corrosive
attack. Pitting corrosion forms holes or pits on the
metal surface. It perforates the metal while the total
corrosion, measured by weight loss, might be rather Fig. 1.6.4: Pitting corrosion
minimal. The rate of penetration may be 10 to 100
times that of general corrosion depending on the
aggressiveness of the medium. Pitting occurs more
often in a stagnant environment.
61
1. Design
Sectionof
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump construction, (10)
Crevice corrosion
Crevice corrosion, like pitting corrosion, is a localized
form of corrosion attack. However, crevice corrosion
is more aggressive. Crevice corrosion occurs at narrow
openings or spaces between two metal surfaces
or between metals and non-metal surfaces and
is usually associated with a stagnant condition in
the crevice. Crevices, such as those found at flange
joints or at threaded connections, are often the most
critical spots for corrosion. Fig. 1.6.5: Crevice corrosion
Intergranular corrosion
Intergranular corrosion occurs at grain boundaries.
Intergranular corrosion, also called intercrystalline
corrosion, typically occurs when chromium carbide
precipitates at the grain boundaries during the
welding process or in connection with insufficient
heat treatment. A narrow region around the grain
boundary may become deplete in chromium and
become less resistant to corrosion than the rest of
the material. This is unfortunate because chromium
plays an important role in corrosion resistance. Fig. 1.6.6: Intergranular corrosion
62
Erosion corrosion
Flow
Erosion corrosion is a process whereby the rate of
corrosion attack is accelerated by the relative motion
of a corrosive liquid and a metal surface. The attack
is localized in areas with high velocity or turbulent
flow. Erosion corrosion attacks are characterized by
grooves with a directional pattern.
Cavitation corrosion
Cavitation corrosion occurs when a pumped liquid
with high velocity reduces the pressure, and it drops
below the liquid vapor pressure forming vapor
bubbles. In the areas where the vapor bubbles form,
the liquid boils. When the pressure rises again,
the vapor bubbles collapse and produce intensive
shockwaves. Consequently, the collapse of the vapor
bubbles remove metal or oxide from the surface.
Fig. 1.6.9: Cavitation corrosion
Examples of metals that are subject to cavitation:
• Cast iron in water at high temperature
• Bronze in seawater
Examples of metals that are subject to SCC: Fig. 1.6.10: Stress corrosion cracking
• Stainless steel AISI 316 (EN 1.4401) in chlorides
• Brass in ammonia
63
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump construction, (10)
Corrosion fatigue
<
Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when a corrosive electrolyte
and two metallic materials are in contact (galvanic
cell) and corrosion increases on the least noble
material (the anode) and decreases on the noblest
material (the cathode). The tendency of a metal or
an alloy to corrode in a galvanic cell is determined by Aluminium - less noble
Fig. 1.6.12: Galvanic corrosion Copper - most noble
its position in the galvanic series. The galvanic series
indicates the relative nobility of different metals
and alloys in a given environment (e.g. seawater,
see figure 1.6.13).The farther apart the metals are
in the galvanic series, the greater the galvanic
corrosion effect will be. Metals or alloys at the upper
end are more noble than those at the lower end.
64
1.6.3 Metal and metal alloys
Steel
Erosion corrosion of cast iron impeller Steel is a widely used material primarily composed
of iron alloyed with carbon. The amount of carbon
in steel varies in the range from 0.003% to 1.5% by
weight. The content of carbon has an important
impact on the material’s strength, weldability,
machinability, ductility, and hardness. Generally, an
increase in carbon content will lead to an increase in
strength and hardness but to a decrease in ductility
and weldability. The most common type of steel
is carbon steel. Carbon steel is grouped into four
Pitting corrosion of AISI 316 (EN 1.4401)
categories, see figure 1.6.14.
0.0394 inch
Type of steel Content of carbon
65
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump construction, (10)
ASTM 0 ASTM
Fig 1.6.15: Comparison and designations of grey iron Fig 1.6.16: Comparison and designations of nodular iron
66
In environments containing chlorides, stainless steel resistance is taken into consideration. The higher the
can be attacked by localized corrosion, such as pitting PRE, the higher the resistance to localized corrosion. Be
corrosion and crevice corrosion. The resistance of aware that the PRE value is a rough estimate of the pitting
stainless steel to these types of corrosion is highly resistance of a stainless steel and should only be used for
dependent on its chemical composition. It is common comparison/classification of different types of stainless
to use the so-called Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE) steel. To follow, the four major types of stainless steel:
values as a measure of pitting resistance for stainless ferritic, martensitic, austenitic and duplex are presented.
steel. PRE values are calculated by formulas where
the relative influence of a few alloying elements
(chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen) on the pitting
Austenitic 1)
1.4409/CF3M/ J92800 0.03 18-20 9-12 2-2.5 N max. 0.2 26
Austenitic 1.4584/none/ none 0.025 19-21 24-26 4-5 N max. 0.2 35
Cu 1-3
Ferritic/
austenitic 1.4470/CD3MN/ J92205 0.03 21-23 4.5-6.5 2.5-3.5 N 0.12-0.2 35
67
1. Design
Sectionof
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump construction, (10)
Ferritic (magnetic)
Ferritic stainless steel is characterized by good If low carbon grades of stainless steel are used, the
corrosion properties, resistance to stress corrosion risk of sensitization is reduced. Stainless steel with
cracking, and moderate toughness. Low alloyed a low content of carbon is referred to as AISI 316L
ferritic stainless steel is used in mild environments (EN 1.4306), or AISI 304L (EN 1.4404). Both grades
(teaspoons, kitchen sinks, washing machine drums, contain 0.03% of carbon compared to 0.07% in the
etc.) where maintenance-free and non-rusting is regular type of stainless steel, AISI 304 (EN 1.4301)
required. and AISI 316 (EN 1.4401), see illustration 1.6.17.
68
Nickel alloys Copper alloys
Nickel based alloys are defined as alloys in which Pure copper has excellent thermal and electrical
nickel is present in greater proportion than any properties but is a very soft and ductile material.
other alloying element. The most important Alloying additions result in different cast and
alloying constituents are iron, chromium, copper, wrought materials suitable for use in the production
and molybdenum. The alloying constituents make it of pumps, pipelines, fittings, pressure vessels and
possible to form a wide range of alloy classes. Nickel for many marine, electrical and general engineering
and nickel alloys have the ability to withstand a wide applications.
variety of severe operating conditions, including
corrosive environments, high temperatures, high
stresses or a combination of these factors.
69
1. Design
Sectionof
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump construction, (10)
Aluminum Titanium
Pure aluminum is a light and soft metal with a density Pure titanium has a low density, is quite ductile and
of about a third of that of steel. Pure aluminum has a relatively low strength. When a limited amount
has a high electrical and thermal conductivity. of oxygen is added, it will strengthen titanium and
The most common alloying elements are silicon produce commercial-pure grades. Additions of various
(silumin), magnesium, iron and copper. Silicon alloying elements, such as aluminum and vanadium,
increases the material’s castability, copper increases increase its strength significantly but at the expense
its machinability, and magnesium increases its of ductility. The aluminum and vanadium-alloyed
corrosion resistance and strength. titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) is the “workhorse” alloy of
the titanium industry. It is used in many aerospace
An advantage of aluminum is its ability to generate a engine and airframe components. Because titanium
protective oxide film that is highly corrosion resistant is a high-price material, it is seldom used for making
if it is exposed to the atmosphere. Treatment, such pump components.
as anodizing, can further improve this property.
Aluminum alloys are widely used in structures where Titanium is a reactive material. Like stainless steel,
a high strength to weight ratio is important, such as titanium’s corrosion resistance depends on the
in the transportation industry. The use of aluminum formation of an oxide film. Titanium’s oxide film
in vehicles and aircrafts reduces weight and energy is more protective than stainless steel’s. Therefore,
consumption. titanium performs much better than stainless steel
in aggressive liquids, such as seawater, wet chlorine
A disadvantage of aluminum is its instability at low or or organic chlorides, where pitting and crevice
high pH or in chloride-containing environments. This corrosion can occur.
property makes aluminum unsuitable for exposure
to aqueous solutions, especially under conditions
with high flow.
