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  • Tosdal y Richard, 2001

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    69 visualizações26 páginas

    Tosdal y Richard, 2001

    Enviado por

    Leonardo Antonio Manríquez Michea
    n

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Baixe no formato PDF ou leia online no Scribd
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    ‘urouarep nequesy TO. TH BRITISH LIBRARY 2oCUMENT SUPPLY CENTRE ARIEL ADP REQUEST 13 -aug-03010 29198969 | _B COPY _ COPYRIGHT FEE PAID {NAN ¥3-aug-03073 | 9978388" __| “7$0.193500 RBK REVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS, 001 VOL 14 PP.i57 - 181 MATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON THE ICHARDS, J. P. AND TOSDAL, R. M. | 7410123 [7790.193500 ie MIMI | 29198969 fre ont oaks of dte of receipt uness recalled alr, | ‘Bza074 FXBKS9 sae | SARA R RS REESE REESE EERE tne ether brary indicated plese return loan to | ARIEL ‘The Bish Library Document Supply Cente, Boston Spe, Wetherby, West Yorkie, United Kingdom, L523 780. EMAIL: PDG_LIBRARY@PLACERDOME COM British Library Document Supply Copyright Fee Paid copies The contents of the attached document are copyright works. Unless you have the permission of the copyright owner, the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd or another authorised licensing body, you may not copy, store in any electronic medium or ‘otherwise reproduce or resell any of the content, even for internal purposes, except as may be allowed by law. If the document was sent from us to you by any electronic means (including fax transmission), you are agreeing to the terms of supply, which are available at wwrwbl.uk/services/documenvedd.heml, Soci of Banana Gg Revowe 12001, Chapter 6 Magmatic and Structural Controls on the Development of Porphyry Cu = Mo = Au Deposits RM, Tosa Mineral Defeat Research Unit, University of British Columbia, Venrmen, BC V6T 124, Canada AND J. P, RICHARDS Department of Earth and Atmuspherc Scones, University of Allerta, Edmonton, AB T6G 283, Canada Abstract Porphyry Cu + Mo 2 Au deposits require the coincidence aid postive interaction of a series of individ ually eommonplace geological processes. They, and all sheir enezially associated deposits, are a natural Consequence of convergent maggin magi, and rellect the dynamic interplay between magmatic, hy tirouhermal, and tectonic processes. Magis generated diring mbelacton rise Into the upper erst, cou ‘nonly along zowes of lithospheric weakiies, where they pend in tabular magma chambers at depths of 6 kim or deeper The chambers grow hiterally by chamber flogr depression (cantilever mechanism) znd some roo lifting (piston mechanism). Apophyses rise from the pazenal magma chamber and ntrde 10 within | to 3 ki of the surtace, where they may undergo volaule exsohution and erstalization 2s por Dhyritic stocks, Eriplacement of porphyry stocks sfacilitated by sirctural snisobpy in dhe reat rocks. Ase fending hydruitierml fluids exsolved from the porphyry stocks and the underlying parental magma Chamber are focused into the cupola, aking adamtage of vertical structural and rheological anisewopies Intradaced either before or ducing porphyry emplacement From a simetural standpoint, three recurseat processes enhance permeability in the fori of fracture oF brecein networks through which hydrothermal fluids pass an preepitate minerals. Fracture-producing events ate related to fntusion of pre, sy i poster porphiry stocks or ckes to nearsuriace depths (055 kan), phase separation an! volume expansion ofa hydrothermal Mud through a varies of meehie nisms and tectonicalyindced failure. Concenitie and radial factare patterns rellet magnate processes ‘whereas more lincararnas of veins rellet tectonic insences. The resaling diferent vein array are com tony vertically and temporally distributed in the porphyry system: concentric and radial ataye are move Common above or in the tipper pats of the stocks, whereas Tinea arrays dominate at depth, forming asthe System cools and the phon solidifies, Orthogonal and conjayate arrays of wins characterize all sales and il pars of porphyry systems, Veins from a particular paragetetic stage da not have unique orientations, but Father oocir with all orientations spat of that ysten, The enmmon comgate to orthogonal interven = litionships in porphyry Cu depos requires repetitive exchange of principal sess orientations, evens that, sv Tacltated by conchiions of lew dtferen al horizontal stew. Such sures Conditions indicate that may ppoepiyry Cu deposits form in specific environments where the magmatic are s under a nearneutalsiress ate, These conditions occur eer in aveas removed from aetve deformation, or during periods of sitess elevation and low stain i che magmatie