an CHAPTER 14 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks importance of sedimentary rocks for interpreting the history ‘of Earth and theic tremendous economic importance. Meta- “mmorphie rocks. the third major rock type, are the subject of Chapter 15. "You saw in chapter 12 how weathering proxtces sediment. ‘In this chapter, we explain more about sediment origin, a well ‘asthe erosion, transportation, sorting, deposition, and eventual ‘transformation of sediments to sedimentary rock. Becse they hhave such diverse origins, sedimentary racks are difficult to classify, We divide them into detrital, chemical, and organic ‘sedimentary rocks, but this elassification does not do justice to the great variety of sedimentary rock types. Furthermore, ‘despite their great wariety. only three sedimentary rocks are ‘Yery common—shale, sandstone, and limestone. rocks contain sedimentary structures such as ‘pple marks. emssbeds, and mnd cracks. as well as the fossil- ized remains of extinct organisms, These features, combined ‘with knowledge ofthe sediment types within the rock and the ‘Sequence of rock layers, allow geologists to interpret the envi- ‘ronments in which the rocks Were deposited. About three- fourths of the surface of the continents is blanketed by sedimentary rock, providing geologists with the information they need to reconstruct a detailed history of the surface of ‘Earth andits biosphere. ‘Sedimentary rocks are also economically important. Most "building materials such as stone, concrete silica (glass). ayp- ‘sum (plaster) and ion are quarried and mined from sedimen~ tary rock. Saltis also a sedimentary product and, in many ‘places in the world, supplies of Fresh walcr are pumped from ‘sedimentary layers, Coal, crude oil, and natural za, the fossil fuels that drove the industrial revolution and that power our ‘technological society, are all formed within and extracted from sedimentary rock, € Relationship to Earth Systems Sediment and sedimentary rocks are important components of ‘the slid Earth system. They are especially important at the sur- ‘ace of Earth, where sedimentary rocks account for tha majority ‘of exposed bedrock. The atmosphere, hydrosphere. and bio “sphere are deeply intertwined in the creation of sediment anc in tbecoming sedimentary rock. “Most sediment is the product of weathering of rocks exposed to ai: the important mle that the atmosphere plays was ‘described inchapter 12, Wind scne of the agents by which sedi ‘ment is transported. Sand is skipped along he ground, moving ‘nipples ana often accumulating, nto sana dunes. Finer se ‘mentary particles are caried as dust by the nimosphere and ‘may travel great distances before setting out on land or sen ‘The hydrasphere plays a role inthe making of nearly all ‘sedimentary rocks, Typically, sediment is created during weath- elng with Water bet a Vit Ingredient in the process. Sedi- ‘ment is further modified during transportation by streams and ‘ceean curents In colder regions. glaciers (frozen water) move sediment. The conversion of sediment to sedimentary rock Eee, ‘usually involves water. Water earrying dissolved material flows between grains of sediment. Precipitation ofthe dissolved sub- stances onto the grains cements them together, and sediment is, turned into sedimentary rock. ‘Most sedimentary rocks contain fossils and part or all of many sedimentary rocks are made by organisms. Limestone, forexample, is often made from the shells or remains of other ‘hard parts of animals and algae. Plants can partially decompose sand be converted into coal (which is a rock). Our civilization ‘depends on crude oil for our peincipal source of energy. Crude oil is found in sedimentary rocks and is formed through the partial decay of organic mater, SEDIMENT ‘Sediment is the collective name for loose, solid pasticles of mineral that originate from: 1, Weathering and erosion of preexisting socks (detital sedi- sents), 2. Precipitation trom solution, including secretion by organ ‘isms in water (chemical sediments). ‘Sediment includes such particles as sand on beaches. mua fn a lake bottom, boulders frozen into glaciers, pebbles in Streams. and dust particles setting out ofthe air. An accumula tion of clam shells on the sea bottom offshore is sediment, as, ‘aecoral fragments broken from a eet by large storm waves. These particles usually collect in layers on Earth's Sustace, An important pat of the definition is that the particles are Loose. Sedliments are said to he unconsolidated. which means that the ‘grains are separate, or unattached to one another.Deisital