70
1.6.4 Ceramics Thermoplastics
Ceramic materials are composed of metallic and Thermoplastic polymers consist of long polymer
non-metallic elements and are typically crystalline in molecules that are not cross-linked to each other.
nature. Common technical ceramics are aluminum They are often supplied as granules and heated to
oxide (alumina - Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), tungsten permit fabrication by methods such as molding or
carbide (WC), and silicon nitride (Si3N4). extrusion. A wide range is available from low-cost
commodity plastics (e.g. PE, PP, PVC) to high cost
Ceramics are suitable for applications requiring high engineering thermoplastics (e.g. PEEK) and chemical
thermal stability, strength, wear resistance, and resistant fluoropolymers (e.g. PTFE, PVDF). PTFE is
corrosion resistance. Disadvantages of ceramics one of the few thermoplastics that is not melt-
include low ductility and high tendency for brittle processable. Thermoplastics are widely used for
fractures. Ceramics are mainly used for making making pump housings or for lining of pipes and
bearings and seal faces for shaft seals. pump housings.
71
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump construction, (10)
72
1.6.7 Coatings
Metallic coatings
There are two types of metallic coatings. One is
where the coating is less noble than the substrate,
and the other, electroplating, is where a more noble
metal is applied to the substrate as a barrier layer.
73
1. Design
Section of
1.6pumps and motors
Materials
1.1 Pump construction, (10)
(conversion coatings)
As mentioned, paints are an important class of
Conversion coatings are included in non-metallic organic coating. Figure 1.6.25 shows several types of
coatings, also known as inorganic coatings. Conversion organic coatings. A typical paint formulation contains
coatings are formed by a controlled corrosion reaction polymeric binders, solvents, pigments and additives.
of the substrate in an oxidized solution. Examples of For environmental reasons, organic solvents are
conversion coatings are anodizing or chromating often replaced by water or simply eliminated, as in
of aluminum and phosphate treatment of steel. powder coating. Painted metal structures usually
Anodizing is mainly used for surface protection of involve two or more layers of coating applied on a
aluminum, while chromating and phosphating are primary coating, which is in direct contact with the
usually used for pre-treatment to improve paint metal.
adhesion and to help prevent the spreading of rust
under layers of paint.
Organic coatings
spraying, dipping, brushing, lining or electro-coating Resin Solvent- Water- Powder Two comp.
(paint applied by means of electric current). They may type based based coating liquid
74
Chapter 2. Installation and performance reading
Accuracy of suited pump type for an installation has 2.1.2 Existing installation–replacement
significant impact on optimum operation. The larger
the pumps, the greater the costs with respect to
Tips for optimum pump selection for existing installation
investment, installation, commissioning, operation
follows.
and maintenance – basically the life cycle costs
(LCC). An extensive product portfolio combined
Pre-investigation of the installation should
with competent advice and after-sales service is include:
the foundation of a proper selection. The following • Basic pipe flow – pipes in and out of the building, e.g.
analysis, recommendations and pump tips are from the ground, along the floor or from the ceiling
general for any installation but, to a greater extent, • Specific pipework at the point of installation, e.g.
relevant for medium to large sized installations. in-line or end-suction, dimensions, manifolds
Recommendations for new and existing installations • Space availability – width, depth and height
follow. • Accessibility for maintenance, i.e., doorways
• Availability/accessibility of lift equipment
• Floor type, e.g. solid or suspended floor with
basement
2.1.1 New installation • Existing foundation
• Existing electrical installation
• If the pipework has not been planned, the selection Previous pump installation
of a pump type can be based on other primary • Pump make, type, specifications including old duty
criteria, such as efficiency, investment costs or point, shaft seal, materials, gaskets, controlling
lifecycle costs (LCC). This will be covered in a later • History, e.g. lifetime, maintenance
section.
Future requirements
• If the pipework has been planned, pump selection • Desired improvements and benefits
is equivalent to pump replacement in an existing • New selection criteria including duty points and
installation. operating times, temperature, pressure, liquid specs
• Supplier criteria, e.g. availability of spare parts
Advisory
• Major changes might be beneficial in long or short
term and should be documented, e.g. installation
savings, life cycle costs (LCC), reduced environmental
impact (noise, vibration accessibility for maintenance)
Selection
• Should be based on priorities agreed to by customer
76
2.1.3 Pipe flow for single-pump installation
Simple pipework with few bends as possible is the criteria for pump choice in a single-pump installation.
Scores:
Best choice
Good choice
Acceptable choice
Not applicable
Pump type
77
Section 2.1
Pump installation
Fig. 2.1.2:
Three in-line pumps in parallel; limited maintenance
2.1.4 Limitation of noise and vibrations access because of pipework
Floor
Solid ground
Foundation
Basement
Suspended – risk of floor amplifying the noise. Wall
Basement can act as a resonance box,
see figure 2.1.5.
78
Floor
Direct mounting on floor, hence direct vibration Fig. 2.1.6: Floor
Foundation
Poured directly on concrete floor, see figure 2.1.7. Fig. 2.1.7: Foundation
Floating foundation
Resting on a dead material, e.g. sand, hence reduced Fig. 2.1.8:
Floating foundation
risk of transmitting vibration, see figure 2.1.8.
Pump unit
Vibration
dampeners
Floor
79
Section 2.1
Pump installation
Expansion
Dampener selection varies from installation to Foundation
joint
installation. An incorrect selection may increase the Pump unit
vibration level. The supplier should, therefore, size
vibration dampeners.
80
Figures 2.1.12-2.1.14 show examples of rubber bellows
expansion joints with or without tie bars.
Fig. 2.1.12: Rubber bellows
expansion joints with tie bars
Expansion joints with tie bars can be used to minimize
the forces caused by the expansion joints and are
recommended for sizes larger than four inches. An
expansion joint without tie bars will exert force on Fig. 2.1.13: Rubber
bellows expansion
the pump flanges, which in turn affects the pump
joints without tie
and the pipework. bars
60
The sound level (L) in a system is measured in decibel Speech
40
(dB). Noise is unwanted sound. The level of noise can
20
be measured in the following three ways:
0
20 50 100 200 500Hz 1 2 5 10 20kHz
1. Pressure – Lp : The pressure of the air waves Frequency
2. Power – Lw : The power of the sound kHz
Fig. 2.1.15: Threshold of hearing vs. frequency
3. Intensity - Ll: The power per m2 (will not be
covered in this book)
81
Section 2.1
Pump installation
1.5
Experience values:
1
Rise of Perceived as:
+ 3 dB Slightly noticeable 0.5
+ 5 dB Clearly noticeable
+10 dB Twice as loud
2 4 6 8 10
82
Section 2.2
Pump performance
Flow
83
Section 2.2
Pump performance
Q psta psta
Static pressure ptot ptot
Static pressure psta is the
1 pressure measured with a
pressure gauge placed perpendicular
2 to the flow or
Fig. 2.2.2: How to determine the static pressure Psta, the
in a non-moving liquid, see figure 2.2.2. dynamic pressure Pdyn and the total pressure Ptot
Dynamic pressure 1
Dynamic pressure p is2 caused by liquid velocity and is
dyn
calculated by the following formula:
1
p1 p2
2
v1 v2
where: D1 D2
ρ is the density of the 1liquid in [lb/ft3]
v is the velocity of the2liquid in [ft/s] A B
P ptot
Dynamic pressure can be converted into static pressure psta
84
H(m)
Duty point for diesel at 20°C
12
Measuring pressure Q
Pressure is measured in psi (Ib/in²), or bar (105 Conversion table for pressure units
Pa). When dealing with pressure, it is important designation psi kPa ft of H2O m of H2O atm bar
to know the point of reference for the pressure 1 psi 1 6.895 2.307 0.703 0.068 0.069
1 kPa 0.145 1 0.335 0.102 0.0097 0.01
measurement. Two types of pressure are essential 1 feet of H2O 0.4335 2.969 1 0.305 0.0295 0.03
with pressure measurement: Absolute pressure and 1 m of H2O 1.422 9.806 3.281 1 0.097 0.098
Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure (Pg), often referred to as overpressure,
26.1 ft
42.5 ft
35.4 ft
34.1ft
is higher than normal atmospheric pressure (1 atm).
Normally, pressure p is stated as gauge pressure because Brine at 68°F Water at 68°F Water at 203°F Diesel oil at 68°F
H(m)
Fig. 2.2.5: Pumping four different liquids atfor14.7
Duty point diesel psi at the
at 20°C
Head 1 12
discharge side of the pump results in four different heads
Duty point for water at 95°C
p is the pressure in psi2.31 1 feet of H2O 0.4335 2.969 1 0.305 0.0295 0.03
1 m of H2O 1.422 9.806 3.281 1 0.097 0.098
SG is the specific gravity ofSG
the liquid 1 m H2O 101.325 33.9
14.696 10.333 1 1.013
Pressure p is measured in [psi]. 1 bar 14.504 100 33.5 10.197 0.987 1
* Physical atmosphere
0.4085
Other pressure units are used as well, see figure
2.2.4.��������������������������������������������
The relationship between pressure and head
is shown in figure 2.2.5, where a pump handles four
different liquids.
