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Roman Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses of "Roman Empire", see Roman Empire (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Latin Empire or Holy Roman Empire.
Roman Empire
Imperium Romanum (Latin)
Senatus populusque Romanus (SPQR)
Senate and People of Rome[n 1]
(A c
 t Grk)
B
 Rhm
Co u t 
ctor.p g
27 BC 285/395 AD (U d
v
dd)
285 476 (Wtr )
c. 330 1453 (Etr ) Ju
u Npo Trm

.jpg
Co t t
 mut
p CdM B
tgu
233.jpg
Auru of Augutu, th f
rt Rom

Empror.

Th Rom Emp
r
117 AD, t
t grtt xt t.[1]

Cp
t Rom (27)
Md
o um (286402, Wtr )
Augut Trvrorum
S
rm
um
Rv  (402476, Wtr )
N
comd
 (286330, Etr )
Co t t
op (3301453, Etr )
L gug
Lt
Grk
Rg
o  / oc  gug
R
g
o
Bfor AD 380: Impr
 cut-dr
v poyth
m
From AD 380: Chr
t

ty
Govr m t
M
xd, fu ct
o y bout mo rchy
Empror

27 BC AD 14 Augutu (f
rt)

98117 Trj

284305 D
oct


306337 Co t t
 I

379395 Thodo
u I
Lg
tur
S t
H
tor
c r C
c r to Lt A t
qu
ty

F
 Wr of th
Rom Rpub
c 3230 BC

Emp
r tb
hd
302 BC

Emp
r t
t
grtt xt t AD 117

Co t t
op
bcom cp
t 330

F
 Et Wt d
v
d 395

F of th (Wtr ) Rom Emp
r

476
Ar

25 BC[2][3]
2,750,000 km (1,061,781 q m
)

117 AD [2][4] 5,000,000 km (1,930,511 q m
)

390 AD [2]
4,400,000 km (1,698,849 q m
)
Poput
o

25 BC[2][3] t.
56,800,000
D 
ty
20.7 /km (53.5 /q m
)

Curr cy
Strt
u,b Auru, So
du, Nom
m
Tody prt of
53 cou tr
[ho]
 Th f
 mpror to ru ovr  of th Rom Emp
r' trr
tor
 bfor
t
 co vr
o to  d
rchy.
Th Rom Emp
r (Lt
: Impr
um Rm um; C
c Lt
: [mp.r
. rom. ] A c
 t
 Grk: , tr. B

 t Rhm
)  th pot-Rom Rpub
c pr
od
t
o , chrctr
d by govr m t hdd by mpror  d rg trr
tor
 hod

g rou d th Md
trr  S
Europ, Afr
c  d A
. Th c
ty of Rom 
xt dd  d bt c. 100 BC- 400 AD  th rgt c
ty
th ord, hr
Co t t
op (N Rom) rt
d th f
rt po
t
o rou d 500 AD,[5] h
t
th Emp
r' popuc gr
to  t
mtd 50 to 90 m

o
hb
t t (rough
y 20% of th ord' poput
o t th t
m).[6] Th 500-yr-od rpub
c h
c
h prcdd
t  vry dtb

zd
 r
 of c
v
 r  d po
t
c
co f
ct, dur
g h
ch Ju
u Cr  ppo
td  prptu d
cttor  d th

td
44 BC. C
v
 r  d xcut
o  co t
ud, cum
t
g
th
v
ctory of Octv
 , Cr' doptd o , ovr Mrk A to y  d Coptr t th
 Btt of Act
um
31 BC  d th  xt
o of Egypt. Octv
 ' por  o
 u 
b  d
27 BC th Rom S t formy gr td h
m ovrrch
g po
r  d th  t
t Augutu, ffct
vy mrk
g th  d of th Rom Rpub

c.
Th
mpr
 uccor to th Rpub
c td pprox
mty 1400 yr. Th f
r
t to c tur
 of th Emp
r' x
t c r  pr
od of u prcd td po
t
c
 tb

ty  d propr
ty k o  th Px Rom , or "Rom Pc". Foo
g
Octv
 ' v
ctory, th 
z of th Emp
r  drmt
cy
crd. Aftr th
 
t
o of C
gu
41, th S t br
fy co 
drd rtor
g th r
pub
c, but th Prtor
 Gurd proc
md Cud
u Empror
td. U dr C
ud
u, th Emp
r
vdd Br
t
,
t f
rt mjor xp 
o 
c Augutu. A
ftr Cud
u' uccor, Nro, comm
ttd u
c
d
68, th Emp
r uffrd  p
r
od of br
f c
v
 r,     co curr t mjor rb
o
Jud, dur

g h
ch four d
ffr t g
o ry g r r proc
md Empror. Vp
 
mrgd tr
umph t
69, tb
h
g th Fv
 dy ty, bfor b
g uccd
d by h
 o T
tu, ho op d th Cooum horty ftr th rupt
o of Mt. V
uv
u. H
 hort r
g  food by th o g r
g of h
 brothr Dom
t
 ,
ho  v tuy 
td. Th S t th ppo
td th f
rt of th F
v
 Good Empror. Th Emp
r rchd
t grtt xt t u dr Trj , th co d

th
 
.
A pr
od of
cr
g troub  d dc
 bg 
th th r
g of Commodu. Com
modu' 
t
o
192 tr
ggrd th Yr of th F
v Empror, of h
ch S
pt
m
u Svru mrgd v
ctor
ou. Th 
t
o of Ax dr Svru
23
5 d to th Cr

 of th Th
rd C tury
h
ch 26 m r dcrd Empror b
y th Rom S t ovr  f
fty-yr pr
od. It  ot u t
 th r
g of D
oc
t
 tht th Emp
r  fuy tb

zd 
th th
troduct
o of th Ttrrch
y, h
ch  four Empror ru th Emp
r t o c. Th
 rr gm t  ut
mt
y u uccfu, d
g to  c
v
 r tht  f
y  dd by Co t t
 I
, ho dftd h
 r
v  d bcm th o rur of th Emp
r. Co t t
 
ubqu ty h
ftd th cp
t to Byz t
um, h
ch  r md Co t t
op

h
 o ho our. It rm
d th cp
t of th t u t

t dm
. Co t t

 o doptd Chr
t

ty h
ch tr bcm th off
c
 tt r
g
o of
th Emp
r. Th
 tr prt of th mp
r (k o tr  th Byz t
 Emp
r
) rm
d o  of th d
g por
th ord o g
d
t rch-r
v th S

d Pr
 Emp
r, h
ch hd
hr
td  c tur
-od Rom -Pr
 co f

ct from
t prdcor th Prth
 .[7][8][9] Foo
g th dth of Thodo
u
 I, th t Empror to ru  u
td Emp
r, th dom

o of th Emp
r  gr
duy rodd by bu of por, c
v
 r, brbr
 m
grt
o   d
v
o
, m

try rform  d co om
c dpr
o . Th Sck of Rom
410 by th V


goth  d g

455 by th V d ccrtd th Wtr Emp
r' dcy, h

 th dpo
t
o of th Empror Romuu Augutuu
476 by Odocr
 g r

y ccptd to mrk th  d of th Emp
r
th t. Hovr, 
th Romuu Au
gutuu tch
cy b
g  uurpr, th Wtr prt of th mp
r o y truy
gy cd to x
t upo th dth of th tru Empror Ju
u Npo
480.
Th Etr Rom Emp
r  durd for  othr thou d yr, v tuy f
g
to th Ottom Turk
1453.
Th Rom Emp
r  mo g th mot porfu co om
c, cutur, po
t
c  d m


try forc
th ord of
t t
m. It  th rgt mp
r of th c

c  t
qu
ty pr
od,  d o  of th rgt mp
r
ord h
tory. At
t h

ght u dr Trj ,
t covrd 5 m

o qur k
omtr[2][4]  d hd y ov
r om 70 m

o pop, t tht t
m 21% of th ord'  t
r poput
o . Th
 o gv
ty  d vt xt t of th Emp
r  urd th t
g
fu c of Lt

 d Grk  gug, cutur, r
g
o ,
v t
o , rch
tctur, ph
oophy, 
  d form of govr m t o th Emp
r' dc d t. Throughout th Europ m
d
v pr
od, ttmpt r v md to tb
h uccor to th Rom Emp

r,
cud
g th Crudr tt, th Emp
r of Rom
  d th Hoy Rom Emp

r. By m  of Europ xp 
o
m through th Sp
h, Fr ch, Portugu, D
utch, It
 , Ru
 , Grm , Br
t
h  d Bg
 Emp
r, Grco-Rom cutur
 prd o  ord
d c, py
g  
g
f
c t ro
th dvopm t
of th modr ord.
Co t t [h
d]
1
H
tory
2
Gogrphy  d dmogrphy
3
L gug
3.1
Loc  gug  d 
gu
t
c gcy
4
Soc
ty
4.1
Lg ttu
4.1.1 Wom
Rom 
4.1.2 Sv  d th 
4.1.3 Frdm
4.2
C u r k
4.2.1 U qu jut
c
5
Govr m t  d m

try
5.1
C tr govr m t
5.2
M

try
5.3
Prov
c
 govr m t
5.4
Rom 
5.5
Txt
o
6
Eco omy
6.1
Curr cy  d b k
g
6.2
M

g  d mturgy
6.3
Tr portt
o  d commu
ct
o
6.4
Trd  d commod
t

6.5
Lbour  d occupt
o 
6.6
GDP  d
com d
tr
but
o
7
Arch
tctur  d  g
r
g
8
D
y 
f
8.1
C
ty  d cou try
8.2
Food  d d

g
8.3
Rcrt
o  d pctc
8.3.1 Pro  tr

g  d py
8.4
Coth
g
9
Th rt
9.1
Portr
tur
9.2
Scuptur
9.2.1 Srcophg

9.3
P
t
g
9.4
Mo
c
9.5
Dcort
v rt

9.6
Prform
g rt
10
L
trcy, book,  d duct
o
10.1
Pr
mry duct
o
10.2
Sco dry duct
o
10.3
Eductd om
10.4
Dc
 of 
trcy
11
L
trtur
12
R
g
o
13
Po
t
c gcy
14
S o
15
Not
16
Rfr c
17
Sourc
18
Furthr rd
g
19
Extr  
k
H
tory[d
t]
M
rt
c: H
tory of th Rom Emp
r
S o: Cmp
g h
tory of th Rom m

try
Rom hd bgu xp d
g horty ftr th fou d
g of th Rpub
c
th 6th c
 tury BC, though
t d
d 't xp d out
d Ity u t
 th 3rd c tury BC. Th ,

t   "mp
r" o g bfor
t hd  Empror.[10] Th Rom Rpub
c  o
t  t
o -tt
th modr  , but  tork of to  ft to ru thm
v (though 
th vry
g dgr of
dp d c from th Rom S t)  d pro
v
c dm

trd by m

try comm dr. It  rud, ot by Empror, but b
y  uy ctd mg
trt (Rom Co u bov )
co ju ct
o 
th th
S t.[11] For vr
ou ro , th 1t c tury BC   t
m of po
t
c  d
m

try uphv, h
ch ut
mty d to ru by Empror.[12] Th co u' m


try por rtd
th Rom g co cpt of
mpr
um, h
ch 
try m
 "comm d" (though typ
cy
 m

try  ).[13] Occ
o y, uccfu
 co u r g
v th ho orry t
t Imprtor (comm dr),  d th

 th o
r
g
of th ord "Empror" ( d "Emp
r") 
c th
 t
t (mo g othr)  
y btod to th ry Empror upo th
r cc
o .[14]
Th Augutu of Pr
m Port
(ry 1t c tury AD)
Rom uffrd  o g r
 of
tr  co f
ct, co p
rc
  d c
v
 r f
rom th t co d c tury BC o rd, h
 grty xt d
g
t por byo d
Ity. Tord th  d of th
 pr
od,
44 BC, Ju
u Cr  br
fy prp
tu d
cttor bfor b
g 
td. Th fct
o of h
 
  dr
v
from Rom  d dftd t th Btt of Ph

p

42 BC by  rmy d by M
rk A to y  d Cr' doptd o Octv
 . A to y  d Octv
 ' d
v

o of t
h Rom ord bt thmv d
d ot t  d Octv
 ' forc dftd th
o of A to y  d Coptr t th Btt of Act
um
31 BC. I 27 BC th S t
  d Pop of Rom md Octv
 pr
cp ("f
rt c
t
z ") 
th proco ur

mpr
um, thu bg

g th Pr
c
pt (th f
rt poch of Rom
mpr
 h
tor
y, uuy dtd from 27 BC to AD 284),  d gv h
m th m Augutu ("th v
rtd"). Though th od co t
tut
o  mch
ry rm
d
pc, Augutu c
m to prdom
t
t. Athough th Rpub
c tood
m, co tmporr
 of Aug
utu k 
t  jut  v
  d tht Augutu hd  m
gfu uthor
ty

Rom.[15] S
c h
 ru  dd  c tury of c
v
 r,  d bg  u prcd t
d pr
od of pc  d propr
ty, h  o ovd tht h cm to hod th po
r of  mo rch d fcto
f ot d jur. Dur
g th yr of h
 ru,   co 
t
tut
o  ordr mrgd (
prt org
cy  d
prt by d
g ), o tht, u
po h
 dth, th
  co t
tut
o  ordr oprtd  bfor h T
br
u 
 ccptd  th  Empror. Th 200 yr tht bg 
th Augutu' ru
 t
rd
t
o y rgrdd  th Px Rom  ("Rom Pc"). Dur
g th
 pr
od, th
coh
o of th Emp
r  furthrd by  dgr of oc
 tb

ty  d co om

c propr
ty tht Rom hd vr bfor xpr
 cd. Upr

g
th prov
c
r
frqu t, but put do "mrc
y  d 
fty" h thy occurrd.[16]