sediment particles ate classified and defined acconding othe sizeof incividval Nagmients, Table I. 1 shows, the precise definitions of particles by size ‘Gravel inclnes ll roanded particles coarser than 2 mili- meters in diameter, the thiskass of a U.S. aickal. (Angular ‘ragmneats ofthis size are called rubble.) Febbles range from 2 {054 millimeters about the sizeof atennis bal). CoDbles range ‘rom 64 to 256 milimelers about the siz of « basketball), and boulders areconner than 256 millimeters (figure 14 1). ‘Sand grains are from 1/16 millimeter (about the thickness ofa human hair to 2 milimeters in dlameter. Grains of this Size are visible aad feel gritty tetveen the agers. SM grains are from 1/256 to 1/16 millimeter, They are too small to see ‘without a magnifying device, such as a seolegis’s hand lens. Sit dose nct fea grity between the fingers, but it does feal rity between the tecih (geologists often bite sediments to test, thelr grain size). Clay is he finest sediment, at less than 256 millimeter, (00 fine to feel gritty to fingers or teeth. Mad is a ‘erm loosely usec for a mixture of silt and clay. [Nite that we have two different uses of the word clay clay-sized partic (table 141) and aclay mineral. Aclay-siz=d ppaticle can be vomposed of sny mineral at all proviled its ‘ameter is ess fan 1/256 millimeter. A clay miberal,on the ‘other hand. s one of a small group of silicate minerals with a ‘Shot-sllente struotiee. Clay migorals usually frm inthe cla siz sang ‘Quite often me composition of seaiment in the clay-size ‘ange turns out tobe mostly clay minerals, but this is notalways, the case, Because of its fsistance to chemical veathering. {quartz may show up i this ine size grade, (Moet sit i quart.) Tnlease mechanical weathering can break down a wide variety ‘oF minerals o clay size, and these extremely fine particles may ‘etuin tir mineral identity fora longtime If chemical weath- ering is slow. The great weight of plcien is particulary efec- tive at grinding minerals downto the silt and clay-size range [producing “rock flour.” which gives a milky appearance to lucia meltwater streams Gee chapter 19), ena | Soon Seinen Rock ras = - ane noe cs ose || cenphomnete : aarp 2 = ae ve TS See aay Sey | ener | ace eaten ‘Sandstone and le ae que common the ors are eave ae FIGURE 14.1 These Eades hve laa ura! by chara wove en thd ham gs Gece one es Ao Ua ia ‘Weathering, erosion, and transportation are some ef the procesies that aect the character uf secimett, Both mechsnt- cally weathered and chemically weathered rock and sediment ean be eroded, and weathering continues as erosion takes place. Sand being transported by a river also can be actively weath cred, as can mud on alak> bottom, The chancter of sediment cow also bealterea by rounding ana sorting curing traasporta- tion, and even after erentual deposition. ‘Transportation [Most sediment is transported some distance by gravity, wind, ‘water. of ice before coming to rest and setling into layers During transpoctation, sedimeat continues to weather snc ‘hangs in charaster in proportion tothe distance the sediment is moved. ‘Rounding isthe grinding away of sharp edges and comers of rock fragments during transportation. Rounding occurs in Sond and gravel as river, glaciers, or waves cause particles 10 Ii and scrape against one another (Faure 14.1) or against a rock. surface, such as a rocky Sseambed Boulders in astream may ‘how substantial rousding in less than 1 kilometer of tre Sorting is the process ty which sediment grains are selects and separated according to grain size (oe grain shape fr spovific gravity) by the agoats of transportation, especially by running water. Because of heir high viscosity and manner ff flow, gleciers are poor sorung agents. Gliciews deposit ll sediment sizes in the same place. so plcial sediment usually consists of a mixture clay sit, cand, and geavel Such glacial sediment is considered poorty sorted. Sediment is considered wellsertetwhen the graus are neatly allthe same size. river, ‘for example, isa good sorting agent, separating sand from ‘pravel,andsilt and cly from sand. Sorting takes place becanse ff the preatar weight of lrger particles: Roulders weigh more 2534 CHAPTER 4 B Dspoeton ot sana 1A Coares av NGURE 14.2 ‘Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks eaenova oie eof eng adm by i fl The come mil vais Seon nha hess fh ha hse wo ate ai Sepa ofsant cron ape tw bua arty owe fe ofan pa | esi sown Photo Alby Dene Caton, Pot By DsvelcGaay, Phos Cyc. W Mgomey than pebbles and are more difficult for the river to transport, so {river must flow more rapidly to move boulders than to move »ebples. Similarly. pebbles are harder to move than sand, and fand is harder to move than sit and clay. Figure 14.2 shows the sorting of Sediment by a river as 1 lows out of steep mountains onto a gentle flood plain, where hhe water loses energy and slows down, As the river loses ‘nergy, the heaviest particles of sediment are deposited. The voulders come to rest first (figure 14.2). As the river contin- tes to slow and becomes less turbulent, cobbles and thea ‘ebbles we deposited. Sand comes to rest a6 the river loses still, hore energy (figure 14.22). Finally. the river is carrying only hae finest sediment—silt andl clay (figure 14.2C), The river has ‘ted the original Sediment mix by grain size Deposition Nhen transported material settles of comes to rest. deposition »ecurs. Sediment is deposited when running water, glacial ice, waves, or wind loses energy and can no longer transport its load, Deposition also refers to the accumulation of chemical or organic Sediment, such as clam shells on the sea floor of plant ‘material on the floor of «swamp. Such sediments may form as organisms die and their remains accumulate, perhaps with no transportation at all, Deposition of salt crystals can take place as seawater evaporates. A change in the temperature, pressure, OF chemistry of a solution may also cause precipitation—hot springs may deposit cakeite or silica asthe warm Water cook, The enviroument of deposition is determined by the loca ton in which deposition occurs. A few examples of environ— ments of deposition are the deep-sea floor, a desert valley. a ‘ver channel, a coral wef, a fake bottom, a'beach, and a sand, ‘dune. Each environment is marked by characteristic physical chemical, and biological conditions. You might expect mud on Ie sea floor to aiffer trom mud on a lake bottom, Sand on a beach may differ from sand in a river channel. Same differ- fences are due to varying sediment sources and transporting,agents, but most are the result of conditions in the environments ‘of deposition themselves ‘One ofthe most important jobsof geologists studing sedi- mentary rccks is to try to determine the ancient environment of deposition ofthe sediment in whieh the rock formed. Factors that can help in determining this ace a detailed knowledge of modern environments. the vertical sequence of rock layers in the field, the fossils and sedimentary structures found within the rock. the mineral composition of the rock. and the size. shape. and surface texture of the individual sediment pans. Later in this chapter. we give a few examples of interpreting environments of deposition Preservation [Not all seciments are preserved as sedimestary layers. Gravel ina siver may be deposited when aver is law but t4en may be eroded and transported by the next flood on the river. Meny sediments on land, particularly those well above sea level. are easily eroded and carried away, so they are not commonly preserved, Sediments on the sea flor ae easier to preserve, In ‘eneral, continental and marine sediments are mostlikely tobe preserved f they are deposited in a subsiding (sinking) basin and if they are covered or buried by later sediments Lithification LLithifcation is the general term forthe processes that convert loose sediment into sedimentary rock. Mos sedimentary rocks afe lithified by a combinstion of compaction, which packs loose sediment grains tightly together, and cementation, in ‘which the precipitation of cement around sediment grains binds them into a firm, cohereni rock. Crystallization of minerals from solution, without pessing through the loose-sediment stage. is another way that rocks may be lithified. Some layers ‘of sediment persistfor tens of millions of years without becem- ing fully lihfied. Usually lavers of partially lithiied sediment hhave been buried deep enough to become compacted. but have ‘act experienced the conditions required for cementation, 1A ateraepoation B compaction FIGURE 14.9 ‘swwwmhhe.com/carlsan90 ass As sediment grains settle slowly in a quiet envirorment such asa lake bottom, they form an arrangement with a preat deal of open space between the grains (figure 14.34). The open spaces between gains are calleé pores, andl ina quiet environ- ment, a deposit of sand may have 40% to 50% of its volume as ‘open pore space. (If the grains were traveling rapidly and Impacting one another just before deposition, the percentage of pore space will be less.) As more and more sediment grains are deposited on top of the original grains. the increasing ‘weight