2.31 0.4085 Q
SG
85
Section 2.2
Pump performance
2.31 h2 h1
SG 1
2
where : Fig. 2.2.6: Standard end-suction pump with dimension difference
H is the actual pump head in [ft] on suction and discharge ports
2.3070.4085
p is the pressure at the flanges in [ft] v2 = 5.43 m/s2
SG
SG is the specific gravity of the liquid D2= 125 mm
g is the acceleration of gravity in [ft/s2]
h is the static height2.31
in [ft] p2 = 1.1 bar
v is the liquid velocity in [ft/s]
SG h2 - h1 = 355 mm
2.31 0.4085 Q
SG 2.31 (15.9 - 7.25)
1 0.4085 1057
1.0 4.9 5.9
2.31 0.4085 Q
SG
86
1
2
1
2
1
Calculation example v2 = 17.8 ft/s2
2
A pump2.307
of the same type as the one shown in figure 2.2.7 D2= 4.9 in
SG
is installed in a system with the following data:
1
2 p2 = 15.9 psi
Q = 1057
2.31GPM
p1 = 7.25 psiSG h2 - h1 = 1 ft
p2 = 15.92.307
psi D1 = 5.9 in
SG
Liquid: Water at 680F
v1 = 12.3 ft/s2
0.4085 p1 = 7.25 psi
Suction port diameter D1 = 6 in
2.31
Discharge SG port diameter D2 = 5 in
The difference in height between the two ports where the
Fig. 2.2.7: Standard end-suction pump with different
pressure gauges are installed is h2-h1 = 1 ft dimensions of suction and discharge ports (Example)
2.31 0.4085 0.4085 Q
SG
We are now able to calculate the head of the pump:
2.31 0.4085 Q
0.4085 Q
SG
19.98
2.31 (15.9 - 7.25) 1 1 5.82
0.4085 26.80
1057 ft
1.0 4.9 5.9
87
Section 2.2
Pump performance
(
2.31 ( Fig.2.2.7.a: Inline pump with same static height on inlet
and outlet. h2 = h1
SG
H = head in ft
P = psi
SG = specific gravity
Differential pressure
The differential pressure (∆p) is the pressure difference
between the pressures measured at two points, that is,
the pressure drops across valves in a system. Differential Dry cooler
System pressure
Chiller
The system pressure is the static pressure, which refers
to when the pumps are not running. System pressure Hsyst
88
Cavitation hmax = Maximum suction head
Cavitation in a pump occurs when the suction pressure Hb = Atmospheric pressure at the pump site; this is the
is lower than the vapor pressure of the liquid pumped, theoretical maximum suction lift, see figure 2.2.13
see figures 2.2.9 and 2.2.10. When the pressure on Hf = Friction loss in the suction pipe
the suction side of the pump drops below the vapor NPSHr = Net Positive Suction Head read at the NPSH
pressure of the pumped liquid (figure 2.2.10 yellow dot), curve at the highest operational flow, see figure 2.2.12.
vapor bubbles form. As the pressure in the pump rises,
the bubbles collapse releasing shock waves (figure
a = Front of impeller vanes
2.2.10 red dot) which can damage impellers. The rate b = Back of impeller vanes
of damage depends on the properties of the impeller
material. Stainless steel is more resistent to cavitation a
a b
H H
Net Positive Suction Head b = Back of impeller vanes
To calculate the risk of cavitation, the Net Positive
p1
Suction Head Required (NPSHr) for the pump is p
Vapor pressure
compared with the Net Positive Suction Head Available NPSH
(NPSHa) of the system. NPSHr, which is the amount of Impeller inlet Impeller outlet
suction head required to ensure the pump performs at Q
Fig.: Q
2.2.10: Development of pressure through a centrifugal
full capacity, is determined by the manufacturer and pump
typically included on the performance curve. NPSHa
is a function of the system in which the pump will be H
NPSHa = Hb + Hs — Hf — Vp
Hb = Barometric Pressure, in feet absolute
Curve when
Hs = Suction Head, in feet absolute (positive or negative) pump cavitates
Vp = Vapor pressure at the maximum operating Fig.: 2.2.11: Pump curve when pump cavitates
temperature, in feet absolute
H H
89
Section 2.2
Pump performance
The NPSH value indicates to what extent the pump is Height above Barometric Water Boiling point
unable to create absolute vacuum, that is to raise a sea level pressure column of water
full water column 33.89 ft above sea level, see figure (ft) p (psi) H (ft) (°f)
b b
NPSHrequired The required suction head for the pump Fig.: 2.2.13: Barometric pressure above sea level
150
370
(m)
413
45
3.3
normally varies between 1.5 ft and 3 ft. For typical 104 2.6
Fig.: 2.2.14: System with indication 2.0
curve for liquid containing gas see figure 2.2.15. of the different values that are 86 1.3
0.9
important in connection with suction 68 0.7
calculations
50
0.3
Vented liquid
Q [GPM]
90
Power consumption
Efficiency
PH
Efficiency (η) normally only covers the efficiency of
the pump part, ηP. A pump’s efficiency is determined
by several factors, including the shape of the pump
housing, the impeller and diffuser design and the
surface roughness. For typical pump units consisting
of both pump and electric motor, the total efficiency
ηT also includes the efficiency of the motor:
Fig. 2.2.16: Pump unit with indication of different power
consumption levels
91
Section 2.2
Pump performance
Voltage
Current
92
2.2.3 Liquid properties Viscosity
When making system calculations, the following liquid Kinematic viscosity is measured in centiStokes [cSt]
properties should be considered: Liquid temperature, (1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s). The unit [SSU] Saybolt Universal is
specific gravity, heat capacity, and viscosity. also used in connection with kinematic viscosity.
For kinematic viscosity above 60 cSt, the Saybolt
Universal viscosity is calculated by the following
Liquid temperature formula:
[SSU] = 4.62 . [cSt]
The liquid temperature (t,T) is measured in °F
(Fahrenheit), °C (Celcius), or K (Kelvin). Temperature
Btu/lbm °F
units of °C and K are actually the same, but 0°C is the 18.42
freezing point of water and 0°K is the absolute zero; 0% pure water
16.74
that is -273.15°C, the lowest possible temperature. The 20%
calculation between Fahrenheit and Celcius is °F = °C .
15.07 34%
1.8 + 32. Hence, the freezing point of water is 0°C and
44%
32°F, and the boiling point is 100°C and 212°F. 13.39
52%
11.72
Specific Gravity
10.04
93
Chapter 3. System hydraulics
• Open systems
An open system is a liquid transport system like a
water supply system where the pump must address
the static head as well as overcome the friction losses
in the pipes and components.
96
3.1.1 Single resistances
∆H = k . Q2
Resistances connected in series Fig. 3.1.2: The head loss for two components connected in series
The total head loss in a system consisting of several is the sum of the two individual head losses
components connected in series is the sum of head
losses that each component represents. Figure 3.1.2
shows a system consisting of a valve and a heat
exchanger. If we do not consider the head loss in
the piping between the two components, the total
head loss, ΔHtot, is calculated by adding the two head
losses:
97
Section 3.1
System characteristics
Closed systems
Typically, closed systems are systems which transport
heat energy in heating systems, air-conditioning
systems and process cooling systems. A common
feature of these closed systems is that the liquid
Fig. 3.1.4: Schematic drawing of a closed system
is circulated and is the carrier of heat energy. Heat
energy is what the system must transport.
98
All these components, along with the pipes and
fittings, result in a system characteristic as shown in
figure 3.1.5. The required pressure in a closed system
(which the system curve illustrates) is a parabola
starting at the point (Q,H) = (0,0) and is calculated by
the following formula:
H = k . Q2
Open systems
Open systems use the pump to transport liquid from
one point to another, e.g. water supply irrigation
and industrial process systems. In these systems, the
pump deals with the static head of the liquid and
must overcome the friction losses in the pipes and
the system components.