Th 
xty yr of J
hRom r
th co d hf of th f
rt c tury  d
th f
rt hf of th 2 d c tury r xcpt
o 
th
r durt
o  d v
o c
.[17]
Th ucc of Augutu
tb
h
g pr
c
p of dy t
c ucc
o  

m
td by h
 out
v
g  umbr of t td pot t
 h
r: th Ju
o-Cud

dy ty td for four mor mpror T
br
u, C
gu, Cud
u  d Nro bfo
r
t y
dd
69 AD to th tr
f-tor Yr of Four Empror, from h
ch Vp

 mrgd  v
ctor. Vp
 bcm th fou dr of th br
f Fv
 dy 
ty, to b food by th NrvA to
 dy ty h
ch producd th "F
v Good Emp
ror": Nrv, Trj , Hdr
 , A to
u P
u  d th ph
ooph
cy
c
d
Mrcu Aur
u. I th v
 of th Grk h
tor
 D
o C
u,  co tmporry
obrvr, th cc
o of th mpror Commodu
180 AD mrkd th dc t "fr
om  k
gdom of god to o  of rut  d
ro "[18] fmou comm t h
ch h d 
om h
tor
 , otby Edrd G
bbo , to tk Commodu' r
g  th bg

g
of th dc
 of th Rom Emp
r.
I 212, dur
g th r
g of Crc, Rom c
t
z h
p  gr td to  fr
bor
hb
t t of th Emp
r. But dp
t th
 gtur of u
vr
ty, th S
vr dy ty  tumutuou  mpror' r
g   dd rout
y by h
 murd
r or xcut
o  d, foo
g
t cop, th Rom Emp
r   gufd by th
Cr

 of th Th
rd C tury,  pr
od of
v
o , c
v
 tr
f, co om
c d
o
rdr,  d pgu.[19] I df

g h
tor
c poch, th
 cr


 omt
m v

d  mrk
g th tr 
t
o from C
c A t
qu
ty to Lt A t
qu
ty. Aur

 (r
g d 270275) brought th Emp
r bck from th br
k  d tb

zd
t. D

oct
 comptd th ork of fuy rtor
g th mp
r, but dc
d th ro
of pr
cp  d bcm th f
rt mpror to b ddrd rgury  dom
, "
mtr" or "ord".[20] Th
 mrkd th  d of th Pr
c
pt,  d th bg

g
of th Dom
t. D
oct
 ' r
g o brought th Emp
r' mot co crtd ff
ort g
t th prc
vd thrt of Chr
t

ty, th "Grt Prcut
o ". Th 
tt of bout mo rchy tht bg 
th D
oct
  durd u t
 th f of t
h Etr Rom Emp
r
1453.
D
oct
 d
v
dd th mp
r
to four rg
o , ch rud by  prt Empro
r (th Ttrrchy).[21] Co f
d t tht h f
xd th d
ordr tht r pgu
g
Rom, h bd
ctd o g 
th h
 co-mpror,  d th Ttrrchy oo copd.
Ordr  v tuy rtord by Co t t
, ho bcm th f
rt mpror to co
vrt to Chr
t

ty,  d ho tb
hd Co t t
op  th  cp
t of
th tr mp
r. Dur
g th dcd of th Co t t

  d V t

 dy 
t
, th Emp
r  d
v
dd o g  tt x
, 
th du por c tr

Co t t
op  d Rom. Th r
g of Ju
 , ho ttmptd to rtor C
c
Rom  d H
t
c r
g
o , o y br
fy
trruptd th ucc
o of Chr

t
 mpror. Thodo
u I, th t mpror to ru ovr both Et  d Wt,
d
d
395 AD ftr mk
g Chr
t

ty th off
c
 r
g
o of th Emp
r.[22
]
Th Wtr Rom Emp
r bg to d

tgrt
th ry 5th c tury  Grm

c m
grt
o   d
v
o  ovrhmd th cpc
ty of th Emp
r to 
m
t
 th m
gr t  d f
ght off th
vdr.[c
tt
o dd] Th Rom  r ucc
fu
f
ght
g off 
vdr, mot fmouy Att
 th Hu ,[c
tt
o d
d] though th Emp
r hd 
m
td o m y Grm
c pop of dub
ou oyt
y to Rom tht th Emp
r trtd to d
mmbr
tf.[c
tt
o dd] Mot chr
o oog
 pc th  d of th Wtr Rom Emp
r
476, h Romuu Augutu
u  forcd to bd
ct to th Grm
c rord Odocr.[23][bttr ourc 
dd] By pc
g h
mf u dr th ru of th Etr Empror, rthr th
m

g h
mf Empror ( othr Grm
c ch
f hd do  ftr dpo
g pt Empro
r), Odocr  dd th Wtr Emp
r by  d
g th 
 of Wtr Empror.[c

tt
o dd]
Th mp
r

th Et oft

k o

 th Byz t
 Emp
r, but rfrrd to

t t
m  th Rom Emp
r or by vr
ou othr m hd  d
ffr t ft. It 
urv
vd for mot  m

um ftr th f of
t Wtr cou trprt  d b
cm th mot tb Chr
t
 rm dur
g th M
dd Ag. Dur
g th 6th c t
ury, Jut

 br
fy rco qurd Northr Afr
c  d Ity, but Rom po

o 
th Wt r rducd to outhr Ity  d S
c
y 
th
 f yr ft
r Jut

 ' dth.[24] I th t, prt
y rut
g from th dtruct
v
Pgu of Jut

 , th Rom  r thrt d by th r
 of Im, ho fo
or rp
dy co qurd th trr
tor
 of Syr
, Arm
  d Egypt dur
g th B
yz t
-Arb Wr,  d oo pr td  d
rct thrt to Co t t
op.[25][26
] I th foo
g c tury, th Arb o cpturd outhr Ity  d S
c
y.[2
7] Sv
c poput
o  r o b to p trt dp
to th Bk .
Th Rom , hovr, m gd to top furthr Im
c xp 
o
to th
r  d
dur
g th 8th c tury  d, bg

g
th 9th c tury, rc
md prt of th
co qurd  d.[28] I 1000 AD, th Etr Emp
r  t
t h
ght: B

o
 II rco qurd Bugr
  d Arm
, cutur  d trd four
hd.[29] Hovr
, oo ftr th xp 
o  brupty toppd
1071 
th th
r dft
th
Btt of M z
krt. Th ftrmth of th

mport t btt  t th mp
r
t
o  protrctd pr
od of dc
. To dcd of
tr  tr
f  d Turk
c
v

o  ut
mty pvd th y for Empror Ax
u I Com  u to  d  c for
hp to th Wtr Europ k
gdom
1095.[25]
Th Wt rpo dd 
th th Crud, v tuy rut
g
th Sck of Co t
t
op by prt
c
p t
th Fourth Crud. Th co qut of Co t t
op

1204 frgm td ht rm
d of th Emp
r
to uccor tt, th ut
mt
 v
ctor b
g tht of N
c.[30] Aftr th rcptur of Co t t
op by Imp
r
 forc, th Emp
r  
tt mor th  Grk tt co f
d to th Ag
cot. Th Rom Emp
r f
y copd h Mhmd II co qurd Co t t
o
p o 29 My, 1453.[31]
Gogrphy  d dmogrphy[d
t]
M
rt
c: Dmogrphy of th Rom Emp
r
Furthr
formt
o : C
c dmogrphy
Th Rom Emp
r  o  of th rgt
h
tory, 
th co t
guou trr
tor

throughout Europ, North Afr
c,  d th M
dd Et.[32] Th Lt
phr
mpr

um 
 f
 ("mp
r 
thout  d"[33]) xprd th
doogy tht 
thr t
m
 or pc 
m
td th Emp
r. I Vrg
' p
c pom th A 
d, 
m
t mp

r
 
d to b gr td to th Rom  by th
r uprm d
ty Jup
tr.[34] Th

c
m of u
vr dom

o  r d  d prptutd h th Emp
r cm u d
r Chr
t
 ru
th 4th c tury.[35]
I r
ty, Rom xp 
o  moty ccomp
hd u dr th Rpub
c, though p
rt of orthr Europ r co qurd
th 1t c tury AD, h Rom co tro

Europ, Afr
c  d A
  tr gth d. Dur
g th r
g of Augutu,  "g
ob mp of th k o ord"  d
pyd for th f
rt t
m
pub
c t Rom
, co
c
d
g 
th th compo
t
o of th mot comprh 
v ork o po
t
c g
ogrphy tht urv
v from  t
qu
ty, th Gogrphy of th Po t
c Grk r
tr S
trbo.[36] Wh Augutu d
d, th commmort
v ccou t of h
 ch
vm t (R
 Gt) prom
 ty fturd th gogrph
c ctogu
g of pop  d pc
 
th
th Emp
r.[37] Gogrphy, th c u,  d th mt
cuou kp
g of r

tt rcord r c tr co cr  of Rom Impr
 dm

trt
o .[38]
A gm t of th ru
 of Hdr
 ' W

orthr E g d
Th Emp
r rchd
t rgt xp  u dr Trj (r
g d 98117),[39]  comp

g  r of 5 m

o qur k
omtr tht  of 2009  d
v
dd mo g fo
rty d
ffr t modr cou tr
.[40] Th trd
t
o  poput
o t
mt of 5560 m


o
hb
t t[41] ccou td for bt o -
xth  d o -fourth of th or
d' tot poput
o [42]  d md
t th rgt poput
o of  y u
f
d po

t
c  t
ty
th Wt u t
 th m
d-19th c tury.[43] Rc t dmogrph
c tud


 hv rgud for  poput
o pk r g
g from 70 m

o to mor th 100 m


o .[44] Ech of th thr rgt c
t

th Emp
rRom, Ax dr
,  d A
t
och  mot t
c th 
z of  y Europ c
ty t th bg

g of th 17t
h c tury.[45]
A th h
tor


Chr
tophr Ky h dcr
bd
t:

Th th mp
r trtchd from Hdr
 ' W
dr
zz-okd orthr E g d
to th u -bkd b k of th Euphrt
Syr
; from th grt Rh
D ub r
v
r ytm, h
ch  kd cro th frt
, ft  d of Europ from th Lo Co
u tr
 to th Bck S, to th r
ch p
 of th North Afr
c cot  d th
uxur
 t gh of th N
 Vy
Egypt. Th mp
r compty c
rcd th M
d
trr  ... rfrrd to by
t co quror  mr otrum'our '.[41]
Trj ' uccor Hdr
 doptd  po
cy of m
t

g rthr th xp d
g
th mp
r. Bordr (f
) r mrkd,  d th fro t
r (
m
t) ptrod.
[46] Th mot hv
y fort
f
d bordr r th mot u tb.[47] Hdr
 ' W
, h
ch prtd th Rom ord from ht  prc
vd   vr-pr t b
rbr
 thrt,
 th pr
mry urv
v
g mo um t of th
 ffort.[48]
L gug[d
t]
M
rt
c: L gug of th Rom Emp
r
Th  gug of th Rom   Lt
, h
ch V
rg
 mph
z   ourc of Rom
 u
ty  d trd
t
o .[49] U t
 th t
m of Ax dr Svru (r
g d 222235),
th b
rth crt
f
ct  d 
 of Rom c
t
z  hd to b r
tt
Lt
.[
50] Lt
 th  gug of th  court
th Wt  d of th m

try thr
oughout th Emp
r,[51] but  ot
mpod off
c
y o pop brought u dr
Rom ru.[52] Th
 po
cy co trt 
th tht of Ax dr th Grt, ho 
m
d to
mpo Grk throughout h
 mp
r  th off
c
  gug.[53] A  co 
qu c of Ax dr' co qut, ko
 Grk hd bcom th hrd  gug rou
d th tr Md
trr   d
to A
 M
or.[54] Th "
gu
t
c fro t
r"
d
v
d
g th Lt
Wt  d th Grk Et pd through th Bk p
u.[
55]
A 5th-c tury ppyru ho
g  pr Lt
-Grk txt of  pch by C
cro[
56]
Rom  ho rc
vd  
t duct
o tud
d Grk   
trry  gug,  d
mot m of th govr
g c coud pk Grk.[57] Th Ju
o-Cud
 mp
ror  courgd h
gh t drd of corrct Lt
(Lt

t),  
gu
t
c movm
 t
d t
f
d
modr trm  C
c Lt
,  d fvourd Lt
for co duc
t
g off
c
 bu
.[58] Cud
u tr
d to 
m
t th u of Grk,  d o occ

o rvokd th c
t
z h
p of tho ho ckd Lt
, but v
th S t
h dr o h
 o b

gu
m
commu
ct
g 
th Grk-pk
g mbdor
.[58] Suto
u quot h
m  rfrr
g to "our to  gug".[59]
I th Etr mp
r,   d off
c
 docum t r rgury tr td
t
o Grk from Lt
.[60] Th vrydy
trp trt
o of th to  gug


d
ctd by b

gu
cr
pt
o , h
ch omt
m v 
tch bck  d forth b
t Grk  d Lt
.[61] Aftr  frbor
hb
t t of th mp
r r u

vry  fr ch
d
212 AD,  grt umbr of Rom c
t
z  oud hv c
kd Lt
, though thy r xpctd to cqu
r t t  tok k odg,  d
Lt
rm
d  mrkr of "Rom ."[62]
Amo g othr rform, th mpror D
oct
 (r
g d 284305) ought to r  th
uthor
ty of Lt
,  d th Grk xpr
o h krtou d
kto ttt to th
co t
u
g ttu of Lt
 "th  gug of por."[63] I th ry 6th c t
ury, th mpror Jut

  ggd
 qu
xot
c ffort to rrt th ttu o
f Lt
 th  gug of , v though
h
 t
m Lt
o o gr hd  y
curr cy   
v
g  gug
th Et.[64]