of this overburden packs the orivinal grains together, ‘reducing the amount of pore spaze. This shift toa tighter pack- ing, wit resulting decrease in pore space, is called compac- tion (figure 14.38). As pore space decreases. some of the Interstiial water that usually fills sediment pores is driven out of the sediment. ‘As underground water moves through the remaining pore space, solid material called cement can precipitate inthe pore space and bind the loose sediment grains together to form a solid rock. The cement attaches very tighily to the grains. hold- ing them in a rigid framework. AS cement parially of com- pletely dls the pores the total amount of pore space is farther reduced (figure 14.3C), and the loose sand forms a hard, coher- cent sandstone by cementation. Secimentary rock cement i often composed ofthe mineral calcite or of other carbenate minerals, Dissolved caleium and bicarbonate fons are common in surface ard underground water. the chemical conditions are right, these ions may recombine to {orm solid calcite. as shawn in the following reaction Cat + 2HCO 3 CaCO; + HO + CO: issolved ‘ons calcite Silica is another common cemest, Iron cxides and clay miner- als can also act as cement but are less common than calcite and silica. The dissolved ions that precipitate as cement originate {rom the chemical weathering of minerals such as feldspar and calcite. This weathering may oecur within the sediments being © camantston Leon tard git bene onsen lien gate am deposed wh con ot ace beter he ga. (Te weight fcr compact snd Inttghes nonpeoen mdiingpa spare (Cl Ppcon sf coven ine pom by ganda nd snd ondare whch ow cae re356 CHAPTER 14. Sedimentand Sedimentary Rocks FIGURE 14.4 Cryline osore a earch pois nicrncape Nee he reecking oo lm reel tos go pec dog merge Since sedinenay waves ow caren or paw sper Phy Sr cemented. of ata very distant sie, withthe fons being irans- Ported ten: oreven hundreds of kilometers by Water before pre ipitating as solid cement ‘A sesimentary rock that consists of sediment grains bound by cement into a rigid framesvork ie said to have a elastl tex- ture. Usually such a rock still has some pore space because ‘cement rarely fills the pores completely (figure 14.30), ‘Some sedimentary rocks form by crystallization, the development and gravth of crystals by precipitation from solu- Udon at or near Eart’ssusface (he term Is also used for igneous, rocks tha! crystallize as magna cools). These rocks have a ‘crystalline texture, an arrangement of interlocking crystals that develops as crystals grow and intarfere with each other Crystalline rocks lack cement. They are held together by the interlocking of crystals, Such rocks have minimal pore space because the crystals typically grow until they fl all available space, Some sedimestary rocks with a crystalline texture are the resultof recrystaiization, he growin of new erystals that form fom and then destroy the original clastic grains of « rock that has beon buried (Gguse 14.1, TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, ‘Sedimentary rocks are formed from (1) eroded mineral grains (2) miners precipitated from low-temperature solution, of {G)consolidation of the organic remains of plants. These differ cent types of sedimentary rocks are called, respectively, detrital, chemical, and organic rocks. ‘Most sedimentary rocks ara detrital sedimentary rocks, formed from cemented sediment grains that are fragments of preexisting rocks. The rock fragments can be elther identifiable pieces of rock, such s pebbles of granite or shale, of individual ‘mineral grains, such 2s sand-sized quartz and feldspar crystals loosened from rocks by weathering and erosion, Clay minerals ome by chemical weathering are also considered fragments of preexisting rocks. During transpertation the grains may have been rounded and sorted. Table 141 shows the detrital rocks, such as conglomerate, sandstone, and shale, and how these rocks vary in grain size. ‘Chemical sedimentary recks are deposited by precipita- tion of minerals from solution, Anexample of inorganic pre- ‘ipitation isthe formation of rook salf as seawater evapora, ‘Chemical precipitation can also be cansed by organisms, The sedimentary rock limestone is often formed from the cemesta- tion of broken pieces of seashell and fragments of calcite ‘mineral produced by corals and algae, Such a rock is called a Dloctastc tmestone, "Not all chemical sedimentary rocks accumulate as sedi- ‘mont. Somolimostones are rystallized as slid fock by corals tnd coralline algae in refs. Chet crystallizes in solid masses ‘within