99
Section 3.1
System characteristics
So, the flow (Q1) and the pump size have to match
the need for the specific system. This is a general rule
for liquid transport systems: A larger flow leads to a
higher pressure loss, whereas a smaller flow leads to
a smaller pressure loss and, consequently, a lower
energy consumption.
100
Section 3.2
Pumps connected in parallel and series
Figure 3.2.1 shows a system with two identical pumps Fig. 3.2.1: Two pumps connected in parallel with similar
performance curves
connected in parallel. The system’s total performance
curve is determined by adding Q1 and Q2 for every
value of head which is the same for both pumps,
H1=H2 . Because the pumps are identical, the resulting
pump curve has the same maximum head, Hmax, but
the maximum flow, Qmax, is double. For each value of
head, the flow is the double as for a single pump in
operation:
Q = Q1 + Q2 = 2 Q1 = 2 Q2
101
Section 3.2
Pumps connected in parallel and series
Note that the duty point at Q1 is reached with one Fig. 3.2.3: Two speed-controlled pumps connected in parallel (same
pump running at full speed. The duty point can size). The orange curve shows the performance at reduced speed
102
3.2.2. Pumps connected in series
103
Chapter 4. Performance adjustment of pumps
adjust the pump performance so that it meets the Fig.: 4.1.1: When selecting a pump it is important to choose one
where the duty point is within the high efficiency area.
changed requirements.
• Throttle control
• Bypass control
• Modifying impeller diameter
• Speed control
106
4.1.1 Throttle control
Bypass valve
4.1.2 Bypass control QBP
107
Section 4.1
Adjusting pump performance
108
The following equation applies with close
approximation to how the change in speed of a
centrifugal pump influences the performance of the
pump:
109
Section 4.1
Adjusting pump performance
110
4.1.6 Overall efficiency of the pump system
111
Section 4.1
Adjusting pump performance
Throttle control H
H [ft]
[ft]
H [ft]
= Modified duty point
= Original duty point
The power consumption is reduced to about 94%
249
249
when the flow drops from 264 to 220 GPM. The 249
229
229
229
180
throttling results in an increased head, see figure 180
180
H
H [ft]
[ft]
Modifying impeller diameter H [ft]
When the impeller diameter is reduced, both the flow = Modified duty point
= Original duty point
and the head of the pump drop. By a flow reduction 229
229
229
180
180
of 20%, the power consumption is reduced to around 180
To obtain the best possible efficiency, the impeller = Modified duty point
= Original duty point
diameter adjustment method or the speed-controlled 70
70
70
55
55
method of the pump are the best options for reducing 55
112
Summary
Figure 4.1.14 gives an overview of the different
adjustment methods that are presented in the
previous section. Each method has its pros and
cons which should be considered when choosing an
adjustment method for a system.
Hn
Hx
Valve
Hn
Hx
Valve
Hn
Hx
Hn
Hx
Hy
113
Section 4.2
Speed-controlled pump solutions
H1
h Q1
114
4.2.2 Constant temperature control
115
Section 4.2
Speed-controlled pump solutions
• The differential pressure transmitter is placed pump curve data has to be stored in the controller.
across the pump and the system is running with This data is used to calculate the flow as well as how
flow-compensated differential pressure control much the setpoint Hset must be reduced at a given
– DPT1, see figure 4.2.4. flow to ensure that the pump performance meets
the required blue curve in figure 4.2.4.
• The differential pressure transmitter is placed close
to the consumers and the system is running The second solution requires more installation costs
with differential pressure control – DPT2, see fig. because the transmitter has to be installed at the
4.2.4. installation site, and the necessary cabling has to be
added. Both systems are equal in performance. The
The first solution places the pump, PI-controller, transmitter measures the differential pressure at the
speed control and the transmitter close to one consumer and compensates automatically for the
another providing easy installation and making it increase in required pressure in order to overcome
possible to get the entire system as one single unit, the increase in pressure losses in the supply pipes,
see section 4.4. To get the system up and running, etc.
116
Section 4.3
Advantages of speed control
A large number of pump applications do not require full Reduced energy consumption
pump performance 24 hours a day. Therefore, it is an Speed-controlled pumps use only the amount of
advantage to be able to adjust the pump’s performance energy needed to address a specific pump installation.
in the system automatically. As seen in section 4.1, the Compared to other control methods, frequency-
best possible way of adapting the performance of a controlled speed control offers the highest efficiency
centrifugal pump is by means of speed control of the and the most efficient utilization of the energy, see
pump. Speed control of pumps is normally made by a section 4.1.
frequency converter unit.
Low life cycle costs
On the following pages, speed-controlled pumps As we will see in Chapter 5, the energy consumption
in closed and open systems will be examined. The of a pump is a very important factor when calculating
advantages that speed control provides and the a pump’s life cycle costs. Therefore, it is important to
benefits that speed-controlled pumps with frequency keep the operating costs of a pumping system at
converters offer are presented first. the lowest possible level. Efficient operation leads
to lower energy consumption and results in lower
operating costs. Compared to fixed-speed pumps, it
is possible to reduce the energy consumption by up
to 50% with a speed-controlled pump.
Environment protection
Energy-efficient pumps cause less pollution and
harm to the environment.
Increased comfort
Speed control in different pumping systems provides
increased comfort in water supply systems, automatic
pressure control, and where the soft-start of pumps
reduce water hammer and noise generated by too
high pressure in the system. In circulating systems,
speed-controlled pumps ensure that the differential
pressure is kept at a level so that noise in the system
is minimized.
117
Section 4.4
Advantages of pumps with integrated
frequency converter
Easy to install
Pumps with integrated frequency converters are just
Fig. 4.4.1: Pump unit with integrated
as easy to install as fixed-speed pumps. The motor frequency converter and pressure transmitter
is connected to the electrical power supply, and the
pump is in operation. The manufacturer has made all
internal connections and adjustments.
One supplier
One supplier can provide the pump, frequency
converter and sensor which naturally facilitate the
sizing, selection, and ordering procedures, as well as
maintenance and service procedures.
118
Wide performance range performance curve and the system characteristic of a
Pumps with integrated frequency converters have closed and an open system.
a broad performance range which enables efficient
performance under widely varied conditions and
meets a wide range of requirements. Fewer pumps
can replace many fixed speed pump types with H
[ft] 100%
narrow performance capabilities. 320
280 90%
240
80%
200
50%
80
40
The following is a discussion of how a speed-controlled 25%
0
pump’s performance curve is read. 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Q [GPM]
P 1
[hp]
10
Figure 4.4.2 provides an example of the performance 8
System System
characteristic HO HO
4.4.2 Speed-controlled pumps in characteristic
Speed-controlled pumps are used in a wide range Fig 4.4.3: System characteristic point of a closed and an
open system
of systems. The change in pump performance and,
consequently, the potential energy savings depend on
the system in question.
119
Section 4.4
Advantages of pumps with integrated frequency converter
[hp]
(25% of the full speed) can be relevant in some 10
situations, such as night-time duty in heating systems. 8
6
4
2
0
Q [GPM]
120
Speed-controlled pumps in open systems
pt = 29 psi
The system characteristic as well as the operating Fig. 4.4.6: Pump in a water supply system
range of the pump depend on the type of system in
question. Figure 4.4.6 shows a pump in a pressure
boosting / water supply system. The pump has to he = 65.6 ft
supply Q = 29 GPM to the tap which is placed h = 65 ft SG
above the pump. The inlet pressure to the pump, ps,
is 14.5 psi, the pressure at the tap, pt, has to be 29 psi pf = 18.8 psi
and the total friction loss in the system by full flow, ps = 14.5 psi
pf, is 18.8 psi. Q = 29 GPM
175 90%
H = 65.6 ft + 76.9 ft
150
80%
H = 142.5 ft 125
70%
HO
60%
75
To address this application from zero to maximum 50
50%
121
Section 4.5
Frequency converter
122
The EMC filter
This block is not part of the primary function of the
frequency converter and, in principle, could be left
out. However, in order to meet EMC requirements
and local requirements, the filter is necessary. The
EMC filter prevents high noise signals from going
back to the main electric supply and disturbing
other electronic equipment connected to it. It also
ensures that noise signals in the main electric supply
generated by other equipment do not enter the
electronic devices of the frequency converter, and
cause damage or disturbances.