Loc  gug  d 
gu
t
c gcy[d
t]

B

gu Lt
-Pu
c
cr
pt
o t th thtr
Lpt
 Mg , Rom Afr
c (
pr t-dy L
by)
Rfr c to
trprtr
d
ct th co t
u
g u of oc  gug othr
th Grk  d Lt
, prt
cury
Egypt, hr Copt
c prdom
td,  d
m


try tt
g o g th Rh
  d D ub. Rom jur
t o ho  co cr f
or oc  gug uch  Pu
c, Gu
h,  d Arm
c
ur
g th corrct u
drt d
g  d pp
ct
o of   d oth.[65] I th prov
c of Afr
c, P
u
c  ud for g d o co
 dur
g th t
m of T
br
u (1t c tury AD),
 d Pu
c
cr
pt
o  ppr o pub
c bu
d
g
to th 2 d c tury, om b


gu 
th Lt
.[66] I Syr
, Pmyr  od
r v ud th
r d
ct of
Arm
c for
cr
pt
o ,
 tr
k
g xcpt
o to th ru tht Lt
 th
 gug of th m

try.[67]
Th Bbth Arch
v
  uggt
v xmp of mut

gu
m
 ppyr
, md for  J
h om
th prov
c of Arb

3 to 132 AD, moty mpoy Arm
c, th oc  gug, r
tt
r 
th Sm
t
c  d Lt

fu c;  pt
t
o to th Rom
,  r
tt
Grk.[68]

th Emp
r. Th
 d dt
g from 9

Grk chrct
govr or, hovr

Th dom
 c of Lt
mo g th 
trt 
t my obcur th co t
u
ty of p
ok  gug, 
c  cutur 
th
th Rom Emp
r r prdom
 ty or
.[69] I th Wt, Lt
, rfrrd to

t pok form  Vugr Lt
, grd
uy rpcd Ct
c  d It
c  gug tht r rtd to
t by  hrd I
do-Europ or
g
. Commo 
t

y tx  d vocbury fc

ttd th dop
t
o of Lt
.[70]
Aftr th dc tr
zt
o of po
t
c por
t  t
qu
ty, Lt
dvopd
ocy
to br ch tht bcm th Rom c  gug, uch  Sp
h, Portu
gu, Fr ch, It
  d Rom
 ,  d  rg umbr of m
or  gug  d d

ct. Tody, mor th 900 m

o pop r t
v pkr ord
d.
A 
tr t
o   gug of r
g  d 
trtur, Lt

tf co t
ud
  ct
v md
um of xpr
o for d
pomcy  d for
tctu dvopm t

d t
f
d 
th R 
 c hum
m up to th 17th c tury,  d for   d t
h Rom Ctho
c Church to th pr t.[71]
Athough Grk co t
ud  th  gug of th Byz t
 Emp
r, 
gu
t
c d

tr
but
o
th Et  mor compx. A Grk-pk
g mjor
ty 
vd
th G
rk p
u  d
 d, tr A to
, mjor c
t
,  d om cot r
.[72] L
k Grk  d Lt
, th Thrc
  gug  of I do-Europ or
g
,
 r vr o-xt
ct  gug
A to
 tttd by Impr
-r
c
r
pt
o .[73] Ab

 oft   th dc d t of Iyr
 ,[74] though
th
 hypoth
 h b ch gd by om 
gu
t, ho m
t
tht
t dr

v from Dc
 or Thrc
 .[75] (Iyr
 , Dc
 ,  d Thrc
 , hovr, my
hv formd  ubgroup or  Sprchbu d;  Thrco-Iyr
 .) Vr
ou Afro
t

c  gugpr
mr
y Copt
c
Egypt,  d Arm
c
Syr
  d Mopotm
r v
r rpcd by Grk. Th
tr t
o  u of Grk, hovr,  o  fctor 
b
g th prd of Chr
t

ty, 
d
ctd for xmp by th u of Grk
for th Ep
t of Pu.[76]
Soc
ty[d
t]
For mor dt
 o th
 top
c,  A c
 t Rom oc
ty.
A mut
g rt
o  b qut dp
ctd o   p
t
g from Pomp

(1t c tur
y AD)
Th Rom Emp
r  rmrkby mut
cutur, 
th " rthr to
h
g coh

v cpc
ty" to crt    of hrd
d t
ty h
  comp
g d
vr po

p 
th

t po
t
c ytm ovr  o g p of t
m.[77] Th Rom tt t

o to crt
g pub
c mo um t  d commu  pc op to uch  forum, m
ph
thtr, rctrck  d bthhpd fotr    of "Rom ".[78]
Rom oc
ty hd mut
p, ovrpp
g oc
 h
rrch
 tht modr co cpt
of "c"
E g
h my ot rpr t ccurty.[79] Th to dcd of c
v

r from h
ch Augutu ro to o por ft trd
t
o  oc
ty
Rom

 tt of co fu
o  d uphv,[80] but d
d ot ffct 
mmd
t rd
tr
b
ut
o of th  d oc
 por. From th prpct
v of th or c,  p
k  mry ddd to th oc
 pyrm
d.[81] Pro  rt
o h
pptro g,
fr
 dh
p (m
c
t
), fm
y, mrr
gco t
ud to
fu c th ork
g of po

t
c  d govr m t,  thy hd
th Rpub
c.[82] By th t
m of Nro, ho
vr,
t  ot u uu to f
d  formr v ho  r
chr th  frbor c

t
z , or  qutr
 ho xrc
d grtr por th   tor.[83]
Th burr
g or d
ffu
o of th Rpub
c' mor r
g
d h
rrch
 d to
cr
d oc
 mob

ty u dr th Emp
r,[84] both uprd  d do rd, to  xt t
tht xcdd tht of  othr -docum td  c
 t oc
t
.[85] Wom , f
rdm ,  d v hd opportu
t
 to prof
t  d xrc

fu c
y p
rv
ouy  v
b to thm.[86] Soc
 
f
th Emp
r, prt
cury fo
r tho ho pro  rourc r 
m
td,  furthr fotrd by  pro
f
rt
o of vou try oc
t
o   d co frtr
t
 (cog
  d od
tt)
formd for vr
ou purpo: prof
o   d trd gu
d, vtr ' group, r

g
ou od
t
, dr
k
g  d d

g cub,[87] prform
g rt troup,[88]
 d bur
 oc
t
.[89]
C
t
z of Rom Egypt (Fyum mummy portr
t)
I f t
c
d h b rcordd
th Rom Emp
r  d my hv b 
dprd.[
90]
Lg ttu[d
t]
M
rt
c: Sttu
Rom g ytm  d Rom c
t
z h
p
Accord
g to th jur
t G
u, th  t
 d
t
ct
o
th Rom " of p
ro "  tht  hum b
g r 
thr fr (
br
) or v (rv
).[91
] Th g ttu of fr pro  m
ght b furthr df
d by th
r c
t
z h
p
. I th ry Emp
r, o y  rt
vy 
m
td umbr of m hd fu r
ght
of Rom c
t
z h
p tht od thm to vot, ru for off
c,  d  tr tt
pr
thood. Mot c
t
z  hd 
m
td r
ght (uch  th
u Lt
um, "Lt

r
ght"), but r  t
td to g protct
o   d pr
v
g ot  joyd by th
o ho ckd c
t
z h
p. Fr pop ot co 
drd c
t
z , but 
v
g 
th

th Rom ord, hd ttu  prgr

, o -Rom .[92] I 212 AD, by m
 of th d
ct k o  th Co t
tut
o A to

 , th mpror Crc xt
dd c
t
z h
p to  frbor
hb
t t of th mp
r. Th
 g g
tr


m oud hv rqu
rd  fr-rch
g rv

o of x
t
g  tht hd d
t

gu
hd bt c
t
z   d o -c
t
z .[93]
Wom
Rom [d
t]
M
rt
c: Wom
 c
 t Rom
Frbor Rom om r co 
drd c
t
z  throughout th Rpub
c  d Emp
r
, but d
d ot vot, hod po
t
c off
c, or rv
th m

try. A mothr'
c
t
z ttu dtrm
d tht of hr ch
dr , 
d
ctd by th phr x du
obu c
v
bu Rom
 to ("ch
dr bor of to Rom c
t
z ").[94] A Rom
om kpt hr o fm
y m ( om ) for 
f. Ch
dr mot oft took th f
thr' m, but
th Impr
 pr
od omt
m md th
r mothr' m prt
of th
r, or v ud
t
td.[95]
Bro z ttutt (1t c tury AD) of  you g om rd
g
Th rch
c form of m u mrr
g
h
ch th om hd b

ubjct to hr hu

b d' uthor
ty  rgy b do d by th Impr
 r,  d  mrr
d om
rt
d o rh
p of  y proprty h brought
to th mrr
g. Tch
cy 
h rm
d u dr hr fthr' g uthor
ty, v though h movd
to hr h
ub d' hom, but h hr fthr d
d h bcm gy m c
ptd.[96] Th

rr gm t  o  of th fctor
th dgr of
dp d c Rom om 
joyd rt
v to tho of m y othr  c
 t cutur  d up to th modr pr

od:[97] though h hd to  r to hr fthr
g mttr, h  fr
of h
 d
rct crut
y
hr d
y 
f,[98]  d hr hub d hd o g por
ovr hr.[99] Athough
t   po
t of pr
d to b  "o -m om " (u
v
r
) ho hd mrr
d o y o c, thr  
tt t
gm ttchd to d
vorc, or to
pdy rmrr
g ftr th o of  hub d through dth or d
vorc.[100]
G
r hd qu
hr
t c r
ght 
th boy
f th
r fthr d
d 
thout v

g  
.[101] A Rom mothr' r
ght to o proprty  d to d
po of
t  h
  f
t,
cud
g tt
g th trm of hr o 
, gv hr  ormou
fu
c ovr hr o  v h thy r dut.[102]
A prt of th Augut progrmm to rtor trd
t
o  mor
ty  d oc
 ord
r, mor g
t
o ttmptd to rgut th co duct of m  d om   m
  of promot
g "fm
y vu". Adutry, h
ch hd b  pr
vt fm
y mtt
r u dr th Rpub
c,  cr
m

zd,[103]  d df
d brody  

c
t
x ct (tuprum) tht occurrd bt  m c
t
z  d  mrr
d om , or b
t  mrr
d om  d  y m othr th hr hub d.[104] Ch
dbr
g 
 courgd by th tt:  om ho hd g
v b
rth to thr ch
dr  gr
td ymbo
c ho our  d grtr g frdom (th
u tr
um 
brorum).
Bcu of th
r g ttu  c
t
z   d th dgr to h
ch thy coud bc
om m c
ptd, om coud o proprty,  tr co trct,  d  gg
bu

,[105]
cud
g h
pp
g, m ufctur
g,  d  d
g mo y. I cr
pt
o  thro
ughout th Emp
r ho our om  b fctor
fu d
g pub
c ork, 
d
c
t
o thy coud cqu
r  d d
po of co 
drb fortu ; for
t c, th
Arch of th Srg

 fu dd by Sv
 Potum,  fm mmbr of th fm
y h
o ourd,  d th rgt bu
d
g
th forum t Pomp

 fu dd by Eumch

,  pr
t of V u.[106]
Sv  d th [d
t]
M
rt
c: Svry
 c
 t Rom
At th t
m of Augutu,  m y  35 prc t of th pop
Ity r v
,[107] mk
g Rom o  of f
v h
tor
c "v oc
t
"
h
ch v co
t
tutd t t  f
fth of th poput
o  d pyd  mjor ro
th co o
my.[108] Svry   compx
t
tut
o tht upportd trd
t
o  Rom oc

 tructur    co tr
but
g co om
c ut

ty.[109] I urb tt
g,
v m
ght b prof
o  uch  tchr, phy
c
 , chf,  d ccou t
t,
dd
t
o to th mjor
ty of v ho prov
dd tr
d or u k
d bo
ur
houhod or orkpc. Agr
cutur  d
dutry, uch  m

g  d m


g, r
d o th xpo
tt
o of v. Out
d Ity, v md up o v
rg  t
mtd 10 to 20 prc t of th poput
o , pr
Rom Egypt but
mor co c trtd
om Grk r. Exp d
g Rom o rh
p of rb  d
 d
dutr
 oud hv ffctd prx
t
g prct
c of vry
th prov

c.[110] Athough th
t
tut
o of vry h oft b rgrdd  
g

th 3rd  d 4th c tur
,
t rm
d 
tgr prt of Rom oc
ty u t

 th 5th c tury. Svry cd grduy
th 6th  d 7th c tur
 o g

th th dc
 of urb c tr
th Wt  d th d

tgrt
o of th comp
x Impr
 co omy tht hd crtd th dm d for
t.[111]
Sv hod
g r
t
g tbt for h
 mtr (r
f from  4th-c tury rcoph
gu)
L prt

g to vry r "xtrmy
tr
ct".[112] U dr Rom , 
v r co 
drd proprty  d hd o g pro hood. Thy coud b ubjct

d to form of corpor pu
hm t ot ormy xrc
d o c
t
z , xu xp

o
tt
o , tortur,  d ummry xcut
o . A v coud ot   mttr of 
b rpd, 
c rp coud b comm
ttd o y g
t pop ho r fr;  
v' rp
t hd to b procutd by th o r for proprty dmg u dr th Aqu