ace, Achievement of these conditions i Gane ahd space is Tel to be infrequent and taster curing the life ofa convergent margin, which may explain the spatial and temporal clustering of deposits in lange porphyry dsuies Introduction tion of these deposits from a physical and geochemical Pogninyay Cat = Mo + Au deposits, hereafter referred to as porphyry Cu deposits, are associated with shallow-level plu {onic complexes emplaced in maginatic ares at convergent plate margins (Figs. 1, 24; Sillitoe, 1972, 1997; Sutherland Brown, 1976; Titley, 1982; Sawking, 1990), Since their first, recognition as important sources of metals (Ransome, 1904, 1919; Lindgren, 1905, 1933, 1997; Emmons, 1927), much work has been devoted to ninderstanding the forme standpoint (Burnham, 1967, 1979; Gustafson and Hunt, 1975; Cathles, 1977; Burnham and Ohmowo, 1980; Beane and ‘itley, 1981; Candela, 1989; Cline and Bodnar, 1991 Hedenquist and Richards, 1998). In addition, the question ‘of why there is considerable variation in the size of these types of deposits has been pondered (Clark, 1993). Ocher studies have focused on structural controls on vein and fraccure distributions within porphyry Cu deposits, and their spatial and paragenctic relationships to porphyry stocks (Relirig ancl Heidrick, 1972, 1976: Gustafson and Hune, 1975; Tiley and Heidrick, 1978; Heideick and Tiley, 158 YONA AND RacsHAnDs Onin eg apan i hay Vee Ree (= Austaia uN ey a Pacific Ocean Porphyry belts of the Circum-Pacifie @® Oxidized magmatic belt: Porphyry Cu Mo+ Au 1 Cenozoic prpisry Caz Mo Au deposi stong converge plate margins nthe ‘érea-Pacieroplon. PNC - Papua New Gunes apie or Tromp (08) 1982; Wilkinson et al., 1982; Lindsay et al., 1995). These studies demonstrate that porphyry Cu deposits are inthe enced not only by magmatic and hydrothermal processes, but also by regional tectonics at the time of formation. In fact, the prevailing tectonic sewing and strucwaral frame- ‘work may strongly influence not only the size and form of a porphyry system (Sillitoe, 1994, 1997; Skewes and Stern, 1995) but also its location (Rebrig and Heidrick, 1972, 1976; Tidey and Heidrick, 1978; Heidrick and Titkey, 1982), Richirds et al, 2001). ‘This chaprer reviews the interplay between magmatism and eynamic structural environments in the development ‘of porphyry Cu deposits, Critical to this goal is the general model of porphyry Cus deposits, which highlights the need for constructive interaction between magmatic, magmatic- hydrothermal, and tectonic events in the formation of pore phyzy Cu deposits. It is equally important to consider emplacement mechanisms of shallow-level plutonic com plexes in the upper crust because porphyry Cu depositsare restricted to these envizonments, Throughout this chapter, \we draw liberally on welllesctibed examples of poxphyry Cu deposits to illustrate vatious points. Most exat from the southwestern Unived States and from die Andes of Penti and Chile. This geographic focus is not incended to indicate that other porphysy Cus provinces are insignificant, ‘but merely reflects past history of geologic investigations, availabilty of liverauure, and our personal experiences. General Porphyry Model Physicochemical model Important characteristics of porphyry Cu deposits sum sized herein are basecl on the primary physiochemical tut iesof Lindgren (1987), Hemley and Jones (1964), Sheppard etal. (1969, 1971), Lowell and Guilbers (1970), Rose (1970), Roeder (1971), Sillitoe (1973). Gustafson and Hunt (2975), Hollister (1975), Sheppard and Gustafson (1978), Sutherland Brown (1976), Eastoe (1978), and Reynolds and Beane (1995), and reviews by Gustaion (1978), Beane and Tiley (1981), Titleyand Beane (1981), Ticley (1982), Hunt (1991), Kirkham and Sinclair (1996), and Hedenquist and Richards (1998), Porphyry-type systems are so-namedd because of their spar tial andl genetic association with porphyritic intrusions (Fig. 24). Commonly, such intrusions are characterized by phie= nociyst assemblages consisting of onc or more of the mine crals quart, K fellspar, plagioclase, hornblende, and biotite (rarely pyroxenes and olivine) in a fine-grained matrix. Rock compositions vary from granitic to dioritic or rarel yabbroie, ane are of cale-aikaline to alkaline parentage (Brown, 1982). Parental magmas are believed to be modier- ately watertich as indicated by the presence of hyeiraus phi focryst phases such as amphibole and biotite, whose stabi squires atleast $ wt percent HO in the melt (Holland, 1972; Burnham, 1979}, Water concentrations are probably ke MAGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON PORDHTRY Gu = Mo x Au DEPOSITS 9 A Generalized porphyry-related base metal systems, B 0 fe 8 oa — Sate steko 7 vow SS Stas, EEE 0 veveall 24 | 1,2, Anavomy ofa ponphysy Cut Mo 2 Au