some layers of limestone. Rock salt may crystallize {izectly as asolid mass or it may form from the erystallizaion of individual salt crystals that behave as sedimentary particles ntl they grow lage enough to interlock into sold sock. ‘Organ sedimentary rocks are rocks tna are composed of organic carbon compounds, Coal is an organic rock that {orms from the compression of plant comains, such as moss, leaves, twigs, rots, andtree tink Appendix B describes and helps you identify the common sedimentary rocks. The standard geologic symbols for these rocks (such as dots for sandstone, and a “briek-wall” symbol {or limestone) are shown in appenaix F and will be used inthe semainder of he book. DETRITAL ROCKS Detrital sedimentary rocks are formed from the weathered and eroded remains (detritus) of bedrock. Detrital rocks are also often referred to as rerigenous clastic racks because they are ‘composed of clasts (broken pieces) of mineral ceived from the erosion ofthe land, Breccia and Conglomerate Sedimentary breccia is 4 coarse-grained sedimentary rack formed by the cementation of coarse. angular fragments of rub- ble (igure 14.5). Because grains are rounded so rapidly dusing transport, itis unlikely thatthe angalar fragments within bwec- ‘la have moved very farfrom their source. Sedimentary breccia might form from ffagments that have accumulated athe tase of scep slope of rock that is being mechanically weathered. Landatide deposits also might ithify into sedimentary brossia. This type of rook isnot particularly common. Conglomerate is a coarse-grained sedimentary rock ‘oemed by the cementation of rounded gravel. Itcan be distin- {guished from breccia bythe definite roundness of its particles ‘figure 14.6), Because conglomerates are coasse-grained, theFIGURE 14.5 ec aterm tycnape ays toanes tegen nhs Hoot peor ESET ES Thi moobybaaaceny seerncees Sows es FIGURE 14.6 Spee ee itd cee Slelgrt0 criqun nur sou se soimene Beaty Dale reSeay ppatiles mey act have travel far; but some transport wae ‘necessary to rind the particles. Angilar fagments that fll Troma lif and then ae catia few Kilometers by 8 tet pounded by ‘waves crashing in the suef along a beach are ‘gvickly rounded. Gravel that i transperted down steep soba ‘ge canyons or carted by glacial ie, however, can e irans- porte fers or even hundred cf klonictem before depose, Sandstone Sanustone fs forniee by the cementstion of sand grains {figure 147), Any deposit of saad ean ify to sandstone. RiNors deposit sand ia their chanel, and wind pilas up sand iato vewuambhe.com/catlsande a7 tunes, Waves deposit sand on beaches and in shallow water ‘Deep-sca currents spread sd over the seafloor. As you mish lagins,saadstones show a great deal of variation in mineral compeaition degree of satin, and degree of rounding ‘Quartz randitoze s sandstone tn which more man 90% fof the grains ave quartz (fgure 14.74) Because quart is rei tant to chemical weathering, it Leeds to concentrate in sand posits as the lestresistant minerals such as Felespar are Weuered away. The quart grains i a quar sandstone ate tuslly well sorted and well-rounded becaase they have bees transported for greatalistances (igure 14.84). Most quartz sand. ‘tone was depested as beac sand ce dane san ‘sandstone with more than 259 of the grains consisting of feldspar s called arkose (figure 11.78), Because feldspar ‘pains are preserved inthe rock, the original sediment of ‘uly ckd not undergo severe chemical weathering, the fekh Spar would have been destroyed, Mouatains of granite in & Aesert could he a coaree forsticha sediment, forthe rapier lon associate with rugged terrain Would alow feldspar to De mechanically weathered and eroded before It i chemically ‘wanthered (a dey climate slows chomical weathering). Most arkoses contain coase. ang grains figure 148), 50 trans [Poriation distances were probably shirt. Aa atkose may have bbeon deposited within an allvtl fan arg, fan-rhepes pile ‘of setiment that usally forms where 4 seam emerges fom & narrow canyon onto at plain a the foct of mountain range (figure 149) ‘Sandstones may contin a subetintal anoun! of mate i the form of fiae-gfainea Slt ana clay 4 the space between larger sand grains (igure 1410), A maighe-rich sandstone i [poomy sorted und often dark ia colo Tes sometimes called ‘ety sandstone” Graywacke (pronounced “sray-wacky") 1s a typeof sand stone ia which more than 15% ofthe mck volume consist of ne-prained mate (figures 147C and 14.8C). Graywackas ae fften tough and dense. andar generally car gray ot preen “The san grain may be so coed with amin init cy ae