 L.[113] Sv hd o r
ght to th form of g mrr
g cd co ub
um
, but th
r u
o  r omt
m rcog
zd,  d
f both r frd thy coud
mrry.[114] Foo
g th Srv
 Wr of th Rpub
c, g
t
o u dr Augut
u  d h
 uccor ho  dr
v
g co cr for co tro
g th thrt of rb

o  through 
m
t
g th 
z of ork group,  d for hu t
g do fug
t
v 
v.[115]
Tch
cy,  v coud ot o proprty,[116] but  v ho co ductd bu

 m
ght b g
v cc to 
d
v
du ccou t or fu d (pcu
um) tht h c
oud u 
f
t r h
 o . Th trm of th
 ccou t vr
d dp d
g o th
 dgr of trut  d co-oprt
o bt o r  d v:  v 
th  pt

tud for bu
 coud b g
v co 
drb y to g rt prof
t,  d m
g
ht b od to bquth th pcu
um h m gd to othr v of h
 houho
d.[117] W
th
 houhod or orkpc,  h
rrchy of v m
ght x
t, 
t
h o  v
ffct ct
g  th mtr of othr v.[118]
Ovr t
m v g
d
crd g protct
o ,
cud
g th r
ght to f

comp
t g
t th
r mtr. A b
 of  m
ght co t
 cu t
put

g tht th v coud ot b mpoyd for prot
tut
o ,  prot
tut
 c

 t Rom r oft v.[119] Th burgo
g trd
u uch v
th 
t 1t c tury AD promptd g
t
o tht proh
b
td th ctrt
o of  v
 g
t h
 
 "for ut or g
."[120]
Rom vry  ot bd o rc.[121][122] Sv r dr from  ovr E
urop  d th Md
trr  ,
cud
g Gu, H
p
, Grm y, Br
t
, th B
k , Grc... G ry v
Ity r
d
g ou It
 ,[123] 
th
 m
or
ty of for
g r (
cud
g both v  d frdm ) bor out
d of It
y t
mtd t 5% of th tot
th cp
t t
t pk, hr th
r umbr
 rgt. Tho from out
d of Europ r prdom
 ty of Grk dc t, 
h
 th J
h o  vr fuy 
m
td
to Rom oc
ty, rm

g 
d
 t
f
b m
or
ty. Th v (pc
y th for
g r) hd h
ghr mort

ty rt  d or b
rth rt th
t
v,  d r omt
m v ubjctd t
o m xpu
o . [124] Th vrg rcordd g t dth for th v of th
c
ty of Rom  xtrord
r
y o: v t  d  hf yr (17.2 for m
; 17.9 for fm).[125]
Dur
g th pr
od of Rpub
c xp 
o
m h vry hd bcom prv
v,
r cpt
v r  m
ourc of v. Th r g of th
c
t
 mo g v
to om xt t rfctd tht of th rm
 Rom dftd
r,  d th co qu
t of Grc brought  umbr of h
ghy k
d  d ductd v
to Rom.
Sv r o trdd
mrkt,  d omt
m od by p
rt. I f t b do
m t  d f- vm t mo g th poor r othr ourc.[126] Vr , by co
trt, r "homgro " v bor to fm v 
th
th urb houhod
or o  cou try tt or frm. Athough thy hd o pc
 g ttu,  o
 r ho m
trtd or f
d to cr for h
 vr  fcd oc
 d
pprov, 
 thy r co 
drd prt of h
 fm

, th fm
y houhod,  d
om c
 m
ght ctuy b th ch
dr of fr m
th fm
y.[127]
T td v 
th  k ck for bu
 m
ght ccumut  rg  ough pcu

um to jut
fy th
r frdom, or b m um
ttd for rv
c r drd. M um

o
hd bcom frqu t  ough tht
2 BC   (Lx Fuf
 C

) 
m
td th
umbr of v  o r  od to fr
h
 
.[128]
Frdm [d
t]
C
rry ur for th frdm

T
br
u Cud
u Chryro  d to om , probb

y h
 
f  d dughtr

Rom d
ffrd from Grk c
ty-tt
o
g frd v to bcom c
t
z 
. Aftr m um

o ,  v ho hd bo gd to  Rom c
t
z  joyd ot o 
y p
v frdom from o rh
p, but ct
v po
t
c frdom (
brt),
cu
d
g th r
ght to vot.[129] A v ho hd cqu
rd 
brt   
brtu ("
frd pro ," fm

 
brt)
rt
o to h
 formr mtr, ho th bc
m h
 ptro (ptro u): th to prt
 co t
ud to hv cutomry  d g
ob
gt
o  to ch othr. A  oc
 c g ry, frd v r 
brt


, though tr r
tr ud th trm 
brtu  d 
brt
u
trch gby
.[130]
A 
brt
u  ot  t
td to hod pub
c off
c or th h
ght tt pr
th
ood, but h coud py  pr
ty ro
th cut of th mpror. H coud ot
mrry  om from  fm
y of  tor
 r k, or ch
v g
t
mt  tor

 r k h
mf, but dur
g th ry Emp
r, frdm hd ky po
t
o 
th
govr m t burucrcy, o much o tht Hdr
 
m
td th
r prt
c
pt
o by
.[131] A y futur ch
dr of  frdm oud b bor fr, 
th fu r
ght
of c
t
z h
p.
Th r
 of uccfu frdm through 
thr po
t
c
fu c

mpr
 r
v
c, or th
  chrctr
t
c of ry Impr
 oc
ty. Th propr
ty of 
h
gh-ch
v
g group of frdm
 tttd by
cr
pt
o  throughout th Emp

r,  d by th
r o rh
p of om of th mot v
h hou t Pomp

, uch 
 th Hou of th Vtt

. Th xc of ouvu r
ch frdm r t
r
zd

th chrctr of Tr
mch
o
th Styr
co by Ptro
u, ho rot
th
t
m of Nro. Such
d
v
du, h
 xcpt
o , r
d
ct
v of th uprd
oc
 mob

ty po
b
th Emp
r.
C u r k[d
t]
S o: S t of th Rom Emp
r, Equtr
 ordr  d Dcur
o (dm

trt

v)
Th Lt
ord ordo (pur ord
) rfr to  oc
 d
t
ct
o tht
 tr
td vr
ouy
to E g
h  "c, ordr, r k," o  of h
ch
 xct. O
 purpo of th Rom c u  to dtrm
 th ordo to h
ch 
d
v
du
bo gd. Th to h
ght ord

Rom r th  tor
  d qutr
 . Ou
t
d Rom, th dcur
o , o k o  cur
 (Grk bouut
), r th to
p govr
g ordo of 
d
v
du c
ty.
Frgm t of  rcophgu dp
ct
g Gord
 III  d  tor (3rd c tury)
"S tor"  ot
tf  ctd off
c
 c
 t Rom; 
d
v
du g
d
dm

o to th S t ftr h hd b ctd to  d rvd t t o  t
rm   xcut
v mg
trt. A  tor o hd to mt  m

mum proprty rq
u
rm t of 1 m

o trt

,  dtrm
d by th c u.[132] Nro md r
g g
ft of mo y to  umbr of  tor from od fm

 ho hd bcom too

mpovr
hd to qu
fy. Not  m ho qu
f
d for th ordo  tor
u cho
to tk  S t t, h
ch rqu
rd g dom
c
 t Rom. Empror oft f

d vc c

th 600-mmbr body by ppo
tm t.[133] A  tor' o bo g
d to th ordo  tor
u, but h hd to qu
fy o h
 o mr
t for dm

o
to th S t
tf. A  tor coud b rmovd for v
ot
g mor t drd:
h  proh
b
td, for
t c, from mrry
g  frdom or f
ght
g
th
r .[134]
I th t
m of Nro,  tor r t
 pr
mr
y from Rom  d othr prt of
Ity, 
th om from th Ibr
 p
u  d outhr Fr c; m from th Gr
k-pk
g prov
c of th Et bg to b ddd u dr Vp
 .[135] Th f

rt  tor from th mot tr prov
c, Cppdoc
,  dm
ttd u dr Mrc
u Aur
u.[136] By th t
m of th Svr dy ty (193235), It
  md up 
 th hf th S t.[137] Dur
g th 3rd c tury, dom
c
 t Rom bcm

mprct
c,  d
cr
pt
o  ttt to  tor ho r ct
v
po
t
c  d

mu
f
c c

th
r hom d (ptr
).[134]

S tor hd  ur of prt
g  d r th trd
t
o  govr
g c ho ro
 through th curu ho orum, th po
t
c crr trck, but qutr
  of th
 Emp
r oft pod grtr th  d po
t
c por. Mmbrh
p
th 
qutr
 ordr  bd o proprty;
Rom' ry dy, qu
t or k
ght
hd b d
t
gu
hd by th
r b

ty to rv  mou td rr
or (th "pub

c hor"), but cvry rv
c   prt fu ct
o
th Emp
r.[138] A c
u vut
o of 400,000 trc  d thr g rt
o  of fr b
rth qu
f
d
 m   qutr
 .[139] Th c u of 28 BC u covrd rg umbr of m
ho qu
f
d,  d
14 AD,  thou d qutr
  r rg
trd t Cd
z 
d Pdu o .[140] Equtr
  ro through  m

try crr trck (tr m

t

) to bcom h
ghy pcd prfct  d procurtor 
th
th Impr
 dm


trt
o .[141]
Th r
 of prov
c
 m to th  tor
  d qutr
 ordr
  pct
of oc
 mob

ty
th f
rt thr c tur
 of th Emp
r.[142] Rom r
to
crcy  bd o compt
t
o ,  d u 
k tr Europ ob

ty,  Rom fm

y coud ot m
t

t po
t
o mry through hrd
try ucc
o or hv

g t
t to  d.[143] Adm

o to th h
ghr ord
 brought d
t
ct
o  d p
r
v
g, but o  umbr of rpo 
b

t
. I  t
qu
ty,  c
ty dp dd
o
t d
g c
t
z  to fu d pub
c ork, v t,  d rv
c (mu r), rt
hr th o tx rv u, h
ch pr
mr
y upportd th m

try. M
t

g o
' r k rqu
rd m
v pro  xp d
tur.[144] Dcur
o  r o v
t fo
r th fu ct
o
g of c
t
 tht
th tr Emp
r,  th r k of th to c
ou c
 bcm dptd, tho ho hd r
 to th S t r  courgd by th
 c tr govr m t to g
v up th
r t  d rtur to th
r homto ,

ffort to ut
c
v
c 
f.[145]
I th tr Emp
r, th d
g
t ("orth, tm") tht tt dd o  tor

or qutr
 r k  rf
d furthr 
th t
t uch  v
r
utr
, "
u
tr
ou m ".[146] Th ppt
o cr

mu (Grk mprotto)  ud to d

g t th d
g
t of crt
 tor  d th
r
mmd
t fm
y,
cud
g 
om .[147] "Grd" of qutr
 ttu pro
frtd. Tho
Impr
 rv
c
r r kd by py grd (xg r
u, 60,000 trc pr  um; c t r
u
, 100,000; duc r
u, 200,000). Th t
t m
 t

mu, "mot m
 t" (Grk
xochtto)  rrvd for qutr
  ho hd b Prtor
 prfct. Th h

ghr qutr
 off
c

g r r prfct

m
, "mot d
t
gu
hd" (
Grk d
motto
), th or mry grg

, "outt d
g" (Grk krt
to).[14
8]
U qu jut
c[d
t]
Co dm d m ttckd by  oprd
th r  (3rd-c tury mo
c from Tu