deposit and other spatial reed depois General modelos roned magia hdotermal set sow pote ‘El nlges between» prpiyy Ch deport centered on compote porphyry ate Sm ara taped om sive, 108). Te pry Cu ep ane on | Gi cet | cra tnd pnd byt charaeterts tea depot pes Nowa ponte the were | Loney f ae ee ck naeatchse ental wc Petpsent renee Pf a Cpu dominate lone cine suchas Cope Cason tthe Bate Mountain Mi \ \onm | ing Dies (Teeter, 200), bere nther em sich tone mse FE TA | Pera Clie he pop € epost dominate pespheral depois ae ae ( / | oown aston a tn 198; Gar eal, 190), Be sipted dst of AV LAWS | bpetotheral aeraton ans miners an cn porphyry Ou deposit PATE doug Lt {Stajed tem lowet and Cte, 190). ab fed apie ster ay | [EC | | ‘Shrunk = anya = natn MN L ‘ha; hs chlor: ep = chalet fand borate; ep “Eton: Kle = Rfelespnr, mag = magnet: quate se = series st = sphalente su. ulation, not higher than 5 wt percent, however, because ofthe com mon presence of plagiocise phenocrysts (Gil 1981). Fuld ‘esolution from the melt upon racking saturation leads to 5 sudden rive of dhe magina soleus temperaiare, which {uenches the matrix and gives rise tthe porphyrive exe thre, This mnagmatederived lydrothersal ui in nim, Iimpicated in te transport and depeniton of meals to form porphry mineral deposit “The hydrous ane ofthe melt derives from magnagene- the upper mantle by subdhction of altered oecanie crust {Fig. 2). Sab dehydration during descent to ~100 ks depth Inctisomaties the overlying mate wedge, theseby generat ing conditions suitable Tor extraction of hydrox basalt trays by decompression melting (Hanlin, 1081 Arc thse 1904), As these maginas ascend foward the surge, a Combination of proceses, including depresurintion and Crystallization of anhydrous sinctal phases, Leads to 2 ‘crease in yoluulesolubilty and an ineFeae fn the vole oladenites p= pes ena kl content ofthe residual siieate melt, eventually leading to sa tration (Burnham, 1957, 1979; Whitney, 1975). Atthis point, ‘separate volatile phase is exsolved, which becomes concen- trated at the top of the magma chamber (Figs. 4and 5). In calealkaline to alkaline are magmas, this waterich volatile phase will abo contain other watersoluble valatile compo- hhents such as Cland § species. Depending on the depth (pressure) of emplicement, intial volatile exsolution yields either (1) a high-pressure, homogeneous, supercritical, ‘aqueous fluid with salinity in the range 2 to 10 wr percent NaCl equiv, or (2) at shallower depths (above approximately 5 km) two immiscible duids, consisting ofa low-slinity vapor phase and a highsalinity brine (Burnham, 1979; Cline ant Bonar, 1991; Shinohara, 1994; Gustafson and Quiroga, 1905; Heclenquist and Richards, 1998; Hedenquist et al, 1008). These fluid phases can transport base and precious metals as chloride and possibly bisullide complexes (Candela and Holland, 1984, 1986; Willi 1995; Gammons ‘and WilliamsJones, 1997; Loucks and Mavrogenes, 1999). 160 Tosbas AND rucHaRDS Fr 3. Geometry ofa magmatic ae formed aan abide comer plate margin Hideous magmas are generated i she mate wedge ane Thune te homphere along broad deformation aes undergoing ning Shvnso¥stikeslp mation depenting up he egee of oly aon ihe convergent agin, Madi ian de oat Banga. (188). Exsolution of a volatile phase from magma necessarily involves a large positive change in volume (Phillips, 1973: Burnham, 1979; Burnham and Ohmowo, 1980). Depending ‘on the sbess regime and the structure andl permeability of the confining host rocks, this volume change may be accom modated by pervasive brecciation of the voladle-saturated carapace of the intrusion, or direct escape toward the surface along fale zonesor breccia pipes (Fig). Both mechanisms involve creation of fracture permeability and porosity into which ore minerals may subsequently be precipitaced, thereby leading to formation of porphyry deposits. Hydrothermal fie exsolved at magmatic temperatures is initially in equilibrium with the coexisting magma and its mineral phases. High-emperature alteration assemblages (Fig. 28), therefore, consist of minerals such as quari7, K feldspar, biotite, anhyelrite, and magnetite (the “potassic”™ alteration assemblage; Lowell and Guilber, 1970; Gustafson ine! Hunt, 1975). Base metal sulfide minerals, typically com jnations of chalcopyrite, bornite, and molydenite with prrite (Fig. 2B), are deposited with these alteration minerals as cisseminations and in thin, commnonly wavy or ductilely deformed, wispy veinlets that lack parallel vein walls. These cearly veins were termed "A veins” by Gustafson and Hunt (1975), based om their study of the El Salvador porphycy Chile, These veins ure usually cue by inugamineral ry stacks where such stocks are present. Marginally er "B veins" at El Saltador are quartesich with