di feutt os90, but they typically consist of quastz,flaspar. and sonc-sizaTagments ct other ne-grained sedkmenary, vole. ‘nk, and netamorphie rocks. Most prayWwackes probably formed from sedimentladea curterts that ae deposit ia deop wet (coe igure 11.28), ‘The Fine-Grained Rocks ‘Rocks consisting of tne-praned sil and clay are called state silisione,claysone, and mudstone ‘Shale i a fing road sedimentary rack notable for ite ability to spit int layers (called ise). Spitting takes place along dhe surtices Of very thin layers (called famtizauons) ‘within the sale (igure 1411). Mostshales contain both stand hy (averaging shout wo-taiek clay-sized clay minerals and ‘one-hgUsi-szed quartz) snd a s fne-praned the Sut face of the rock feels very smooth, The sl and clay deposits tht tify as shale accumulate oa ake bottoms, athe ends ofFIGURE 147, "ype ante 6) Guanzon: no Hon SOE at he gran eg Aone pata aly chew nd guts 6) Grpwacihe ae {Trsindd ny Sot, nega nar Smal esse averse I ilnear rast Reson sane chat mlm v Seren Pasty Dis hlasasy a8FIGURE 14.2 etl antineiry ck vowed ah pohncna cree. (A ‘one tae felted ana wulosnd ate Boas ge ins San S=aE Sante by ange goss ns) Gores oa pet anced pbeewih mind ra Pac by i Bann \wwrwmhhe.com/carisonde 39 suchas ante Layer ot cca, 29s FIGURE 14.9 ‘orishing te ssh ot gure Sep erin seis eosin eno tna ‘eybe Soted beoe So conpl only wechaed ne Say inne FIGURE 14.10 A pelysotedsdinerttsandsissurnded bya mahicalshandcoy Oe Se peters arte” ‘vers in deltas, on river flood plains, and on quiet parts of he deep-ocean Noor. Fine-grained socks such as shale typically undergo poo- ‘nounced compaction ae thay lithfy. Figure 14.12 shows the ‘ole of compaction in the lithfication of shale from wet mc ‘Before compaction, as much as 80% of the volume of the wet ‘mud may have been pore space filled with water. The flakelike clay minerals were randomly arranged within the mud. Pres- Sure from overlying material packs the sediment grains together ‘and reauces the overall volume by squeezing Water oUt oF the ppores, The clay minerals are reoriented perpendicular to the ‘pressure, bocoming panel to on0 another like a dock of card. "The fest of shale is ue to weaknesses between these paral- lel clay flakes.50 CHAPTER 14 Sediment and Sedimentary Rocks cm IGURE 14.11 Jn ogcnop af sale om Hudson Vly ip New Yok Note oer his ered Pitino itn ery hi ies 5) Shae pines; nie be very ine gen ie orl on hg aoe ct ze een rd Fly) Pato A © hs Suton Phas Compaction by itself does aot generally lithify sediment into sedimentary rock. It does help consolidate clayey sediments Dy pressing the microscopic clay minerals so closely together that attractional forces at the atomic level tend to bind them together. Even in shale, however, the primary method of lithifi- ccallon is cementation. A rock consisting, mostly of silt grains is called siltstone. Somewhat coarser-grained than most shales siltstones lack the {ssility and laminations of shale. Cleystome isa mock composed, redeminately of clay-sized particles but lacking the fssility of shale, Mudstone contains both silt and clay, having the same grain size and smooth feel of shale but lacking shale's lamina tons and fissility. Mudstone is massive and blocky, while shale is visibly layered and fissile CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Chemical sedimentary rocks are precipitated from a low- temperature aqueous environment. Chemical sedimentary rocks are precipitated either directly by inorganic processes of by the actions of organisms, Chemical rocks include ear bonates, chert, and evaporites. Carbonate Rocks (Carbonate rocks contain the CO:2~ ion as part of their chemical compesition, The two main types of carbonates are-limestone sand dolomite Limestone Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mostly of calcite (CaCOs), Limestones are precipitated either by the actions of forganisens or directly asthe result of inorganic processes. Thus the two major types of limestone can be classified as either bio chemical or inorganic limestone. Biochemical limestones age precipitated through the actions of organisms. Most biochemical limestones are formed on con- LUnental shelves in warm, shallow Water. Biochemical limestone BB wotgnt ornew a © opiting auracee (tem ‘aameal ‘Compacted.seaimert ae i ro {ater cementatlor) FIGURE 14.12 iihcaton cable fm he conten cre cman cv med. (A Rendon neice clay parca ne (rad B)Palerncsen, oes az a pve se devwons tins compactin cased ty Pe waist cfnm sna (Poe decated or ap cibewet moo) Spang aston ncorarnd Saltorm pole ite arenms iow pn