The inverter
The output voltage from a frequency converter is not
Vmotor
sinusoidal like the normal mains voltage. The voltage Mean value of voltage
supplied to the motor consists of a number of square- 0
wave pulses, see figure 4.5.3. The mean value of these
pulses forms a sinusoidal voltage of the desired 0
t
frequency and amplitude. The switching frequency
can range from a few kHz up to 20 kHz, depending T = 1/fm
on the brand. To avoid noise in the motor windings,
a frequency converter with a switching frequency Fig 4.5.3: AC voltage with variable frequency (fm) and
variable voltage (Vmotor)
above the range of audibility (~16 kHz) is preferable.
123
Section 4.5
Frequency converter
In both cases the motor supplies 4.08 hp to the Power input, P1 3.68 KW 3.69 KW
cos ϕ,
shaft. power factor (PF) cosϕ = 0.83 PF = 0.86
124
Because these are not sinusoidal, there is no accurate
way of calculating the power input based on simple
current and voltage measurements. Instead, the
power must be calculated by means of instruments
and on the basis of instantaneous measurements of
current and voltage.
125
Chapter 5. Life cycle costs calculation
The life cycle costs (LCC) consist of the following: Maintenance costs
Energy costs
Cic Initial cost, purchase price
Cin Installation and commissioning costs
Ce Energy costs
Co Operating costs including labor
Fig. 5.1.2: Typical life cycle costs of a circulating
Cenv Environmental costs system in the industry
Cm Maintenance and repair costs
Cs Downtime costs (loss of production)
Cd Decommissioning or disposal costs
128
5.1.1 Initial cost, purchase price
7000
6000
3000
1000
• Foundation
0
• Connection of electrical wiring and instrumentation System 1 System 2
• Installation, connection and set-up of transmitters Initial costs 5200 7300
and frequency converters, etc
Fig. 5.1.4: Initial costs of a constant speed pump system
• Commissioning evaluation at start-up (System 1) and a controlled pump system (System 2)
129
Section 5.1
Life cycle costs equation
• Load profile
• Pump efficiency (calculation of the duty point,
see figure 5.1.6)
• Motor efficiency (the motor efficiency at partial
load can vary significantly between high efficiency η
[%]
20
• Other system components, such as pipes and
0
valves 0 22 44 66 88 110 132 154 176 198 220 242 Q [GPM]
130
5.1.6 Maintenance and repair costs
Depending on the pump manufacturer, decommissioning Fig. 5.1.7: A standby pump assures that production continues in
case of pump breakdown
or disposal costs (Cd ) of a pump system varies. This cost
is seldom taken into consideration when calculating
LCC.
Simplified: LCC = Cic + Ce + Cm
Calculating the life cycle costs
Cic Initial costs, purchase price
The life cycle costs of a pump system are made up of
the summation of the aforementioned components
Ce Energy costs
over the system’s lifetime. Typically, the lifetime
range is 10 to 20 years. In the pump business, life cycle
Cm Maintenance and repair costs
costs are normally calculated by a simplified formula
with fewer elements to consider. This formula is
shown at right.
131
Section 5.2
Life cycle costs calculation – an
example
The example using the LCC formula mentioned on Pump types Fixed Variable
the previous page follows: speed speed
Average power consumption kw 18.76 11.31
Operating hours per day hours 12 12
An industry needs a new water supply pump and two Working days per year days 220 220
solutions are taken into consideration: Calculation period years 10 10
Total energy consumption kwh 495,264 298,584
• A fixed speed multistage centrifugal pump Electrical power price USD/kwh .07 .07
Pump types Fixed Variable
• A variable speed multistage centrifugal pump Pump price USD 3602
speed 7204
speed
Maintenance
Average power costs
consumption USD
kw 1417
18.76 1417
11.31
Energy costs USD 33,284 20,066
According to the calculations, the variable speed Operating hours per day hours 12 12
Total costs
Working days per year USD
days 38,303
220 28,688
220
pump consumes 40% less energy than the fixed
Calculation period years 10 10
speed pump. However, the initial cost, Cic, of the Total energy
45,000consumption kwh 495,264 298,584
variable speed pump is twice that of the fixed speed Pump price
40,000
Electrical power price USD/kwh .07 .07
Maintenance costs
pump. Pump 35,000
price USD 3602 7204
Energy costs
30,000 costs
Maintenance USD 1417 1417
USD
Life cycle costs calculations will help determine which Energy25,000
costs USD 33,284 20,066
Total costs
20,000 USD 38,303 28,688
pump to install in the system. The application has
15,000
the following characteristics:
10,000
45,000
Pump price
40,000
5,000
• 12 operating hours per day 0
35,000
Maintenance costs
• 220 operating days per year Fixed speed Energy costs speed
Variable
30,000
• Lifetime of 10 years (calculation period) Fig. 5.1.8: Life cycle costs of a fixed and a variable speed pump
USD
25,000
45,000
20,000
40,000
Based on this data, it is possible to calculate the life 15,000
35,000
cycle costs of the two solutions. 10,000
30,000
5,000
25,000
USD
0
Even though the initial cost of a variable speed pump 20,000 Fixed speed Variable speed
is twice as high as a fixed speed pump, the total cost 15,000
10,000
45,000 Fixed speed
of the variable speed solution is 25% lower than the
40,000 Variable speed
5,000
fixed speed pump solution after 10 years.
0
35,000
30,000 0 2 4
Years
6 8 10
Besides the lower life cycle costs the variable speed 25,000
USD
expensive. As you can tell from figure 5.1.9, the Fig. 5.1.9: Payback time for a fixed and a variable speed pump
payback time is around 2½ years, and in general
industrial applications, this is considered to be a
good investment.
132
Appendix
D) ����������������������������������������������������������������������
Vapor�����������������������������������������������������������������
pressure and specific gravity of water at different temperatures
E) Orifice
G) Nozzles
I) Periodical system
J) Pump standards
U.S. SI
unit unit
ft
GPM gph
psi ft psi
psi ft
ft
lb ft lb gal
ft
lb ft
in
in
ft g = 32.174 ft/s
m
ft
RPM
hp 745.7 w = 1 hp
134
Appendix B
The conversion tables for pressure and flow show the most
commonly used units for pumping systems
135
Appendix C
Greek alphabet
Alfa Α α
Beta Β β
Gamma Γ γ
Delta ∆ δ
Epsilon Ε ε
Zeta Ζ ζ
Eta Η η
Theta Θ θ
Jota Ι ι
Kappa Κ κ
Lambda Λ λ
My Μ µ
Ny Ν ν
Ksi ΚΣ κσ
Omikron Ο ο
Pi Π π
Rho Ρ ρ
Sigma Σ σ
Tau Τ τ
Ypsilon Υ υ
Fi Φ φ
Khi Χ χ
Psi Ψ ψ
Omega Ω ω
136
Appendix D
Vapor�����������������������������������������������������������������
pressure and specific gravity of water at different temperatures
137
Appendix E
Orifice
Nipple orifices are typically used in boiler feed allows water to flow back to the reservoir tank. During
applications when boiler feed pumps need to discharge feed pump system design, nipple orifices are sized
built-up pressure. These boiler feed pumps operate using performance charts, like the ones shown in the
continuosly in order to provide on-demand hot water; figure below, derived from an acceptable mathematical
but when no hot water is needed, the valve to the boiler approach that assumes a constant discharge coefficient
is closed and the pump ends up operating under a (Cd) of 0.61 for all orifices in the general equation Q =
harmful shut-off condition during extended periods of 19.636 Cd d2 H0.5, where Q is in gpm, d is the nipple
time in which there will be a rise in liquid temperature orifice diameter in inches, and H is the differential head
in the pump because the input horsepower being in ft. of water.
converted to heat in the pump is not dissipated. For that
reason, in order to increase the run life of the pump and
control the temperature rise, the system is designed to
allow the feed pump to discharge its build-up pressure Orifice
size
through a bypass line in which a nipple orifice is
installed. The orifice dissipates the high pressure and
1000
1/8" 3/16" 1/4" 5/16" 1/2" 1"
7/16" 7/8"
3/8" 13/16"
3/4"
11/16"
5/8"
9/16"
Head (Feet)
100
10
1 10 100 1000
Flow (GPM)
138
Appendix F
As described in Chapter 2.2, a change in pipe dimension results in a change in liquid velocity and consequently, a
change in dynamic and static pressure.
When head has to be determined (see page 86), the difference in the two port dimensions requires a correction
of the measured head.
100 d D
10
H[ft]
0.1
10 100 1000 10000
Q[GPM]
10
H[ft]
0.1
10 100 1000 10000
Q[GPM]
139
Appendix G
Nozzles
7/8 1
3/4
where n = 0.5. Some nozzles have a lower n value (check 1 1/8 1 1/4
with the supplier).
