LOOK ANGLE

DETERMINATION

Note..
Earth stations that communicate with
satellites are described in terms of their
geographic latitude and longitude when
developing the pointing coordinates that
the earth station must use to track the
apparent motion of the satellite.
The coordinates to which an earth station
antenna must be pointed to communicate
with a satellite are called look angles.

Subsatellite Point
The subsatellite point is the location on the
surface of the earth that lies directly between the
satellite and the center of the earth.

It is the nadir pointing direction from the

satellite and, for a satellite in an equatorial orbit,
it will always be located on the equator. Since
geostationary satellites are in equatorial orbits
and are designed to stay stationary over the
earth, it is usual to give their orbital location in
terms of their subsatellite point.

Note..
To an observer of a satellite standing at
the subsatellite point, the satellite will
appear to be directly overhead, in the
zenith direction from the observing
location. The zenith and nadir paths are
therefore in opposite directions along the
same path

Specifying directions
Antenna: Designers of satellite antennas
reference the pointing direction of the satellites
antenna beams to the nadir direction. The
communications coverage region on the earth
from a satellite is defined by angles measured
from nadir at the satellite to the edges of the
coverage.
Earth station antenna designers, however, do
not reference their pointing direction to zenith.
Instead..

Azimuth and Elevation Angles

They use the local horizontal plane at the
earth station to define elevation angle and
geographical compass points to define
azimuth angle, thus giving the two look
angles for the earth station antenna
toward the satellite (Az, El).

Elevation Angle Calculation

Refer to diagram and corresponding eqn
(Fig. 2.12, pp.33) and Eqns. 2.31 and 2.35
pp. 34.

Azimuth Angle Calculation

Because the earth station, the center of
the earth, the satellite, and the subsatellite
point all lie in the same plane, the azimuth
angle Az from the earth station to the
satellite is the same as the azimuth from
the earth station to the subsatellite point.
Commercial software packages are
available for predicting orbital dynamics
and intercept solutions.

Azimuth Angle Calculation

Special case is of Geostationary Satellites
The subsatellite point is on the equator at
longitude ls and the latitude is Ls = 0, we
write
Cos() = cos(Ls).cos(ls le)
Distance d from the earth station to
satellite and elevation angle El at the earth
station can be found out. Refer to Eqn
2.36, 2.37, 2.38, 2.39, 2.40, 2.41a..d, pp35

Visibility Test
Refer Fig. 2.13, 36
For a satellite to be visible from an earth
station, its elevation angle El must be
above some minimum value, which is at
least 0o
For a nominal geostationary orbit, the last
equation reduces to < or = 81.3o for the
satellite to be visible.

Orbital Perturbations
In practice, the satellite and the earth respond to
many other influences including asymmetry of
the earths gravitational field, the gravitational
fields of the sun and the moon, and solar
radiation pressure.
For LEO satellite earths atmospheric drag also
influences
If the effects are unchecked, the subsatellite
point may change with time. Six orbital elements
vary with time

Orbit Determination
Sufficient measurements are made to
determine uniquely the six orbital elements
needed to calculate the future orbit of the
satellite, and hence calculate the required
changes that need to be made to the orbit
to keep it within nominal orbital location.
The calculations aim at determining
azimuth and elevation of the satellite, as a
function of several orbital elements.

Launches and Launch Vehicles

Two parameters that are uniquely coupled:
velocity vector and orbital height

Ex: CEO satellite

height of 35,786.03 km above the surface
of earth (or 42,164.17 km radius from the
center of the earth)
with an inclination of 0O
an ellipticity of 0o
Velocity of 3074.7 m/s tangential

Launch Vehicles
Multiple stages: As each stage is
completed, that portion of the launcher is
expended, until the final stage places the
satellite into the desired trajectory.
Ex: ELVs, STS, RLV, SSTO, RLV

Orbital Effects in Communications

Doppler Shift: For GEO satellites, effect is
negligible, for LEO the effect is pronounced
necessitating
use
of
frequency-tracking
receivers.
Range Variations: For LEO, the effect is
pronounced
Solar Eclipse: Occurs 23 days before and after
equinoxes, batteries are consumed
Sun Transit Outage: The microwaves received
from sun cause noise.