more abun dant molsbdenive and chalcopyrite, and suaighter vein walls; these veins cut all but postmineral stocks, The siraighter vein walls ane mineral exruses within these veins indicate formation at lower tempecacures than the A veins, A tonne See tee. 4 oe ee wie / 1 ingin the cup {land app sve (9) Beneath an icherm of =870° 0 °C, which Marke she byitae-dcile transition, Within this one, brine and scum” interact wit the conate tock leming the potnie alteration sage: Above the trursiton zone, crcalating fie wader hrstatie presure ater the ovis racks to poopie inner sean anne ad ‘cooling porphyry Cu deposit the bile-dcte ranion gradually cok lapses onto the cari potas alteration zone, leading to philic over pponting andthe infhoe of meteor fide inc the satent If he brie Deedee transition fk sddenly perched er breached because of ‘econ of later magma he id it rapes Teng i den {earaon (rom those to hadron Hula presuies (ee Te se Nock on diagram), The fluidsaturated carapace undergoes siden pane separation leading to seam pts brine plas psa: with the poventa’ expulsion of metal bearing hd upwattl ino the epthertal Ensironment. Within the porphycy Gu ensironment, these explosive pressure transitoas tigger the formation of ldrathermal beecas Kapted from Fournier, 198, As the high-temperature fluid migrates away from the parent magma, it rises owing to buovaney andl begins to cool. Tso processes may happen, as Follows 1. Ifthe fluid was exsolved originally as x homogeneous supercritical phase, then upon cooling it will likely intersect its solvus and separate into liquid and vapor phases. This phase separation event involves a further inercase in vol lume Ieading to additional fracnure permeability ane brec- ciation, most commonly in the fhuidsoaked earapace abore or at the top of the porphyry stock. Phase separation may also occur curing sudden pressure crops stich as massive hydrofracturing, sudden removal of lithostatic load, oF rup- ‘huting of the britdle-ductile transition zone separating the from the overlying hydrostatic envizon= ly dissolved in the high-temperature Aid as SO, will react with water and disproportionate to form H,8 and sulfurie acid (Burnham, 1979) MAGIATIC AND STRUCTCRUL CONTROLS OX PORPENIRY Gu Mou DEPOSITS ay Sa : ere sy | fi) 8 ens of ares ake Oe Stone de) ZTfLiesone Ta) (Quen manent of Hea ron [= seiesary a okanic oc (7) (Quay monroe of eLeod Hil assion Mosans mek) EGE] stamvock hai ‘Fu 5 Relationship between porphyry Ca depos, porphyry stucks ad dlites 6 underline ntl magna chan hemnhiel common’ em tpi 6 hiv or grester 8 Exlstonar model forthe esol of hie saline juss el rm ular pons and he peace of a Md os th wot Zone where a ponphgry Cu depos ithe (Dien, 187). Th Trapped long she rn of colin boss channeled ped along ‘orn Ge The Ane Stnon phy Ca dey cesses deer parteo! the Lake i porph ‘Gated wit dies emanating fon granite (Dales, 287) Jur Jorn Ie = Ts 162 These processes generate a new set of veins and breccias characterized by gangue and alteration minerals stable at lower temperature and pH. In particular, an inevease in activ ity of sulfate inthe fluid owing to SO, clisproportionation will result in yolursinous precipitation of anhydrite and further release of more acid in the form of HCI (Burnham, 1979). In {eldsparrich host rocks, the characteristic alteration assem blage from dese acidie fluids is fine-grained muscovite (sertete) with quartz (“phyllic” aeration assemblage, Fig. 2B; Lowell and Guilbert, 1870). In addition, sulfide minerals are precipitated in zesponse to the inerease in H,S activity. Asso- ated D veins (Gustafion and Hunt, 1975) are coarse-grained and sharply defined with strong alteration haloes, and consist of slide minerals (abundant pyrite, with lesser Cu Fe-slfide minerals, sulfosalt mineral, sphalerite, and galeria), any- dite, and minor quart. Typically, the highest grades of hypo- gene Cn ore are present close to the boundary between the potassic and phyllic alteration zones, again reflecting the Insereased activity of HS in the fie as.a result of SO, dispro- portionation. The phyllic alteration zone is commonly observed as a shell surrounding the potasie core of the por phyry system (Lowell and Guilbert, 1970), and may have a liamexer of several hundred meters toa few kilometers, Separation of a vapor phase may lead to the formation of | a low-density vapor plume rich in acidic volatiles such as 80, HCI, HE and CO, (Fig. 4). Cooling and condensation lof these vapors at shallow depths causes intense acid leach- ing (‘advanced argillic” alteration; Fig. 4), characterized by total destruction of primary minerals to Teave an insoluble residue of quartz, clays (kaolinite or pyrophyllite), alt ‘minum hycroxides (diaspore), and alunite, Such alveration zones, being very porous and