)
A th rpub
c pr
c
p of c
t
z ' qu
ty u dr th  fdd, th ymbo

c  d oc
 pr
v
g of th uppr c d to 
form d
v

o of Ro
m oc
ty
to tho ho hd cqu
rd grtr ho our (ho t
or)  d tho
ho r humbr fok (hum

or). I g r, ho t
or r th mmbr of
th thr h
ghr "ordr," o g 
th crt
m

try off
cr.[149] Th gr t

g of u
vr c
t
z h
p
212 m to hv
crd th compt
t
v urg
mo g th uppr c to hv th
r upr
or
ty ovr othr c
t
z  ff
rmd,
prt
cury 
th
th jut
c ytm.[150] S t c
g dp dd o th judgm t
of th pr
d
g off
c
  to th rt
v "orth" (d
g
t) of th df d
t:  ho t
or coud py  f
 h co v
ctd of  cr
m for h
ch  hum

or
m
ght rc
v  courg
g.[151]
Excut
o , h
ch hd b 
frqu t g p ty for fr m u dr th Rp
ub
c v
 cp
t c,[152] coud b qu
ck  d rt
vy p
 for th
 Impr
 c
t
z co 
drd "mor ho orb," h
 tho dmd
fr
or m
gh

t uffr th k
d of tortur  d proo gd dth prv
ouy rrvd for v
, uch  cruc
f
x
o  d co dm t
o to th bt   pctc
th r 
.[153] I th ry Emp
r, tho ho co vrtd to Chr
t

ty coud o th
r
t d
g  ho t
or, pc
y
f thy dc
d to fuf
 th r
g
ou 
pct of th
r c
v
c rpo 
b

t
,  d thu bcm ubjct to pu
hm t t
ht crtd th co d
t
o  of mrtyrdom.[154]
Govr m t  d m

try[d
t]
M
rt
c: Co t
tut
o of th Rom Emp
r
Forum of Gr (Jrh
pr t-dy Jord ), 
th coum  mrk
g  covrd 
ky (to) for v dor t,  d  m
c
rcur pc for pub
c pk
g
Th thr mjor m t of th Impr
 Rom tt r th c tr govr m t
, th m

try,  d prov
c
 govr m t.[155] Th m

try tb
hd co tro
of  trr
tory through r, but ftr  c
ty or pop  brought u dr trty
, th m

try m

o tur d to po
c
g: protct
g Rom c
t
z  (ftr 212
AD,  frbor
hb
t t of th Emp
r), th gr
cutur f
d tht fd th
m,  d r
g
ou 
t.[156] W
thout modr
trum t of 
thr m commu
c
t
o or m dtruct
o , th Rom  ckd uff
c
 t m por or rourc to

mpo th
r ru through forc o . Cooprt
o 
th oc por 
t 
cry to m
t
ordr, coct
formt
o ,  d xtrct rv u. Th Rom
 oft xpo
td
tr  po
t
c d
v

o  by upport
g o  fct
o ovr 
othr:
th v
 of Putrch, "
t  d
cord bt fct
o  
th
c
t
 t
ht d to th o of f-govr  c".[157]
Commu
t
 
th dmo trtd oyty to Rom rt
d th
r o , coud co
ct th
r o tx ocy,  d
xcpt
o  c r xmpt from Rom t
xt
o . Lg pr
v
g  d rt
v
dp d c r 
c t
v to rm


good t d
g 
th Rom.[158] Rom govr m t  thu 
m
td, but ff
c
 t


t u of th rourc v
b to
t.[159]
C tr govr m t[d
t]
S o: Rom mpror  d S t of th Rom Emp
r
Th dom
 c of th mpror  bd o th co o
dt
o of crt
por fr
om vr rpub
c off
c,
cud
g th
v
ob

ty of th tr
bu  of th
 pop  d th uthor
ty of th c or to m
put th h
rrchy of Rom 
oc
ty.[160] Th mpror o md h
mf th c tr r
g
ou uthor
ty  Po
t
fx Mx
mu,  d c tr
zd th r
ght to dcr r, rt
fy trt
,  d
got
t 
th for
g dr.[161] Wh
 th fu ct
o  r cry df
d d
ur
g th Pr
c
pt, th mpror' por ovr t
m bcm  co t
tut
o 
 d mor mo rch
c, cum
t
g
th Dom
t.[162]
A to
u P
u (r
g d 138161), r
g  tog (Hrm
tg Muum)
Th mpror  th ut
mt uthor
ty
po
cy-  d dc

o -mk
g, but
th
 ry Pr
c
pt h  xpctd to b cc
b to
d
v
du from  k
 of 
f,  d to d pro y 
th off
c
 bu
  d pt
t
o . A buru
crcy formd rou d h
m o y grduy.[163] Th Ju
o-Cud
 mpror r
d
o 
form body of dv
or tht
cudd ot o y  tor  d qutr
 ,
but trutd v  d frdm .[164] Aftr Nro, th u off
c

fu c of t
h ttr  rgrdd 
th up
c
o ,  d th mpror' cou c
 (co 

um) bc
m ubjct to off
c
 ppo
tm t for th k of grtr tr pr cy.[165] T
hough th  t took  d
po
cy d
cu
o  u t
 th  d of th A to

dy ty, qutr
  pyd 
cr
gy
mport t ro
th co 

um.[16
6] Th om of th mpror' fm
y oft
trv d d
rcty
h
 dc

o .
Pot
 xrc
d
fu c o both hr hub d Trj  d h
 uccor Hdr

. Hr
fu c  dvrt
d by hv
g hr ttr o off
c
 mttr pub

hd,   
g tht th mpror  ro b
h
 xrc
 of uthor
ty  d

t d to h
 pop.[167]

Acc to th mpror by othr m
ght b g
d t th d
y rcpt
o (utt

o),  dvopm t of th trd
t
o  homg  c
 t p
d to h
 ptro ; pub
c
b qut hotd t th pc;  d r
g
ou crmo
. Th commo pop ho 
ckd th
 cc coud m
ft th
r g r pprov or d
pur   grou
p t th gm hd
rg v u.[168] By th 4th c tury,  urb c tr d
cyd, th Chr
t
 mpror bcm rmot f
gurhd ho
ud g r ru

g, o o gr rpo d
g to
d
v
du pt
t
o .[169]
Athough th  t coud do 
tt hort of 
t
o  d op rb
o to
co trv  th 
 of th mpror,
t urv
vd th Augut rtort
o  d th
 turbu t Yr of Four Empror to rt

t ymbo
c po
t
c c tr
ty du
r
g th Pr
c
pt.[170] Th  t g
t
mtd th mpror' ru,  d th mp
ror dd th xpr
 c of  tor  gt (gt
) to rv  g r,
d
pomt,  d dm

trtor.[171] A uccfu crr rqu
rd compt c 
 dm

trtor  d rm

g
fvour 
th th mpror, or ovr t
m prhp
mut
p mpror.[172]
Th prct
c ourc of  mpror' por  d uthor
ty  th m

try. Th 
g
o r
 r p
d by th Impr
 trury,  d or   u m

try oth
of oyty to th mpror (crm tum).[173] Th dth of  mpror d to 
cruc
 pr
od of u crt
ty  d cr

. Mot mpror
d
ctd th
r cho
c o
f uccor, uuy  co fm
y mmbr or doptd h
r. Th  mpror hd
to k  
ft ck odgm t of h
 ttu  d uthor
ty to tb

z th po

t
c  dcp. No mpror coud hop to urv
v, much  to r
g , 
thout
th g
 c  d oyty of th Prtor
 Gurd  d of th g
o . To cur
th
r oyty, vr mpror p
d th do t
vum,  mo try rrd. I thor
y, th S t   t
td to choo th  mpror, but d
d o m
dfu of cc
mt
o by th rmy or Prtor
 .[174]
M

try[d
t]
Th Rom mp
r u dr Hdr
 (rud 117138) ho
g th oct
o of th Rom 
g
o  dpoyd
AD 125
M
rt
c: Impr
 Rom rmy  d Structur h
tory of th Rom m

try
Th od
r of th Impr
 Rom rmy r prof
o  ho vou trd for 2
0 yr of ct
v duty  d f
v  rrv. Th tr 
t
o to  prof
o  m


try hd bgu dur
g th t Rpub
c,  d  o  of th m y profou d h
f
t y from rpub
c
m, u dr h
ch  rmy of co cr
pt hd xrc
d th

r rpo 
b

t
  c
t
z 
df d
g th hom d
 cmp
g g
t 
pc
f
c thrt. For Impr
 Rom, th m

try   fu-t
m crr

t
f.[175]
Th pr
mry m

o of th Rom m

try of th ry mp
r  to prrv th
 Px Rom .[176] Th thr mjor d
v

o  of th m

try r:
th grr
o t Rom, h
ch
cud both th Prtor
   d th v
g
 ho fu
ct
o d  po
c  d f
rf
ghtr;
th prov
c
 rmy, compr

g th Rom g
o   d th ux

r
 prov
dd b
y th prov
c (ux

);
th vy.
Th prv
v  of m

try grr
o  throughout th Emp
r   mjor
fu
c
th proc of cutur xch g  d 
m
t
o k o  "Rom
zt
o ,
" prt
cury
rgrd to po
t
c, th co omy,  d r
g
o .[177] K odg
of th Rom m

try com from  
d r g of ourc: Grk  d Rom 
tr
ry txt; co
 
th m

try thm; ppyr
prrv
g m

try docum t; mo u
m t uch  Trj ' Coum  d tr
umph rch, h
ch ftur rt
t
c dp
c
t
o  of both f
ght
g m  d m

try mch
; th rchoogy of m

try bu
r
, btt 
t,  d cmp;  d
cr
pt
o ,
cud
g m

try d
pom, 
p
tph,  d dd
ct
o .[178]

Through h
 m

try rform, h
ch
cudd co o
dt
g or d
b d
g u
t o

f qut
o b oyty, Augutu ch gd  d rgur
zd th g
o , do to th
hob 
 pttr o th o of rmy boot.[179] A g
o  org
zd
to t
cohort, ch of h
ch compr
d 
x c tur
, 
th  c tury furthr md up
of t qud (co tubr
); th xct 
z of th Impr
 g
o , h
ch
 mo
t 
ky to hv b dtrm
d by og
t
c, h b t
mtd to r g from
4,800 to 5,280.[180]
R
f p  from Trj ' Coum ho
g th bu
d
g of  fort  d th rcpt

o of  Dc
 mby
I AD 9, Grm
c tr
b 
pd out thr fu g
o 
th Btt of th Tuto
burg Fort. Th
 d
trou v t rducd th umbr of th g
o  to 25. Th
tot of th g
o  oud tr b
crd g
 d for th xt 300 yr 
y b  
tt bov or bo 30.[181] Th rmy hd bout 300,000 od
r

th 1t c tury,  d u dr 400,000
th 2 d, "
g
f
c ty mr" th th
coct
v rmd forc of th trr
tor

t co qurd. No mor th 2 prc t
of dut m 
v
g
th Emp
r rvd
th Impr
 rmy.[182]
Augutu o crtd th Prtor
 Gurd:
 cohort, ot 
by to m
t

th pub
c pc, h
ch r grr
o d
Ity. Bttr p
d th th g
o r

, th Prtor
  rvd o y 
xt yr.[183]
Th ux

 r rcru
td from mo g th o -c
t
z . Org
zd
mr u

t of roughy cohort tr gth, thy r p
d  th th g
o r
,  d ft
r 25 yr of rv
c r rrdd 
th Rom c
t
z h
p, o xt dd to th

r o . Accord
g to Tc
tu[184] thr r roughy  m y ux

r
  th
r r g
o r
. Th ux

 thu mou td to rou d 125,000 m ,
mpy
g
pprox
mty 250 ux

ry rg
m t.[185] Th Rom cvry of th r
t Em
p
r r pr
mr
y from Ct
c  d Grm
c r, or Rom Sp
. Svr p
ct of tr

g  d qu
pm t, uch  th four-hor d dd, dr
vd from th
Ct,  otd by Arr
  d
d
ctd by rchoogy.[186]
Th Rom vy (Lt
: c
, "ft") ot o y 
dd
th uppy  d tr p
ort of th g
o , but o hpd
th protct
o of th fro t
r o g th
r
vr Rh
  d D ub. A othr of
t dut
  th protct
o of th cruc

 mr
t
m trd rout g
t th thrt of p
rt. It ptrod th ho of
th Md
trr  , prt of th North At t
c cot,  d th Bck S. Nvr
th, th rmy  co 
drd th 
or  d mor prt
g
ou br ch.[187]
Prov
c
 govr m t[d
t]
[ho] v t 
Rom prov
c 117 AD
Th Pu Ar 
Crot

 o  of th rgt  d mot
tct of th rm

g
Rom mph
thtr
A  xd trr
tory bcm  prov
c
 thr-tp proc: mk
g  rg
t
r of c
t
, tk
g  c u of th poput
o ,  d urvy
g th  d.[188] Fur
thr govr m t rcordkp
g
cudd b
rth  d dth, r tt tr ct
o
, tx,  d jur
d
c procd
g.[189] I th 1t  d 2 d c tur
, th c
tr govr m t  t out rou d 160 off
c
 ch yr to govr out
d Ity.
[190] Amo g th off
c
 r th "Rom govr or",  thy r cd
E
g
h: 
thr mg
trt ctd t Rom ho
th m of th Rom pop go
vr d  tor
 prov
c; or govr or, uuy of qutr
 r k, ho hd
th
r
mpr
um o bhf of th mpror
prov
c xcudd from  tor
 co
tro, mot otby Rom Egypt.[191] A govr or hd to mk h
mf cc
b
to th pop h govr d, but h coud dgt vr
ou dut
.[192] H
 tff,
hovr,  m

m: h
 off
c
 tt d t (ppr
tor),
cud
g 
ctor,
hrd, m gr, cr
b,  d bodygurd; gt, both c
v
  d m

try,
uuy of qutr
 r k;  d fr
 d, r g
g
g  d xpr
 c, ho cc

omp
d h
m u off
c
y.[192]

Othr off
c
 r ppo
td  uprv
or of govr m t f
 c.[190] Spr
t
g f
c rpo 
b

ty from jut
c  d dm

trt
o   rform of th
Impr
 r. U dr th Rpub
c, prov
c
 govr or  d tx frmr coud xp
o
t oc poput
o  for pro  g
mor fry.[193] Equtr
 procurtor
, ho uthor
ty  or
g
y "xtr-jud
c
  d xtr-co t
tut
o ," m
gd both tt-o d proprty  d th vt pro  proprty of th mpror (r
 pr
vt).[192] Bcu Rom govr m t off
c
 r f
umbr,  prov

c
 ho dd hp 
th  g d
put or cr
m
 c m
ght k out  y Ro
m prc
vd to hv om off
c
 cpc
ty, uch   procurtor or  m

try
off
cr,
cud
g c tur
o  do to th oy tt
o r

or m

try po
c.
[194]
Rom [d
t]
M
rt
c: Rom 
Rom court hd or
g
 jur
d
ct
o ovr c
vov
g Rom c
t
z  thro
ughout th mp
r, but thr r too f jud
c
 fu ct
o r
 to
mpo Rom
 u
formy
th prov
c. Mot prt of th Etr mp
r rdy hd 
-tb
hd  cod  d jur
d
c procdur.[195] I g r,
t  Rom
po
cy to rpct th mo rg
o
 ("rg
o  trd
t
o " or " of th  d")
 d to rgrd oc    ourc of g prcd t  d oc
 tb

ty.[19
6] Th compt
b

ty of Rom  d oc   thought to rfct  u dry
g

u g t
um, th " of t
o " or
tr t
o   rgrdd  commo  d c
utomry mo g  hum commu
t
.[197] If th prt
cur of prov
c
 
co f
ctd 
th Rom  or cutom, Rom court hrd pp,  d th mpror
hd f
 uthor
ty to r dr  dc

o .[198]
I th Wt,  hd b dm

trd o  h
ghy oc
zd or tr
b b
, 
d pr
vt proprty r
ght my hv b  ovty of th Rom r, prt
cury
mo g Ct
c pop. Rom  fc

ttd th cqu

t
o of th by  proRom 
t ho fou d th
r  pr
v
g  c
t
z  to b dv tgou.[199]
Th xt 
o of u
vr c
t
z h
p to  fr
hb
t t of th Emp
r