Pressure 1 3/8 1 1/2
p [psi] 1 3/4 2
2 1/4 2 1/2
Flow Nozzle diameter
D 2 3/4 3
Q [GPM] d [inch]
3 1/2 4
4 1/2 5
5 1/2 6
100
10
5
0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Q [GPM]
140
Appendix H
141
Appendix H
142
Appendix H
143
Appendix H
144
Appendix H
Friction Loss for Water in New Type L. Copper Tubing and Sch. 40 PVC Pipe
(Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
Tubing Pipe Tubing Pipe
1/2” .545” ID .622” ID 3/4” .785” ID .824” ID
gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict.
0.5 0.69 0.75 0.52 0.40 1 0.66 0.44 0.60 0.35
1.0 1.38 2.45 1.04 1.28 2 1.33 1.44 1.21 1.16
1.5 2.06 4.93 1.57 2.58 3 1.99 2.91 1.81 2.34
2.0 2.75 8.11 2.09 4.24 4 2.65 4.81 2.42 3.86
2.5 3.44 11.98 2.61 6.25 5 3.31 7.11 3.02 5.71
3.0 4.12 16.48 3.13 8.59 6 3.98 9.80 3.62 7.86
3.5 4.81 21.61 3.66 11.25 7 4.64 12.86 4.23 10.32
4.0 5.50 27.33 4.18 14.22 8 5.30 16.28 4.83 13.07
4.5 6.19 33.65 4.70 17.50 9 5.96 20.06 5.44 16.10
5.0 6.87 40.52 5.22 21.07 10 6.92 24.19 6.04 19.41
6.0 8.25 56.02 6.26 29.09 11 7.29 28.66 6.64 22.99
7.0 9.62 73.69 7.31 38.23 12 7.95 33.47 7.25 26.84
8.0 11.0 93.50 8.35 48.47 13 8.61 38.61 7.85 30.96
9.0 12.4 115.4 9.40 59.79 14 9.27 44.07 8.45 35.33
10.0 13.8 139.4 10.4 72.16 15 9.94 49.86 9.05 39.97
12.0 12.6 115.6 16 10.60 55.97 9.65 44.86
14.0 14.7 157.4 17 11.25 62.39 10.25 50.00
16.0 18 11.92 69.13 10.85 55.40
Tubing Pipe Tubing Pipe
1” 1.03” ID 1.05” ID 1 1/4” 1.27” ID 1.38” ID
gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict.
2 0.78 0.41 0.72 0.35 5 1.28 0.74 1.09 0.51
3 1.17 0.82 1.08 0.70 6 1.53 1.01 1.31 0.70
4 1.56 1.35 1.45 1.14 7 1.79 1.32 1.53 0.91
5 1.95 2.00 1.81 1.69 8 2.04 1.67 1.75 1.15
6 2.34 2.75 2.17 2.32 9 2.30 2.06 1.96 1.42
7 2.72 3.60 2.53 3.04 10 2.55 2.48 2.18 1.71
8 3.11 4.56 2.89 3.85 12 3.06 3.42 2.62 2.35
9 3.50 5.61 3.25 4.74 15 3.83 5.07 3.27 3.49
10 3.89 6.76 3.61 5.71 20 5.10 8.46 4.36 5.81
12 4.67 9.33 4.34 7.88 25 6.38 12.59 5.46 8.65
14 5.45 12.27 5.05 10.36 30 7.65 17.44 6.55 11.98
16 6.22 15.56 5.78 13.13 35 8.94 23.00 7.65 15.79
18 7.00 19.20 6.50 16.20 40 10.2 29.24 8.74 20.06
20 7.78 23.18 7.22 19.55 45 11.5 36.15 9.83 24.80
25 9.74 34.56 9.03 29.15 50 12.8 43.71 10.9 29.98
30 11.68 47.96 10.84 40.43 60 15.3 60.78 13.1 41.66
35 13.61 63.31 12.65 53.37 70 17.9 80.38 15.3 55.07
40 15.55 80.58 14.45 67.90 80 20.4 102.5 17.5 70.16
145
Appendix H
Friction Loss for Water in New Type L. Copper Tubing and Sch. 40 PVC Pipe
(Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
Tubing Pipe Tubing Pipe
1 1/2” 1.51” ID 1.61” ID 2” 1.98” ID 2.07” ID
gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict.
8 1.44 0.73 1.27 0.55 16 1.66 0.66 1.53 0.55
9 1.62 0.90 1.43 0.67 18 1.87 0.82 1.72 0.68
10 1.80 1.08 1.59 0.81 20 2.07 0.98 1.92 0.82
12 2.16 1.49 1.91 1.12 25 2.59 1.46 2.39 1.22
15 2.70 2.21 2.39 1.65 30 3.11 2.01 2.87 1.68
20 3.60 3.68 3.19 2.75 35 3.62 2.65 3.35 2.21
25 4.51 5.48 3.98 4.09 40 4.14 3.36 3.83 2.80
30 5.41 7.58 4.78 5.65 45 4.66 4.15 4.30 3.46
35 6.31 9.99 5.58 7.45 50 5.17 5.01 4.80 4.17
40 7.21 12.68 6.37 9.45 60 6.21 6.95 5.75 5.79
45 8.11 15.67 7.16 11.68 70 7.25 9.16 6.70 7.63
50 9.01 18.94 7.96 14.11 80 8.28 11.65 7.65 9.70
60 10.8 26.30 9.56 19.59 90 9.31 14.41 8.61 12.00
70 12.6 34.74 11.2 25.87 100 10.4 17.43 9.57 14.51
80 14.4 44.24 12.8 32.93 110 11.4 20.71 10.5 17.24
90 16.2 54.78 14.4 40.76 120 12.4 24.25 11.5 20.18
100 18.0 66.34 15.9 79.34 130 13.4 28.04 12.5 23.33
110 19.8 78.90 17.5 58.67 140 14.5 32.07 13.4 26.69
Tubing Pipe Tubing Pipe
2 1/2” 2.46” ID 2.47” ID 3” 2.95” ID 3.07” ID
gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict.
20 1.34 0.35 1.31 0.33 20 0.94 0.15 0.87 0.13
25 1.68 0.52 1.63 0.49 30 1.41 0.31 1.30 0.25
30 2.02 0.72 1.96 0.67 40 1.88 0.51 1.74 0.42
35 2.35 0.94 2.29 0.88 50 2.35 0.76 2.17 0.63
40 2.69 1.19 2.61 1.12 60 2.82 1.05 2.61 0.87
45 3.02 1.47 2.94 1.38 70 3.29 1.38 3.04 1.15
50 3.36 1.77 3.26 1.66 80 3.76 1.75 3.48 1.45
60 4.03 2.46 3.92 2.30 90 4.23 2.16 3.91 1.80
70 4.70 3.24 4.57 3.03 100 4.70 2.61 4.35 2.17
80 5.37 4.12 5.22 3.85 110 5.17 3.10 4.79 2.57
90 6.04 5.08 5.88 4.75 120 5.64 3.63 5.21 3.01
100 6.71 6.15 6.53 5.74 130 6.11 4.19 5.65 3.47
110 7.38 7.30 7.19 6.82 140 6.58 4.79 6.09 3.97
120 8.05 8.54 7.84 7.92 150 7.05 5.42 6.52 4.50
130 8.73 9.87 8.49 9.22 160 7.52 6.09 6.95 5.05
140 9.40 11.28 9.14 10.54 170 7.99 6.80 7.39 5.64
150 10.1 12.78 9.79 11.94 180 8.46 7.54 7.82 6.25
160 10.8 14.36 10.45 13.42 190 8.93 8.32 8.25 6.89
170 11.4 16.03 11.1 14.98 200 9.40 9.13 8.70 7.56
180 12.1 17.79 11.8 16.61 220 10.3 10.85 9.56 8.99
190 12.8 19.62 12.4 18.33 240 11.3 12.70 10.40 10.52
200 13.4 21.54 13.1 20.12 260 12.2 14.69 11.3 12.17
220 14.8 25.61 14.4 23.93 280 13.2 16.81 12.2 13.93
240 16.1 30.01 15.7 28.03 300 14.1 19.06 13.0 15.79
146
Appendix H
Friction Loss for Water in New Type L. Copper Tubing and Sch. 40 PVC Pipe
(Frict. loss in ft. per 100 ft. - Vel. in ft. per sec.)