permeable, may serve as hests to high-sulfidation sivles of epithermal mineralization (Hedenquist eta, 1998; Hedengquist, 1995). Emplacement ofa hot body of magia into the shallow crust npieally involves interaction with local ground waters (Fig. 4). The degree of that interaction depends on crustal permeability but in many cases hydrothermal convection Cells driven by heat front the intrusion ean be shown to have operated over radi of many Kilometers (Taylor, 1974; Tidley et al., 1986). The fluids involved are typically dilute ground waters, and the alteration arising from thei flow is Characterized by hydration, producing minerals such as hlorite and epidote, commonly with earbonate minerals (*propylitc” alteration: Fig. 2B), Many variations upon the general porphyry model have been recognized throughout the world, particularly in terms of the sequence of sulfide minerals deposited in veins. For example, at Mineral Hill, Atizona, molybdenite is Une oldest sulfide mineral recognized and much ofthe cop- per sulfide mineralization is paragenetically younger, ger erally associated with Daype veins (Wilkinson et ul, 1982) Nevertheless, the general sequence of alteration and sul fide mineral deposition described above characterizes the majority of porphyry Cu deposits, regardless of their size. From a structural standpoint, three processes contribute to fracturing during porphyry Cu formation, and each process enhances permeability in the form of fracture or Tosa, AND RUCHTARDS breccia networks through which hydrothermal fluids may flow and precipitate minerals (Figs. 5-7): (1) intrusion of | pre» syn, and postmineral porphyry stocks or dikes, which may be intruded to neaesurface depths (1-3 km; Koide and Bhattacharii, 1975); (2) exsolution of hydrothermal fluid from a cooling parental magma chamber, with "upward focus into the soidilied or partially solidified stocks and warm wall and roof rocks (Fig. 5A); and (8) phase sep- aration of the hydrothermal fluid, Each event involves vol tume expansion and fracturing wherever the fhuid pressure exceeds the ambient minimum effective sires (63’ = 5 ~ Py, ‘where Ps the Mluid pressure plus che censile strength ofthe rock; Jaeger and Cook, 1979; Sibson, 2000). Multiple or recurrent pulses of hydrothermal activity, which are com mon in porphyry systems, lead to repetition of fracturing and superimposition of veins and alteration, leading to increased complexity. Veinsdominated versus breccia dominated porphyry Cu deposits Porphyry Cu deposits developed within noncaleareous country rocks have 2 considerable range of morphology and show variations besween yeinlominated and breveis- dominated systems with considerable overlap berween the two. Vein-lominated porphyry Cu deposits represent a re atively simple environment: veining events are consistent With emplacement ofa porphyry stock, exsoltion ofa mag: matiederived hydrothermal fluid with local influx of exter- nal fluids, and cooling of an evolving magmatiedriven hyelrothermal system, These deposis are the most common variety of porphyry Cu deposits, with numerous well4locu- mented exampies (see volumes edited by Titley and Hicks, 1966; Sutherland Brown, 1976; Tiley, 1982; Pierce and Bolm, 1995; Schroeter, 1995), The other end-member is breccia-dominated (Sillitor, 1985), Breccias in the porphyry Cu environments have i range of morphology and genesis, being formed from igneous, maginatichydrothermal, and phreatomagmatic processes. The most common wpes of breccia are pre- to sy-mineral bodies that are irregular w pipe like in shape and are characterized by angular clasts, sharp or grada tional contacts against enclosing rocks, and an intimate association with porphyry stocks or dikes. The breceia matrix consists of igneous rocks or hydrothermal siieate and sulfide minerals (Richard and Courtright, 1958; Camus, 1975; Zveng and Clark, 1895). Postmineral bree- cias commonly but not always have a milled rocklour matrix and rounded clasts; they are referred to as pebble breccias. These breccias essentially excise parts of a prior hydrothermal system (Richard and Courtright, 1958), although locally, such as at Toquepala, the pebble breccias are intramineral and contain chalcopyrite in the matrix. Zweng and Clark (1995) proposed zhat breccia-dominated porphyry Cu deposits form at shallow levels based upon uid inclusion data from Toquepala. They suggested that yein-dominated deposits would more commonly form at slightly greater depths. Implied in their model isa primary influence of the lithostatic load of the overlying column af rock on breccia formation (see discussion below). MPIC AND STRUCTURAI, CONTROLS ON PORPHRY Cu» Mo # Aw DEPOSITS Mu “ones of dilation 4 tnesion induced Facts Sy) Myy wg intrusion-induced Tractures roof uplift along steep