212 rqu
rd th u
form pp
ct
o of Rom , rpc
g th oc  cod
tht hd pp
d to o -c
t
z . D
oct
 ' ffort to tb

z th Emp
r
ftr th Cr

 of th Th
rd C tury
cudd to mjor comp
t
o  of 

four yr, th Codx Grgor
 u  d th Codx Hrmog
 u, to gu
d prov
c

 dm

trtor
tt
g co 
t t g t drd.[200]
Th prv
v xrc
 of Rom  throughout Wtr Europ d to
t  ormou

fu c o th Wtr g trd
t
o , rfctd by th co t
ud u of L
t
g trm
oogy
modr .
Txt
o [d
t]
Txt
o u dr th Emp
r mou td to bout 5 prc t of gro product.[40] Th
typ
c tx rt p
d by
d
v
du r gd from 2 to 5 prc t.[201] Th tx co
d  "b
dr
g"

t comp
ctd ytm of d
rct  d
d
rct tx, om
 p
d
ch  d om
k
d. Tx m
ght b pc
f
c to  prov
c, or k
d
of proprt
 uch  f
hr
 or t vport
o po d; thy m
ght b
ff
ct for  
m
td t
m.[202] Tx coct
o  jut
f
d by th d to m
t

th m

try,[203]  d txpyr omt
m got  rfu d
f th rmy cpturd 
urpu of booty.[204] I -k
d tx r ccptd from -mo t
zd r, p
rt
cury tho ho coud uppy gr
or good to rmy cmp.[205]
Pro
f
ct
o of th R
vr N
  d h
 ch
dr , from th Tmp of Srp
 
d I

Rom (1t c tury AD)
Th pr
mry ourc of d
rct tx rv u 
d
v
du, ho p
d  po tx 
d  tx o th
r  d, co trud   tx o
t produc or product
v cpc
ty.
[201] Suppm t form coud b f
d by tho 
g
b for crt
xmpt
o 

; for xmp, Egypt
 frmr coud rg
tr f
d  fo  d tx-xmpt d

p d
g o food pttr  of th N
.[206] Tx ob
gt
o  r dtrm
d by
th c u, h
ch rqu
rd ch hd of houhod to ppr bfor th pr
d
g
off
c
  d prov
d  hd cou t of h
 houhod,     ccou t
g of
proprty h o d tht  u
tb for gr
cutur or hb
tt
o .[206]
A mjor ourc of
d
rct-tx rv u  th portor
, cutom  d to o
m
port  d xport,
cud
g mo g prov
c.[201] Spc
 tx r v
d o
th v trd. Tord th  d of h
 r
g , Augutu
t
tutd  4 prc t t
x o th  of v,[207] h
ch Nro h
ftd from th purchr to th d
r, ho rpo dd by r

g th
r pr
c.[208] A o r ho m um
ttd  v
p
d  "frdom tx", ccutd t 5 prc t of vu.[209]
A
hr
t c tx of 5 prc t  d h Rom c
t
z  bov  crt

t orth ft proprty to  yo  but mmbr of th
r
mmd
t fm
y. Rv u
 from th tt tx  d from  1 prc t  tx o uct
o   t tord th
 vtr ' p 
o fu d (rr
um m

tr).[201]
Lo tx hpd th Rom r
tocrcy
cr th
r th, h
ch qud or
xcdd th rv u of th c tr govr m t. A mpror omt
m rp
h
d h
 trury by co f
ct
g th tt of th "upr-r
ch", but
th tr
pr
od, th r
t c of th thy to py
g tx  o  of th fctor co
tr
but
g to th cop of th Emp
r.[42]
Eco omy[d
t]
M
rt
c: Rom co omy
Mo F
y  th ch
f propo  t of th pr
m
t
v
t v
 tht th Rom co
omy  "u drdvopd  d u drch
v
g," chrctr
zd by ub
t c gr
cu
tur; urb c tr tht co umd mor th thy producd
trm of trd  d

dutry; o-ttu rt
 ; oy dvop
g tch oogy;  d  "ck of co
om
c rt
o 
ty."[210] Curr t v
 r mor compx. Trr
tor
 co qut p
rm
ttd  rg-c rorg
zt
o of  d u tht rutd
gr
cutur
orth Afr
c.[211] Som c
t
 r
urpu  d pc

zt
o , prt
cury

k o for prt
cur
dutr
 or commrc
 ct
v
t
,  d th c of bu
d

g
urb r
d
ct  
g
f
c t co truct
o
dutry.[211] Ppyr
pr
rv compx ccou t
g mthod tht uggt m t of co om
c rt
o 
m,
[212]  d th Emp
r  h
ghy mo t
zd.[213] Athough th m  of commu
ct

o  d tr port r 
m
td
 t
qu
ty, tr portt
o
th 1t  d 2 d c
 tur
 xp dd grty,  d trd rout co ctd rg
o  co om
.[214] T
h uppy co trct for th rmy, h
ch prvdd vry prt of th Emp
r, dr
o oc upp
r r th b (ctrum), throughout th prov
c,  d cro
prov
c
 bordr.[215] Th Emp
r
 prhp bt thought of   tork of r
g
o  co om
, bd o  form of "po
t
c cp
t
m"
h
ch th tt
mo
tord  d rgutd commrc to ur
t o rv u.[216] Eco om
c grot
h, though ot comprb to modr co om
,  grtr th tht of mot oth
r oc
t
 pr
or to
dutr

zt
o .[212]
Soc
y, co om
c dy m
m op d up o  of th v u of oc
 mob

ty
t
h Rom Emp
r. Soc
 dv cm t  thu ot dp d t oy o b
rth, ptr
o g, good uck, or v xtrord
ry b

ty. Athough r
tocrt
c vu p
rmtd trd
t
o  
t oc
ty,  tro g t d cy tord putocrcy

d
c
td by th th rqu
rm t for c u r k. Prt
g coud b obt
d throu
gh
vt
g o ' th
y tht dvrt
d
t ppropr
ty: gr d cou tr
y tt or to hou, durb uxury
tm uch  j  d 
vrr, pub

c  trt
m t, fu rry mo um t for fm
y mmbr or coorkr,  d r

g
ou dd
ct
o  uch  tr. Gu
d (cog
)  d corport
o  (corpor) p
rov
dd upport for
d
v
du to uccd through tork
g, hr
g ou d bu

 prct
c,  d  

g  to ork.[217]
Curr cy  d b k
g[d
t]

S o: Rom curr cy  d Rom f
 c

Curr cy d om
t
o [c
tt
o dd]
27 BCAD 212:
1 god uru (1/40 b. of god, dvud to 1/50 b. by 212)
= 25 
vr d r


= 100 bro z trt


= 400 coppr 
294312:
1 god uru o
du (1/60 b. of god)
= 10 
vr rg t

= 40 bro z fo
= 1,000 dbd mt d r


312 o rd:
1 god o
du (1/72 b.)
= 24 
vr 

qu
= 180 bro z fo
Th ry Emp
r  mo t
zd to  r-u
vr xt t,
th   of u
g
mo y   y to xpr pr
c  d dbt.[218] Th trt
u (pur trt


, E g
h "trc", ymbo
zd  HS)  th b
c u
t of rcko
g vu

to th 4th c tury,[219] though th 
vr d r
u, orth four trc, 
 ud o for ccou t
g bg

g
th Svr dy ty.[220] Th mt c
o
commo y c
rcutd  th bro z  (pur ), o -fourth trt
u.
[221] Bu
o  d
got m ot to hv cou td  pcu
, "mo y,"  d r
ud o y o th fro t
r for tr ct
g bu
 or buy
g proprty. Rom 

th 1t  d 2 d c tur
 cou td co
, rthr th 
gh
g thm
d
ct
o
tht th co
 vud o
t fc, ot for
t mt co t t. Th
 t d cy
tord f
t mo y d v tuy to th dbm t of Rom co
g, 
th co q
u c
th tr Emp
r.[222] Th t drd
zt
o of mo y throughout th Emp

r promotd trd  d mrkt
tgrt
o .[223] Th h
gh mou t of mt co
g

c
rcut
o
crd th mo y uppy for trd
g or v
g.[224]
Rom hd o c tr b k,  d rgut
o of th b k
g ytm  m

m. B k
 of c
c  t
qu
ty typ
cy kpt 
rrv th th fu tot of
cutomr' dpo
t. A typ
c b k hd f
ry 
m
td cp
t,  d oft o y o
 pr
c
p, though  b k m
ght hv  m y  
x to f
ft pr
c
p. S
c um tht  yo 
vovd
commrc d cc to crd
t.[225]
So
du
ud u dr Co t t
 II,  d o th rvr V
ctor
, o  of th 
t d
t
 to ppr o Rom co
, grduy tr form
g
to   g u dr C
hr
t
 ru[226]
A prof
o  dpo
t b kr (rg tr
u, coctor rg tr
u, or tr ummu
r
u) rc
vd  d hd dpo
t for  f
xd or
df

t trm,  d  t mo y
to th
rd prt
.[227] Th  tor
 
t r
vovd hv
y
pr
vt 
d
g, both  crd
tor  d borror, mk
g o  from th
r pro  fortu 
 o th b
 of oc
 co ct
o .[228] Th hodr of  dbt coud u
t 
 m  of pym t by tr frr
g
t to  othr prty, 
thout ch ch g
g h
d. Athough
t h omt
m b thought tht  c
 t Rom ckd "ppr" or
docum try tr ct
o , th ytm of b k throughout th Emp
r o prm
tt
d th xch g of vry rg um 
thout th phy
c tr fr of co
,
p
rt bcu of th r
k of mov
g rg mou t of ch, prt
cury by . O
y o  r
ou crd
t hortg
 k o to hv occurrd
th ry Emp
r, 
crd
t cr


33 AD tht put  umbr of  tor t r
k; th c tr govr
m t rcud th mrkt through  o of 100 m

o HS md by th mpror T
b
r
u to th b k (m ).[229] G ry, v
b cp
t xcdd th mou
t dd by borror.[230] Th c tr govr m t
tf d
d ot borro mo y,
 d 
thout pub
c dbt hd to fu d df
c
t from ch rrv.[231]
Empror of th A to
  d Svr dy t
 ovr dbd th curr cy, pr

t
cury th d r
u, u dr th prur of mt
g m

try pyro.[232] S

udd
ft
o dur
g th r
g of Commodu dmgd th crd
t mrkt.[230] I
th m
d-200, th uppy of pc
 co trctd hrpy.[233] Co d
t
o  dur
g th
 Cr

 of th Th
rd C turyuch  rduct
o 
o g-d
t c trd, d
rupt
o
of m

g oprt
o ,  d th phy
c tr fr of god co
g out
d th m
p
r by
vd
g  m
grty d
m

hd th mo y uppy  d th b k
g cto
r by th yr 300.[234] Athough Rom co
g hd o g b f
t mo y or f
duc

ry curr cy, g r co om
c  x
t
 cm to  hd u dr Aur
 ,  d b
kr ot co f
d c
co
 g
t
mty
ud by th c tr govr m t. D
p
t D
oct
 '
troduct
o of th god o
du  d mo try rform, th cr
d
t mrkt of th Emp
r vr rcovrd
t formr robut .[230]
M

g  d mturgy[d
t]
M
rt
c: Rom mturgy
S o: M

g
Rom Br
t

L dcp rut
g from th ru
 mo t
um m

g tch
qu t L Mdu, Rom
Sp
, o  of th mot
mport t god m

th Rom Emp
r
Th m
m

g rg
o  of th Emp
r r Sp
(god, 
vr, coppr, t
, 
d); Gu (god, 
vr,
ro ); Br
t
(m
y
ro , d, t
), th D ub
 pr
ov
c (god,
ro ); Mcdo
  d Thrc (god, 
vr);  d A
 M
or (god,

vr,
ro , t
). I t 
v rg-c m

gof uv
 dpo
t,  d by m
 of op -ct m

g  d u drgrou d m

gtook pc from th r
g of Augutu
 up to th ry 3rd c tury AD, h th
tb

ty of th Emp
r d
ruptd p
roduct
o . Th god m
 of Dc
, for
t c, r o o gr v
b for R
om xpo
tt
o ftr th prov
c  urr drd
271. M

g m to hv
 rumd to om xt t dur
g th 4th c tury.[235]
Hydru
c m

g, h
ch P
y rfrrd to  ru
 mo t
um ("ru
of th mou t

"), od b  d prc
ou mt to b xtrctd o  proto-
dutr
 c
.[236] Th tot  u
ro output
 t
mtd t 82,500 to .[237] Coppr
 producd t   u rt of 15,000 t,[238]  d d t 80,000 t,[239] bot
h product
o v u mtchd u t
 th I dutr
 Rvout
o ;[240] Sp
o 
hd  40 prc t hr
ord d product
o .[241] Th h
gh d output  
by-product of xt 
v 
vr m

g h
ch rchd 200 t pr  um.[242] At
t
 pk rou d th m
d-2 d c tury AD, th Rom 
vr tock
 t
mtd t 10,
000 t, f
v to t t
m rgr th th comb
d 
vr m of md
v Europ
 d th C
pht rou d 800 AD.[243] A 
d
ct
o of th c of Rom m
t product
o , d pout
o
th Gr  d
c ht qudrupd ovr
t pr
h
tor
c v dur
g th Impr
 r,  d droppd g
thrftr.[244]
Tr portt
o  d commu
ct
o [d
t]
S o: Rom rod
Go-Rom r
f dp
ct
g  r
vr bot tr port
g 
 brr, 
v t
o
of th Gu tht cm
to 
dprd u dur
g th 2 d c tury; bov, 


 tord
th trd
t
o  mphor, om covrd

ckr[245]
Th Rom Emp
r compty  c
rcd th Md
trr  , h
ch thy cd "our
" (mr otrum).[246] Rom 

g v v
gtd th Md
trr   
  th mjor r
vr of th Emp
r,
cud
g th Gudqu
v
r, Ebro, Rh , Rh