Tubing Pipe Tubing Pipe
3 1/2” 3.43” ID 3.55” ID 4” 3.91” ID 4.63” ID
gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict. gpm Vel. Frict. Vel. Frict.
60 2.09 0.51 2.00 0.46 100 2.68 0.68 2.55 0.60
70 2.44 0.67 2.33 0.60 110 2.94 0.80 2.81 0.71
80 2.78 0.85 2.66 0.77 120 3.21 0.94 3.06 0.83
90 3.13 1.05 3.00 0.95 130 3.48 1.08 3.31 0.96
100 3.48 1.27 3.33 1.14 140 3.74 1.23 3.57 1.10
110 3.82 1.50 3.67 1.35 150 4.01 1.40 3.83 1.25
120 4.18 1.76 4.00 1.58 160 4.28 1.57 4.08 1.39
130 4.52 2.03 4.33 1.83 170 4.55 1.75 4.33 1.56
140 4.87 2.32 4.66 2.09 180 4.81 1.94 4.58 1.73
150 5.21 2.62 5.00 2.36 190 5.08 2.14 4.84 1.91
160 5.56 2.95 5.33 2.66 200 5.35 2.35 5.10 2.09
170 5.91 3.29 5.66 2.96 220 5.89 2.79 5.61 2.48
180 6.26 3.64 6.00 3.28 240 6.42 3.26 6.12 2.90
190 6.60 4.02 6.33 3.62 260 6.95 3.77 6.63 3.36
200 6.95 4.41 6.66 3.97 280 7.49 4.31 7.14 3.84
220 7.65 5.24 7.33 4.72 300 8.02 4.88 7.65 4.35
240 8.35 6.13 8.00 5.52 350 9.36 6.46 8.92 5.75
260 9.05 7.09 8.66 6.39 400 10.7 8.23 10.2 7.33
280 9.74 8.11 9.33 7.30 450 12.0 10.20 11.5 9.08
300 10.4 9.19 10.0 8.28 500 13.4 12.36 12.8 11.00
350 12.2 12.16 11.7 10.95 550 14.7 14.71 14.1 13.09
400 13.9 15.51 13.3 13.97 600 16.0 17.24 15.3 15.35
450 15.6 19.23 15.0 17.32 650 17.4 19.96 16.6 17.77
500 17.4 23.32 16.7 20.99 700 18.7 22.86 17.9 20.35
Note: 1. The friction losses listed under the pipe heading is approximately valid for Regular Weight Copper and
Brass Pipe, in addition to Sch. 40 PVC Pipe
2. Table based on Darcy - Weisback formula
3. No allowance has been made for age, difference in diameter, or any abnormal condition of interior
surface. Any factor of safety must be estimated from the local conditions and the requirements of each
particular installation. It is recommended that for most commercial design purposes a safety factor of
15 to 20% be added to the values in the tables.
147
Appendix H
8” 11.0 44.0 50.0 15.3 44.0 11.0 7.6 4.50 22.0 14.2 4.50
10” 14.0 57.0 60.0 18.2 57.0 14.0 10.2 5.70 27.0 16.5 6.80
12” 16.0 66.0 72.0 20.2 66.0 16.0 12.3 6.70 33.0 18.4 7.50
14” 18.0 79.0 84.0 23.3 79.0 18.0 14.3 8.20 37.0 22.3 9.00
16” 20.0 88.0 99.0 27.5 88.0 20.0 15.4 9.30 43.0 25.5 10.20
Note: 1. 1/8” to 12” nominal sizes are based on standard steel pipe, 14” to 24” sizes are ID pipe.
2. Friction losses are based on screwed connection from 1/8” to 4” sizes and flanged connections from 6” to 24”
7-21
148
Appendix H
149
Appendix H
Note: Above chart indicates average values for standard weight steel pipe. Hazen - Williams roughness constant
(C) = 140.
NOTE: Comparing the ratio of the square of diameters will provide the capacity equivalent relationship (ie. how
many 12” lines will be required to equal the capacity of a 16” line? - (16 ) / (12 ) = 1.77 or 2 - 12” lines
150
Appendix I
Periodic system
1 2
H He
Hydrogen Helium
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N O F Ne
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Caesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uut UUq UUp UUh UUs UUd
Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Damstadtium Roentgenium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
151
Appendix J
Pump standards
Pump standards:
ASME B73.1-2001 Specifications for horizontal end suction centrifugal pumps for chemical
process
ASME B73.2-2003 Specifications for vertical in-line centrifugal pumps for chemical process
EN 733 End-suction centrifugal pumps, rating with 145.03 psi with bearing bracket
EN 22858 End-suction centrifugal pumps (rating 232.06 psi) - Designation, nominal
duty point and dimensions
Pump-related standards:
ANSI/HI 1.6 Centrifugal tests; detailed procedures on the setup and conduction of
hydrostatic and performance tests
ANSI/HI 1.3 Rotodynamic (centrifugal) pump applications; the standard cover the design
and application of centrifugal pumps, pump classifications,
impeller types, casing configurations, mechanical features, performance,
selection criteria, and noise levels
ISO 3661 End-suction centrifugal pumps - Base plate and installation dimensions
EN 12756 Mechanical seals - Principal dimensions, designation and material codes
EN 1092 Flanges and their joints - Circular flanges for pipes, valves, fittings and
accessories, PN-designated
ISO 7005 Metallic flanges
DIN 24296 Pumps, and pump units for liquids: Spare parts
Specifications, etc:
ASME/ANSI B16.5-1996 Pipe flanges and flanged fittings
ISO 9905 Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class 1
ISO 5199 Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class 2
ISO 9908 Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - Class 3
ISO 9906 Rotodynamic pumps - Hydraulic performance tests -Grades 1 and 2
EN 10204 Metallic products - Types of inspection documents
ISO/FDIS 10816 Mechanical vibration - Evaluation of machine vibration by
measurements on non-rotating parts
Motor standards:
Nema MG 1-2007 Information guide for general purpose industrial AC small and medium