faults by piston mechanism oof extension above expanding pluton progressive lateral development of steep faults as pluton expands PED | 4 tate growth by \P A cantilever mechanism _— focusing of exsolved hydrothermal uid 2 sera growth crystallizing mygma by cantilever ve magma input Fic General mois forthe Tornntion oa ular raniae Davo ak versng porpiny Gv dona halon levelnin sheers A Computer smiation of growing tabslae batolt fed Icom below (Australian Geocymamics [cet Croup, #7) Suiorizonal actress propagate outward fom the expanding psf te > Siar plo, Rng above the gioweng badd are storks extending to shal Teel in he ers. The tae ofthe Fan b daplaced opwar by dhe shallow stock, whone explacement develops coneensie facture and aut woe elas inehee step facure nemorky in toe uneiogsoleaniccarspace B.A tabular plo expans tara nd (Gurren bra canever estas iting of the plan ron’ along ep dipping normal aul acorn Seine teniea exjansion he sock, Upward expansion of ce pun may be aed Dy tpg of oo! rks ad osentialy yar ning, Root uphf ibeh acompanied estesion, whic Teas to weak rons to kh apap cercracke un nitude hee apopmeses Reus ihe sent of ecoosed nagmatederied bydsteral Mts ane > quent oe fnraton (ae ig for oxarples) PCD = porphin Cir = Ma AU depos 168 racial dyke TOSDAL AND RICHAIS ‘map view) "808 of plane containing E Simple 9} and 6, _ MAGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONFROLS ON PORPELYRY Gx Mo = Ae DEPOSITS 165 Convergent Plate Margin Magmatism Porphyry Cu deposits are the end result of a complex sequence of events initiated by magmagenesis at conver ‘gent plate margins, and itis, herefore, useful to review the process of magina ascent and emplacement in the lithos- pheve, Convergent margin niagmatism is linked 10 subdue tion of an oceanic plate heneaih an overriding continental or oceanic plate, upon which the arcis constructed (Fig. 3). In this environment, plate motion vectors are commonly oblique at varying angles to the plate margin, and stress transinitted to the overriding plate, and the resulting defor~ mation, reflect the degree of obliquity: Strain is partitioned into are-normsal (convergent ar divergent) and are-paralle] Gurikeslip) components A wide range of structural siyles in, thus, be expected in the upper plate depending on the degree af convergence obliquiry, convergence rate, and the angle of subduction (Pitch, 1972; Dewey, 1980; Jarrard, 1086). Of additional imporsance is whether trench retreat or advance occurs at the plate margin (Hamilton, 1988; Royelen, 1993). In the former situation (irench reueat), the overall tectonic setting will be extensional, or cranste sional where a significant degree of net convergence oblige tity is present, in the latter ease (trench adhance}, contrac- tion of transpression dominates. Regardless of convergence ‘geomeusy, some relationship between strike-slip tectonics and magmatism, including porphyry magmatism, is present in convergent margin ares, although the relative impor- tance of strike-slip motion will vary (e.g., Glazner, 1991; de Saint Blanquat etal, 1998). The ubiquitous association of plutoni¢ and voleanic complexes and anajor fault zones in ares implies that rising magma concentrates in zones of defoxmation, 4 corellary to this observation is either that deformation is erucial to the emplacement of magma, or that magma assists dhe deformation processes which, in tum, helps its ascent to higher crustal levels (McCaffrey, 19925 de Saint Blanquat etal, 1998), Paterson ané Schmidt (1909; see also Schmidt and Paterson, 2000) have argued that many plutonic complexes are not necessarily emplaced along faults but eome to rest in the less deformed rocks between major faults. However, their analysis applies to contractiomal orogenic belts characterized by thrust faults, rather than transpressional or ranstensional strike-slip ones in volcanic ares (RFehards, 20004), Exactly how magaia moves through te crust is poorly. understood, Nevertheless, there is general agreement that the following factors are important (Hogan and Guilbert, 1005; Hutton, 1997): (1) magmas, being fluid, will aways move dosen a hydvadynaznic gradient toward regions of low pressure; (2) in the absence of significant magmatic over- Pressure, the density contrast between a granitic melt and the surrounding rocks will drive the melt upwards to an “equilibrium” level of neutral buoyaney in the erust; (3) increasing vapor pressure during late stages of crystllizae tion generally increases magma pressures, (4) the lithost tic load of the overlying crust may act as u pressure seal hin- dering the rise of magma; and (5) temperaturedependent viscous resistance to magma flow inhibits ascent, Mayguatie overpressure may drive magmas beyond their level of neu: tral buoyancy, commonly resulting