, T
br  d N
.[247] Tr port by tr  prfrrd hr po
b,  d m
ov
g commod
t
 by  d  mor d
ff
cut.[248] Vh
c, h,  d h
p

d
ct th x
t c of  grt umbr of k
d oodorkr.[249]
L d tr port ut

zd th dv cd ytm of Rom rod. Th
-k
d tx p

d by commu
t

cudd th prov

o of pro , 
m, or vh
c for
th curu pub
cu, th tt m
  d tr port rv
c tb
hd by Augutu
.[205] Ry tt
o  r octd o g th rod vry v to tv Rom
m
,  d t dd to gro
to  v
g or trd
g pot.[250] A m 
o (pur
m 
o )   pr
vty ru rv
c tt
o fr ch
d by th
mpr
 buru

crcy for th curu pub
cu. Th upport tff t uch  fc

ty
cudd mu
tr, crtr
, bckm
th, crtr
ght,  vtr
r
 ,  d  f m

tr
y po
c  d cour
r. Th d
t c bt m 
o   dtrm
d by ho fr
 go coud trv
 dy.[250] Mu r th 
m mot oft ud for pu

g crt, trv
g bout 4 mph.[251] A  xmp of th pc of commu
c
t
o ,
t took  m gr  m

mum of
 dy to trv to Rom from M
z

th prov
c of Grm
 Supr
or, v o  mttr of urg cy.[252] I dd
t
o
to th m 
o , om tvr  offrd ccommodt
o     food  d dr

k; o  rcordd tb for  ty hod chrg for 
, brd, mu fd,  d th
 rv
c of  prot
tut.[253]
Trd  d commod
t
[d
t]
S o: Rom commrc  d I do-Rom trd  d rt
o 
Rom prov
c trdd mo g thmv, but trd xt dd out
d th fro t
r
 to rg
o   fr y  Ch
  d I d
.[254] Th m
commod
ty  gr
.[
255] Ch
 trd  moty co ductd ovr d through m
dd m o g th S

k Rod; I d
 trd, hovr, o occurrd by  from Egypt
 port o th
Rd S. Ao trdd r o
v o
, vr
ou foodtuff, grum (f
h uc), 
v, or  d m ufcturd mt objct, f
br  d txt
, t
mbr, pottry, g
r, mrb, ppyru, p
c  d mtr
 md
c,
vory, pr,  d gmto
.[256]
Though mot prov
c r cpb of produc
g 
, rg
o  vr
t r d

rb  d 
   c tr
tm of trd. Shortg of v
ord

r r r
r.[257] Th mjor upp
r for th c
ty of Rom r th t cot of Ity,
outhr Gu, th Trrco  
 rg
o of Sp
,  d Crt. Ax dr
, th c
o d-rgt c
ty,
mportd 
 from Lod
c
Syr
  d th Ag .[258] At t
h rt
 v, tvr  or pc

ty 
 hop (v
r
) od 
 by th jug
for crryout  d by th dr
k o prm
, 
th pr
c r g rfct
g qu
ty
.[259]
Lbour  d occupt
o [d
t]
Workr t  coth-proc
g hop,
 p
t
g from th fuo
c of Vr
u
Hypu
Pomp


I cr
pt
o  rcord 268 d
ffr t occupt
o 
th c
ty of Rom,  d 85
Pom
p

.[260] Prof
o  oc
t
o  or trd gu
d (cog
) r tttd for
 
d r g of occupt
o ,
cud
g f
hrm (p
ctor), t mrch t (

tor), o
v o
 dr (o
vr

),  trt
r (c
c
), ctt d
r (pcur

), godm
th (ur
f
c), tmtr (
r

or mu
o ),  d t
o cuttr (p
dr

).[261] Th r omt
m qu
t pc

zd: o  cog
u
m t Rom  tr
cty 
m
td to crftm ho orkd

vory  d c
tru ood.
[262]
Work prformd by v f
to f
v g r ctgor
: domt
c, 
th p
t
ph rcord
g t t 55 d
ffr t houhod job;
mpr
 or pub
c rv
c;
urb crft  d rv
c; gr
cutur;  d m

g.[263] Co v
ct prov
dd much
of th bour
th m
 or qurr
, hr co d
t
o  r otor
ouy brut
.[264] I prct
c, thr  
tt d
v

o of bour bt v  d fr,
[265]  d mot orkr r

trt  d 
thout pc
 k
.[266] Th gr
tt umbr of commo bourr r mpoyd
gr
cutur:
th It
 y
tm of
dutr
 frm
g (t
fu d
), th my hv b moty v, but t
hroughout th Emp
r, v frm bour  probby 
mport t th othr f
orm of dp d t bour by pop ho r tch
cy ot  vd.[265]
Txt
  d coth
g product
o   mjor ourc of mpoym t. Both txt

 d f

hd grm t r trdd mo g th pop of th Emp
r, ho product
 r oft
md for thm or  prt
cur to , rthr 
k  fh
o "b".
[267] Bttr rdy-to-r  xportd by bu
m ( got
tor or mrctor
) ho r oft -to-do r
d t of th product
o c tr.[268] F

hd

grm t m
ght b rt
d by th
r  g t, ho trvd to pot t
 cu
tomr, or by vt
r

, coth
g dr ho r moty frdm ; or thy m
g
ht b pddd by
t
r t mrch t.[268] I Egypt, txt
 producr coud ru
proprou m bu
 mpoy
g ppr t
c, fr orkr r
g g,
 d v.[269] Th fur (fuo )  d dy orkr (coortor) hd th
r
o gu
d.[270] C to r

r gu
d orkr ho pc

zd
txt
 produc
t
o  d th rcyc
g of od coth
to p
cd good.[271]
GDP  d
com d
tr
but
o [d
t]
For mor dt
 o th
 top
c,  Rom co omy Gro domt
c product.
Eco om
c h
tor
  vry
th
r ccut
o  of th gro domt
c product of
th Rom co omy dur
g th Pr
c
pt.[272] I th mp yr of 14, 100, 
d 150 AD, t
mt of pr cp
t GDP r g from 166 to 380 HS. Th GDP pr cp

t of Ity
 t
mtd  40[273] to 66 prc t[274] h
ghr th
th rt o
f th Emp
r, du to tx tr fr from th prov
c  d th co c trt
o of 

t
com
th hrt d.
I th Sch
dFr
 co om
c mod, th tot  u
com g rtd by th E
mp
r
 pcd t ry 20 b

o HS, 
th bout 5 prc t xtrctd by c tr
  d oc govr m t. Houhod
th top 1.5 prc t of
com d
tr
but
o
cpturd bout 20 prc t of
com. A othr 20 prc t  t to bout 10 prc
t of th poput
o ho c b chrctr
zd   o -
t m
dd. Th rm


g "vt mjor
ty" producd mor th hf of th tot
com, but 
vd r 
ub
t c.[275]
Arch
tctur  d  g
r
g[d
t]
M
rt
c: A c
 t Rom rch
tctur, Rom  g
r
g  d Rom
y

tch oog

Amph
thtr of th Rom Emp
r

Co truct
o o th Fv
 Amph
thtr, mor commo y k o  th Cooum,
bg dur
g th r
g of Vp

Th ch
f Rom co tr
but
o  to rch
tctur r th rch, vut  d th dom.
Ev ftr mor th 2,000 yr om Rom tructur t
 t d, du
prt
to oph
t
ctd mthod of mk
g cm t  d co crt.[276][277] Rom rod
r co 
drd th mot dv cd rod bu
t u t
 th ry 19th c tury. Th 
ytm of rody fc

ttd m

try po
c
g, commu
ct
o ,  d trd. Th
rod r r
t t to food  d othr  v
ro m t hzrd. Ev ftr th c
op of th c tr govr m t, om rod rm
d ub for mor th  th
ou d yr.
Rom br
dg r mo g th f
rt rg  d t
g br
dg, bu
t from to  

th th rch  th b
c tructur. Mot ut

zd co crt  . Th rgt
Rom br
dg  Trj ' br
dg ovr th or D ub, co tructd by Apoodo
ru of Dmcu, h
ch rm
d for ovr  m

um th o gt br
dg to hv
b bu
t both
trm of ovr p  d  gth.[278]
Th Rom  bu
t m y dm  d rrvo
r for tr coct
o , uch  th Sub

co Dm, to of h
ch fd th A
o Novu, o  of th rgt quduct of Rom.
[279] Thy bu
t 72 dm jut o th Ibr
 p
u,  d m y mor r k o
cro th Emp
r, om t

u. Svr rth dm r k o from Rom
Br
t
,
cud
g  -prrvd xmp from Lo gov
c
um (L chtr).
Th Po t du Grd quduct, h
ch cro th Grdo R
vr
outhr Fr c,

o UNESCO' 
t of Word Hr
tg S
t
Th Rom  co tructd umrou quduct. A urv
v
g trt
 by Fro t
u, h
o rvd  curtor qurum (tr comm

o r) u dr Nrv, rfct th dm


trt
v
mport c pcd o  ur
g th tr uppy. Mo ry ch  crr

d tr from d
t t pr
g  d rrvo
r o g  prc
 grd
 t, u
g gr
v
ty o . Aftr th tr pd through th quduct,
t  coctd
t
k  d fd through p
p to pub
c fou t
, bth, to
t, or
dutr
 
t
.[280] Th m
quduct
th c
ty of Rom r th Aqu Cud
  d th Aqu
 Mrc
.[281] Th compx ytm bu
t to uppy Co t t
op hd
t mot d

t t uppy dr from ovr 120 km y o g  
uou rout of mor th 336
km.[282] Rom quduct r bu
t to rmrkby f
 tor c,  d to  tch
oog
c t drd tht  ot to b qud u t
 modr t
m.[283] Th Rom
 o md u of quduct
th
r xt 
v m

g oprt
o  cro th mp

r, t 
t uch  L Mdu  d Doucoth

South W.[284]
I utd gz
g
th. E
t hou

ht
g. Th Rom
of th much tr

(or "doub gz
g")  ud
th co truct
o of pub
c b

g
coor c
mt m
ght hv hypocut,  form of c tr
 r th f
rt cutur to mb   t
 compo  t
tm  g
, h Hro bu
t th o
p
.[285]

D
y 
f[d
t]
M
rt
c: Cutur of  c
 t Rom
C
tycp from th V
 Bocor (60 AD)
C
ty  d cou try[d
t]
I th  c
 t ord,  c
ty  v
d   pc tht fotrd c
v

zt
o by
b
g "propry d
g d, ordrd,  d dor d."[286] Augutu u drtook  vt
bu
d
g progrm
Rom, upportd pub
c d
py of rt tht xprd th

mpr

doogy,  d rorg
zd th c
ty
to 
ghbourhood (v
c
) dm


trd t th oc v 
th po
c  d f
rf
ght
g rv
c.[287] A focu of
Augut mo um t rch
tctur  th Cmpu Mrt
u,  op r out
d t
h c
ty c tr tht
ry t
m hd b dvotd to qutr
 port  d phy

c tr

g for youth. Th Atr of Augut Pc (Ar Pc
 Augut)  
octd thr,    ob
k
mportd from Egypt tht formd th po
tr (g o
mo ) of  horoog
um. W
th
t pub
c grd , th Cmpu bcm o  of th mot
ttrct
v pc
th c
ty to v

t.[288]
C
ty p
g  d urb 
fty hd b
fu cd by th Grk from  r
y pr
od,[289]  d
th tr Emp
r, Rom ru ccrtd  d hpd th
oc dvopm t of c
t
 tht rdy hd  tro g H
t
c chrctr. C

t
 uch  Ath , Aphrod

, Ephu  d Gr trd om pct of c
t
y p
g  d rch
tctur to co form to
mpr

d, h
 o xpr
g
th
r
d
v
du
d t
ty  d rg
o  prm
 c.[290] I th r of th 
tr Emp
r
hb
td by Ct
c-pk
g pop, Rom  courgd th dvopm
t of urb c tr 
th to  tmp, forum, mo um t fou t
,  d mph
t
htr, oft o or r th 
t of th prx
t
g d ttm t k o
 opp
d.[291] Urb
zt
o
Rom Afr
c xp dd o Grk  d Pu
c c
t

o g th cot.[250]
Aqu Su

Bth, E g d: rch
tctur ftur bov th v of th p

r b r  tr rco truct
o
Th tork of c
t
 throughout th Emp
r (coo
, mu
c
p
, c
v
tt or