squirrel-cage induction motor standards
EN 60034/IEC 34 Rotating electrical machines
152
Appendix K
1000 2 32
8 35
3
6
4
4 40
Silicone oil 5
Fuel oil
2 50
Olive oil 10
ρ: 900
Cottonseed oil
100 ρ: 900
8 Fruit juice 20 100
6 ρ: 1000
Heavy 30
ρ: 980
4 40 200
50 SAE no.
Mean
Spindle oil 300 o
( at 68 F)
2 ρ: 955
ρ: 850
400
Gas and 100
diesel oil 500
10 ρ: 880 Light SAE 10
8 ρ: 930
6 200 1000
Silicone oil ρ: 1000
SAE 20
4 Milk ρ: 1030 300
Petroleum
ρ: 800 400 2000
Aniline ρ: 1030
500
2 SAE 30
3000
4000 SAE 40
Ethyl Alkohol ρ: 770 1000
1.0 5000
8 SAE 50
Silicone oil
6 Petrol ρ: 750
Water ρ: 1000 2000 10000 SAE 60
4 Acetone ρ: 790 Acetic acid
ρ: 1050
3000
Ether ρ: 700 SAE 70
4000 20000
2
5000
Mercury ρ: 13570 30000
0.1 t
40000
- 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100°C 10000 50000
20000 100000
30000
40000 200000
50000
100000
153
Appendix K
Ethylene glycol
154
Appendix K
Propylene glycol
155
Appendix K
Sodium hydroxide
ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν
[lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt] [lb/ft3] [cSt]
Concentration 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55%
wt % =
Temperature
32 66.17 69.73 73.29 76.78 80.21 83.27 86.40 89.58 92.58 95.51 97.32
41 66.04 69.60 73.16 76.59 80.09 83.15 86.21 89.20 92.39 95.38 97.13
50 65.98 69.48 73.04 76.41 79.90 83.02 85.96 88.83 92.26 95.20 96.95
59 65.92 69.35 72.85 76.28 79.72 82.77 85.65 88.64 91.83 94.76 96.51
68 65.79 1.3 69.23 1.7 72.66 2.5 76.09 3.6 79.53 6.2 82.52 10.1 85.33 16.8 88.39 25.4 91.39 38.2 94.32 51.8 96.13
77 65.67 1.1 69.10 1.5 72.54 2.1 75.97 3.1 79.34 5.1 82.34 8.3 85.15 13.3 88.21 19.9 91.20 29.0 94.14 39.0
86 65.54 1.0 68.92 1.3 72.35 1.8 75.78 2.7 79.15 4.0 82.09 6.5 84.90 9.9 88.02 14.4 90.95 19.9 93.89 26.2
95 65.42 0.9 68.79 1.2 72.22 1.6 75.60 2.3 78.97 3.4 81.90 5.5 84.71 8.2 87.83 11.6 90.77 15.9 93.70 20.5
104 65.29 0.8 68.67 1.1 72.04 1.4 75.41 2.0 78.78 2.8 81.71 4.5 84.46 6.6 87.58 8.9 90.52 12.0 93.45 14.7
113 65.17 0.7 68.48 1.0 71.85 1.3 75.22 1.8 78.59 2.6 81.53 3.9 84.09 5.6 87.14 7.5 90.08 9.9 93.01 12.1
122 65.04 0.7 68.29 0.9 71.66 1.2 75.03 1.6 78.40 2.3 81.28 3.3 83.65 4.6 86.71 6.0 89.64 7.8 92.58 9.4
131 64.86 0.6 68.17 0.8 71.48 1.0 74.85 1.5 78.22 2.0 81.09 2.9
140 64.67 0.6 67.98 0.7 71.35 0.9 74.66 1.3 78.03 1.8 80.84 2.4
149 64.48 0.5 67.79 0.7 71.16 0.9 74.47 1.2 77.78 1.6
158 64.30 0.5 67.60 0.6 70.98 0.8 74.28 1.1 77.59 1.5
lb/ft3 cSt
99.88 100
55%
50% 50%
45%
93.64
45% 40%
35%
40%
87.39 10 30%
35%
25%
30% 20%
81.15 15%
25%
10%
5%
20% 1
74.91
15%
10%
68.67
5% 0
68 77 86 95 104 113 122 131 140 149 158
62.42 °F
32 50 68 86 104 122 140 158 176 °F
156
Appendix K
ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν ρ ν
[lb/ft ]
3
[cSt] [lb/ft ]
3
[cSt] [lb/ft ]
3
[cSt] [lb/ft ]
3
[cSt] [lb/ft ]
3
[cSt] [lb/ft ]
3
[cSt] [lb/ft ]
3
[cSt] [lb/ft ]
3
[cSt]
Concentration 10% 15% 20% 25% Concentration 5% 10% 15% 20%
wt % = wt % =
Temperature Temperature
-13 77.72 7.7 5 72.54 4.0
-4 77.66 6.3 14 69.91 2.9 72.41 3.2
5 74.22 4.3 77.53 5.2 23 67.54 2.2 69.79 2.4 72.29 2.7
14 71.04 3.0 74.16 3.6 77.47 4.4 32 65.11 1.8 67.42 1.8 69.66 2.0 72.10 2.3
23 68.04 2.3 70.98 2.6 74.10 3.1 77.34 3.8 41 65.04 1.5 67.35 1.6 69.54 1.7 71.97 1.9
32 67.92 2.0 70.85 2.2 74.03 2.6 77.22 3.3 50 64.98 1.3 67.23 1.4 69.41 1.5 71.85 1.7
41 67.79 1.7 70.79 1.9 73.91 2.3 77.09 2.9 59 64.92 1.1 67.11 1.2 69.29 1.3 71.66 1.5
50 67.73 1.5 70.66 1.7 73.78 2.0 76.97 2.5 68 64.86 1.0 67.04 1.1 69.17 1.2 71.54 1.3
59 67.60 1.3 70.60 1.5 73.66 1.8 76.78 2.2 77 64.73 0.9 66.92 0.9 69.04 1.0 71.41 1.2
68 67.54 1.1 70.48 1.3 73.54 1.6 76.66 2.0 86 64.67 0.8 66.79 0.9 68.85 0.9 71.23 1.1
157
Index
M O
Magnetic drive 19 Open system 96, 99
Maintenance and repair costs 131 Operating costs 106, 130
Martensitic (magnetic) 68 Organic coatings 74
Mass flow 83 O-ring seal 30
Measuring pressure 85 Oversized pumps 106
Mechanical shaft seal 18, 28
Bellows seal 30
Cartridge seal 32 P
Metal bellows seal 32 Paints 74
Rubber bellows seal 31 Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM) 72
Function 29 Phase insulation 48
Flushing 32 PI-controller 114
Metal alloys 65 Pitting corrosion 61
Ferrous alloys 65 Plastic fluid 55
Metal bellows seal 32 Plastics 71
Metallic coatings 73 Positive displacement pump 24
Mixed flow pumps 8 Power consumption 10, 91
Modifying impeller diameter 108, 110 Hydraulic power 10, 91
Motors 40 Shaft power 91
Motor efficiency 49 Pressure 84
Motor insulation 48 Absolute pressure 85
Motor protection 49 Differential pressure 88
Motor start-up 46 Dynamic pressure 84
Direct-on-line starting (DOL) 46 Gauge pressure 85
Star/delta starting 46 Measuring pressure 85
Autotransformer starting 46 Static pressure 84
Frequency converter 46, 47 System pressure 88
Soft starter 46 Units 85, Appendix A
Mounting of motor (IM) 43 Vapor pressure 90, Appendix D
Multistage pump 11, 12, 13, 16
Index Index
Pressure control Q
Constant differential pressure control 115 QH curve 9
Constant pressure 114
Constant pressure control 114
Constant supply pressure 114 R
Pressure transmitter (PT) 114 Radial flow pump 8
Proportional pressure control 120 Radial forces 15
PTC thermistors 50 Reinforced insulation 48
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 123 Resistances connected in parallel 98
Pump Resistances connected in series 97
Axial flow pump 8 Return channel casing 15
Borehole pump 23 Rubber 72
Canned motor pump 18 Ethylene propylelediene rubber (EPDM) 72
Centrifugal pump 8 Fluoroelastomers (FKM) 72
Close-coupled pump 12, 13, 16 Nitrile rubber (NBK) 72
Diaphragm pump 25 Perfluoroelastomers (FFKM) 72
Dosing pump 25 Silicone rubber (Q) 72
Hermetically sealed pump 18 Rubber bellows seal 30
Horizontal pump 12, 13
Immersible pump 22
Long-coupled pump 12, 13, 16
S
Magnetic-driven pump 19
Sanitary pump 20
Mixed flow pump 8
Seal face 28
Multistage pump 11, 12, 13, 16
Seal gap 29
Positive displacement pump 24
Selective corrosion 62
Radial flow pump 8
Setpoint 114
Sanitary pump 20
Shaft 11
Single-stage pump 15
Shaft power 91
Split-case pump 12, 13, 17
Shaft seal 28
Standard pump 17
Balanced shaft seal 31
Vertical pump 12, 13
Unbalanced shaft seal 31
Wastewater pump 21
Silicone rubber (Q) 72
Pump casing 15
Single resistances 97
Pump characteristic 9, 96
Resistances connected in series 97
Pump curve 9
Single-channel impeller 21
Pump installation 77
Single-stage pump 11, 12, 13, 15
Pump performance curve 9, 96
Single-suction impeller 11
Pumps connected in series 103
Single-volute casing 15
Pumps in parallel 101
Soft starter 46
Pumps with integrated frequency converter 118
Sound level 81
Purchase costs 129
Sound pressure level 82
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) 123
Spacer coupling 16
Static head 99
Static lift 99
Speed control 106, 108, 110 T
Variable speed control 108 Temperature 93
Speed-controlled pumps in parallel 102 Units Appendix B
Split-case pump 12, 13, 17 Thermoplastics 71
Stainless steel 66 Thermosets 71
Standard pump 17 Thixotrophic liquid 55
Standards 40 Throttle control 106, 110-113
IEC, motor 40 Throttle valve 107
NEMA, motor 40 Titanium 70
Sanitary standards 20 Twin pump 11
Standstill heating of motor 51
Star/delta starting 46
Static pressure 84 U
Steel 65 Unbalanced shaft seal 31
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) 63 Uniform corrosion 61
Stuffing box 28
Submersible pump 23
System characteristic 96 V
Closed system 96, 98 Vapor pressure 90, Appendix D
Open system 96, 99 Variable speed control 108
System costs 117 Vertical pump 12, 13
System pressure 88 Vibration dampeners 79
Vibrations 78
Viscosity 54, Appendix K
Dynamic viscosity 54
Viscous liquid 54
Viscous liquid pump curve 55
Voltage supply 47
Volume flow 83
Units Appendix A
Volute casing 11
Vortex impeller 21
Wastewater pump 21
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