in violent eruptions. Overpressured magmas may intrude by forcing open dikes by penetrating old faults or fractures (Bussell et al, 1976; Delaney et al., 1986; Ida, 1999), The prevailing testa stess field controls the orientations of dikes, favor ing intrusion along older faults oriented at high angles 10 the least principal stress (G,). Alternarively, tectonic stress and resultant strain may episodically create reduced pres sure or tensional zones in the crust, such as pulkapart zones at fault intersections or jogs, which may focus magma ascent (Hutton, 1988; Tikoll and Teyssier, 1992: Grocott et fly 1994; Richards eta, 2001), Thus, she varied styles and mechanisms of magma emplacement in the erust involve ‘an important dynamic interplay benseen teetonie and mag- matic processes, The final three-¢imensional form of the stock is controlled by strain rate, magma supply, country rock versus magma theologie differences, and tectonic environment (Castro and Fernanele7, 1998; Corriveau et tl, 1998; Hogan etal, 1908; Paterson and Miller, 1998, by Yoshinobu etal, 1998; Wikon and Grocot, 1999), Groth of a magma chamber ‘Magmatism at the Barth's surface or in nearsurface enc ronments is a manifestation of the relative effects of tec- tonie stzess ancl magmatic overpressure, Whereas tectonic lor vertical stress acting on magna decreases with decreas- ing depth, the effect of magmatic overpressure should remain essentially unchanged because of hydraulic con- neetivity to depth. Hence, final emplacement of magina at shallow erusial levels will in large part but not entirely, ‘reflect magma dynamies or magma overpressure (Takacla, 1904; Hutton, 1997; de Saint Blanquat et ala, 1998; Ida, 1999). Coherent magma chambers recharge and grow through the aggregation of small pulses of magma, perhaps through the intrusion of multiple dikes or lobate bodies (Petford et al., 1995, 1984). Buoyant diapirc rise of magona br lateral translation by pushing aside of wall rocks helps ‘ereate room for an expanding pluton (Tikoff etal, 1999), dde Saint Blanquat et ul, (1998) proposed that magma ascent into the crust stops where the magma becomes cxpar ble of deforming or displacing its enclosing wall rocks, thereby creating space for a growing or ballooning magma chamber. Evidence for varying amounts of walkrock strain around plutons atall depths of emplacement lendls support to this model. Granitoids emplaced at high levels in the erust tend to have tabular shapes with Hat tops and bottoms and stcep sides, and lateral dimensions that are much larger than their vertical dimensions (Fig. 5B, C: Hamilion and Myers, 1967; Dilles, 1987; McCaffrey and Petford, 1997). Such magma chambers grow abowe narrow vertical feeder zones or dikes and spread laterally as sill-ike intrusions that inflate by floor displacement or by roof-lifiing (Fig. 6: Johnson and Pollard, 1973; Pollard and Johnson, 1973; Corry, 1988). Floor depression leading to lopolithic com plexes seems to he the most common form of granitoid emplacement except at high-crustal levels (500 km) carthquake activity, which has been shown ta generate enhances! seis- ‘mic activity in active geothermal and magmatic systems (Hill et al., 1993), Evidently, propagation of seismic energy into a magmatic or hydrothermal system is suff Gent to induce gas separation leading to volume expan- sion (Linde eval, 1904; Sturtevant etal. 1995). The mag- matic pressure increase could give rise 10 voleanie ‘eruptions (Sahaglan and Prousseviteh, 1992), whereas in the hydrothermal environment of a porphyry Cu éeposit, increased fluid pressures could be sufficient to tigger rupturing of the pressure seal above the porphyry system, leatling to generation of breccia pipes. ‘Tectonic Setting of Porphyry Cu Deposits Assimple mode! of porphyry Gu deposit genesis involves formation from hydrothermal fluids exsolved from cale- alkaline so alkaline maginas in a subyoleanic are enviror ment. However, many shallow-level porphyritic pluton! complexes are devaid of or have anly weak porphyrysivle mincralization, The barren Paleocene ring complexes of the San Jeronimo superunit in the Peruvian Coastal bacholith are examples from an are otherwise rich in por phyry Cu deposits of broadly similar age (Bussell, 1985; Pitcher, 1985; Zweng and Clark, 1995). On a more global scale, porphyry Cu deposits are sparse in the western Pacific (Uyeda and Nishiwaki, 1980), with notable exceptions int Papua New Guinea and the Philippines (MacDonald and Arnolal, 1994; Sillitoc, 1997; Hedenquist et al., 1998). In addition, porphyry Cu formation is characteristically episodic and localized, being concentrated during limited time ranges within narrow, margin-parallel belts (Sillitoe, 1972, 19HR; Tiley and Beane, 1981; Clack et al, 1982 Damon et al., 1983). These considerations suggest that tdditionsal factors rmust be involved in letermining whether ‘1 porphyry Cu deposit wll form or not, including derails of -magma chemistry (e.g, water content, oxidation state) and tecionie setting (Uyeda and Nishiwaki, 1980), ‘A review of structural settings of porphyry Cu deposits indicates that there are uo unique environments into which these deposits are emplaced. They are found within strike- slip fault zones with only limited displacement contempe- rancous with mineralization (Maksaev and Zentilli, 1988; Clark et al. 1990; Sapie and Cloos, 1994; Lindsay et al, 1905), within regions affected by slightly older to concur rent Gunspressional or contractile strain and uplift (Titley and Heidrick, 1978; Heidrick and Tiley, 1982; Olson, 1989; Tomlinson, 1964; Silitoe, 1907), in areas undergoing Ii ited extensional deformation (Presnall, 1997), and in areas lacking major active fault ystems (Silitoe, 1997). Many but not all deposits are localized along older fault systems that provided crustal permeability (Heidrick and Titley, 1982: Richards etal, 2001). Significant porphyry Cu deposits are, however, seemingly absent from regions undergoing large: scale extensional strain, a negative association that has long been recognized, and which seems to preclude those arcs or times within ares where such tectonies dominate. A com ‘mon theme throughout these convergent ares is dhe limited deformation that is demonstrably contemporaneous with porphyry Cu development, ‘Times of porphyry Cu generation have been causally cor related with times of shallowelipping subduction (Sillitoe, 1972; Nielsen, 1976; Uyeda and Nishiwaki, 1980; Titley and Beane, 1981), increased convergence rates (Clark et al., 1990), subduction of aseismic ridges (Skewes and Stern, 1995), subduetion zone reversals (Solomon, 1990), or fole lowing uplif (Sillitoe, 1997). Many but noc all porphyry Cx deposits in Arizona (McCandless and Ruiz, 1993), southern Perit (Clark etal., 1990), Chile (Maksaev andl Zentili, 1988; Skewes and Stern, 1995; Richarels et al., 2001), anel Papua New Guinea (Titley and Heidrick, 1978; Sillitoe, 1997) formed near the endl af major periods of maginatisin, con- tuaetile of transpressional strain, and uplitt. Silitor (1997) stiggested that rapid uplift in an are is an essential prec sor to the formation of giant porphyry Cu deposits, which Appear near 10 or justafter the end of that event ‘The above observations, combined with the nearcircular plan of many porphyriesand the common depositscale or [MAGMATIC AND STRUCTURAL CONTROLS ON PORPHYRY Cu Mo Aw DEPOSTES 175 centations of associated veins and dikes, suggest that por phyry Cur deposits are developed during periods of lowelif ferential or nearisotropic horizontal sivess in the are. The achievement of such stress states is likely driven by finde mental changes in subduction geometry and convergence rates, For example, changes in the coupling of stress between the subshucting and overriding plate may Iead to shifts in the location of zones of upper-plate deformation ‘with respect to the magmatic arc, either inboard toward the backsare or onthoard toward the convergent margin. This shiftin the locus of ceformation relative to magmatism may permit the are to approach a neutral stres state. The giant Miocene and Pliocene porphyry Cu deposits in central Chile (Los Pelambres, Rio BlancoLos Bronces, EL ‘Teniente) seem to fit this scenario becanse they formed in the hanging wall of fold-and-thrust belt that lies to the east in the Argentinean foreland (Jordan et al., 1993; Ramoset al, 1996). In an alternative scenario, relocation of | ‘he voleanie are may be accompanied by relaxation of com- pressional or transpressional stress in an old, established, plutonic-voleanie are, resulting in late-stage clevelopment of porphyry magmatism. The late-Hocene-early-Otigocene porphyry Cu deposits of northern Chile are proposed to hhave formed during such a period of stress relaxation folk lowing a prolonged episode of Eocene transpression and effusive voleanie activity; relaxation coincided with flatten- ‘ng of the subduction angle and subsequent inland shift of| magmatism (Maksaev and Zentlli, 1988; Clark, 1993; Richards etal, 2001). “These characteristics may be speculatively tied to models ‘of magmagenesis and crustal emplacement as reviewed above (Fig. 13). First, the simple textbook form of a destructive margin—that of orthogonal compression, deep- ‘crustal or mantle melting, and widespread effusive magma- tism—is not conducive to porphyry Cu formation (Fig. 1A), Neither is a state of arc rifting (extension), where crustal melting is shortcircuited and mantlederived basaltic melts ascend directly to the surface (Fig. 188) con-

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