Grk trm po
)   pr
mry coh
v forc dur
g th Px Rom .[292] R
om  of th 1t  d 2 d c tur
 AD r  courgd by
mpr
 propg d to
"
cuct th hb
t of pct
m".[293] A th c
c
t C
fford A do h o
td:
Mot of th cutur ppurt  c popury oc
td 
th
mpr
 cuturpub

c cut  d
t gm  d c
v
c b qut, compt
t
o  for rt
t, pkr, 
d tht,    th fu d
g of th grt mjor
ty of pub
c bu
d
g  d
pub
c d
py of rtr f
 cd by pr
vt
d
v
du, ho xp d
tur

th
 rgrd hpd to jut
fy th
r co om
c por  d g  d prov
c
 pr

v
g.[294]

Ev th Chr
t
 pom
c
t Trtu
 dcrd tht th ord of th t 2 d
c tury  mor ordry  d -cut
vtd th
r
r t
m: "Evryhr
thr r hou, vryhr pop, vryhr th r pub
c, th commo 
th, vryhr 
f."[295] Th dc
 of c
t
  d c
v
c 
f
th 4th c tu
ry, h th thy c r u b or d

c
d to upport pub
c ork,
 o  
g of th Emp
r'
mm
 t d
out
o .[296]
Pub
c to
t (tr
) from Ot
 A t
c
I th c
ty of Rom, mot pop 
vd
mut
tory prtm t bu
d
g (
u
) tht r oft qu
d f
rtrp. Pub
c fc

t
uch  bth (thrm), t
o
t tht r fuhd 
th ru
g tr (tr
), co v
 ty octd b

 or bort fou t
 ( ymph) d
vr
g frh tr,[297]  d rg-c
  trt
m t uch  chr
ot rc  d gd
tor combtr 
md pr
mr
y 
t th commo pop ho 
vd
th
u.[298] S
m
r fc

t
 r co t
ructd
c
t
 throughout th Emp
r,  d om of th bt-prrvd Rom tr
uctur r
Sp
, outhr Fr c,  d orthr Afr
c.
Th pub
c bth rvd hyg

c, oc
  d cutur fu ct
o .[299] Bth
g 
 th focu of d
y oc

z
g
th t ftr oo bfor d
r.[300] Rom
bth r d
t
gu
hd by  r
 of room tht offrd commu  bth
g

thr tmprtur, 
th vry
g m
t
 tht m
ght
cud  xrc
  d 

ght-tr

g room, u , xfo
t
o p (hr o
 r mgd
to th k

 d crpd from th body 
th  tr
g
), b court, or outdoor 
mm
g po
o.[301] Bth hd hypocut ht
g: th foor r up dd ovr hot-
r ch
 tht c
rcutd rmth.[302] M
xd ud bth
g  ot u uu
th r
y Emp
r, though om bth my hv offrd prt fc

t
 or hour for m
  d om . Pub
c bth r  prt of urb cutur throughout th prov
c
, but
th t 4th c tury,
d
v
du tub bg to rpc commu  bth
g
.[303] Chr
t
  r dv
d to go to th bth for hth  d c 
, o
t pur,[304] but to vo
d th gm (ud
), h
ch r prt of r
g
ou f
t
v thy co 
drd "pg ". Trtu
 y tht othr
 Chr
t
  ot o
y v
d thmv of th bth, but prt
c
ptd fuy
commrc  d oc

ty.[305]
Rco tructd pr
ty grd bd o th Hou of th Vtt


R
ch fm

 from Rom uuy hd to or mor hou,  to hou (domu, pur
 dom)  d t t o  uxury hom (v
) out
d th c
ty. Th domu   p
r
vty o d 
g-fm
y hou,  d m
ght b fur
hd 
th  pr
vt bth (
b um),[306] but
t  ot  pc to rtrt from pub
c 
f.[307] Athough
om 
ghbourhood of Rom ho  h
ghr co c trt
o of -to-do hou, t
h r
ch d
d ot 
v
grgtd  cv. Th
r hou r m t to b v

b
  d cc
b. Th tr
um rvd   rcpt
o h
h
ch th ptrfm


 (hd of houhod) mt 
th c
 t vry mor
g, from thy fr
 d to
poorr dp d t ho rc
vd chr
ty.[308] It  o  c tr of fm
y r

g
ou r
t, co t

g  hr
  d th
mg of fm
y  ctor.[309] Th ho
u r octd o buy pub
c rod,  d grou d-v pc fc
g th tr
t r oft r td out  hop (tbr ).[310] I dd
t
o to  k
tch grd

dobox m
ght ubt
tut
th
uto hou typ
cy  cod  pr

ty grd tht brought  trct of tur, md ordry, 
th
.[311]
B
rd  d fou t

th
 grd tt
g, 
th oc
 (h g
g mk)[312] b
ov,
 p
t
g from Pomp


Th v
 by co trt   cp from th but of th c
ty,  d

trtu
r rpr t  
fty tht b c th c
v

zd puru
t of
tctu 
d rt
t
c
trt (ot
um) 
th  pprc
t
o of tur  d th gr
cutur
cyc.[313] Idy  v
 comm dd  v
 or v
t, crfuy frmd by th

rch
tctur d
g .[314] It m
ght b octd o  ork
g tt, or
 "r

ort to " 
tutd o th cot, uch  Pomp

 d Hrcu um.
Th progrmm of urb r  u dr Augutu,  d th groth of Rom' poput

o to  m y  1 m

o pop,  ccomp
d by  otg
 for rur 
f
xprd
th rt. Potry pr
d th
d
zd 
v of frmr  d hph
rd. Th
tr
or of hou r oft dcortd 
th p
td grd , fou t

,  dcp, vgtt
v or m t,[314]  d 
m, pc
y b
rd  d mr

 
f, r drd ccurty  ough tht modr chor c omt
m
d t
fy t
hm by pc
.[315] Th Augut pot Horc g ty t
r
zd th d
chotomy of
urb  d rur vu
h
 fb of th c
ty mou  d th cou try mou, h

ch h oft b rtod   ch
dr ' tory.[316]
O  mor prct
c v, th c tr govr m t took  ct
v
trt
up
port
g gr
cutur.[317] Produc
g food  th top pr
or
ty of  d u.[318]
Lrgr frm (t
fu d
) ch
vd  co omy of c tht ut
d urb 
f
 d
t mor pc

zd d
v

o of bour.[317] Sm frmr b f
td from
th dvopm t of oc mrkt
to   d trd c tr. Agr
cutur tch

qu uch  crop rott
o  d ct
v brd
g r d
m
td throughout t
h Emp
r,  d  crop r
troducd from o  prov
c to  othr, uch  p
  d cbbg to Br
t
.[319]
M
t

g  ffordb food uppy to th c
ty of Rom hd bcom  mjor po

t
c
u
th t Rpub
c, h th tt bg to prov
d  gr
do
( o ) to c
t
z  ho rg
trd for
t.[317] About 200,000250,000 dut m

Rom rc
vd th do, mou t
g to bout 33 kg. pr mo th, for  pr  um
tot of bout 100,000 to  of ht pr
mr
y from S
c
y, orth Afr
c,  d E
gypt.[320] Th do cot t t 15 prc t of tt rv u,[317] but
mprov
d 
v
g co d
t
o   d fm
y 
f mo g th or c,[321]  d ub
d
zd
th r
ch by o
g orkr to p d mor of th
r r
g o th 
  d o

v o
 producd o th tt of th  do
g c.[317]
Brd t, from  Pomp

  p
t
g
Th gr
do o hd ymbo
c vu:
t ff
rmd both th mpror' po
t
o
 u
vr b fctor,  d th r
ght of  c
t
z  to hr
"th fru
t o
f co qut".[317] Th  o , pub
c fc

t
,  d pctcur  trt
m t
m
t
gtd th othr
 drry 
v
g co d
t
o  of or-c Rom ,  d kpt
oc
 u rt
chck. Th t
r
t Juv , hovr,  "brd  d c
rcu"
(p m t c
rc )  mbmt
c of th o of rpub
c po
t
c 
brty:
[322]
Th pub
c h o g 
c ct off
t cr: th pop tht o c btod comm
 d, co uh
p, g
o   d  , o mdd o mor  d o g gry f
or jut to th
g: brd  d c
rcu.[323]
Food  d d

g[d
t]
M
rt
c: Food  d d

g
th Rom Emp
r
S o: Gr
uppy to th c
ty of Rom  d A c
 t Rom  d 

Mot prtm t
Rom ckd k
tch , though  chrco brz
r coud b ud
for rud
m try cookry.[324] Prprd food  od t pub  d br,
, 
d food t (tbr , cupo , pop
, thrmopo
).[325] Crryout  d rt
ur t d

g r for th or c; f
 d

g coud b ought o y t pr

vt d
r prt

-to-do hou 
th  chf (rch
mg
ru)  d tr
d
k
tch tff,[326] or t b qut hotd by oc
 cub (cog
).[327]
Mot pop oud hv co umd t t 70 prc t of th
r d
y cor

t
h form of cr  d gum.[328] Pu (pottg)  co 
drd th bor
g

 food of th Rom .[329] Th b
c gr
pottg coud b bortd 
th chop
pd vgtb, b
t of mt, ch, or hrb to produc d
h 
m
r to po

t or r
otto.[330]
A Ot
 tbr  for t
g  d dr
k
g; th fdd p
t
g ovr th cou tr p

cturd gg, o
v, fru
t  d rd
h[331]
Urb poput
o   d th m

try prfrrd to co um th
r gr

th form
of brd.[332] M
  d commrc
 ov  r uuy comb
d
 bkry comp
x.[333] By th r
g of Aur
 , th tt hd bgu to d
tr
but th  o 
  d
y rt
o of brd bkd
tt fctor
,  d ddd o
v o
, 
,
 d pork to th do.[334]
Th
mport c of  good d
t to hth  rcog
zd by md
c r
tr uch 
 G (2 d c tury AD), ho trt

cudd o  O Bry Soup. V
 o
utr
t
o r
fu cd by choo of thought uch  humor thory.[335]
Rom 
trtur focu o th d

g hb
t of th uppr c,[336] for ho
m th v
g m (c ) hd
mport t oc
 fu ct
o .[337] Gut r  tr
t
d
 f
y dcortd d

g room (tr
c

um), oft 
th  v
 of th
pr
ty grd . D
r ou gd o couch, 
g o th ft bo. By th 
t Rpub
c,
f ot r
r, om d
d, rc
d,  d dr k 
 o g 
th m
 .[338]
Th mot fmou dcr
pt
o of  Rom m
 probby Tr
mch
o' d
r prt
y
th Styr
co ,  f
ct
o  xtrvg z tht br 
tt rmb c to r

ty v mo g th mot thy.[339] Th pot Mrt
 dcr
b rv
g  mor
 pu
b d
r, bg

g 
th th gutt
o ("tt
g" or "ppt
zr"), h
c
h   compod d of mo v, ttuc, choppd k, m
t, rugu,
mckr gr
hd 
th ru, 
cd gg,  d mr
td o uddr. Th m
cour
  uccu t cut of k
d, b , gr ,  ch
ck ,  d ftovr hm, foo
d by  drt of frh fru
t  d v
tg 
.[340] Th Lt
xpr
o for 
fu-cour d
r  b ovo uqu m, "from th gg to th pp," qu
v
 t to th E g
h "from oup to ut."[341]
St
 
f o  2 d-c tury mo
c
A book- gth coct
o of Rom rc
p
 ttr
butd to Ap
c
u,  m for 
vr f
gur
 t
qu
ty tht bcm y o ymou 
th "gourmt."[342] Rom "f
ood
"
dugd

d gm, fo uch  pcock  d fm
go, rg f
h (mu
t  pc
y pr
zd),  d hf
h. Luxury
grd
 t r brought by t
h ft from th fr rch of mp
r, from th Prth
 fro t
r to th Str

t of G
brtr.[343]
Rf
d cu

 coud b mor
zd   
g of 
thr c
v

zd progr or dc
d t dc
.[344] Th ry Impr
 h
tor
 Tc
tu co trtd th
dug
t uxur
 of th Rom tb
h
 dy 
th th 
mp
c
ty of th Grm
c d

t of frh 
d mt, forgd fru
t,  d ch, u dutrtd by
mportd o

g  d bort uc.[345] Mot oft , bcu of th
mport c of  do

g
Rom cutur, produccr, gum, vgtb,  d fru
t co 
dr
d  mor c
v

zd form of food th mt. Th Md
trr  tp of brd, 

,  d o
 r cr
zd by Rom Chr
t

ty, h
 Grm
c mt co umpt

o bcm  mrk of pg
m,[346] 
t m
ght b th product of 
m cr
f

c.
Som ph
oophr  d Chr
t
  r
td th dm d of th body  d th pu
r of food,  d doptd ft
g  
d.[347] Food bcm 
mpr
g r
  urb 
f
th Wt d
m

hd, trd rout r d
ruptd,[348]  d th
 r
ch rtrtd to th mor 
m
td f-uff
c
 cy of th
r cou try tt.[
349] A  urb 
fty cm to b oc
td 
th dcd c, th Church form
y d
courgd gutto y,[349]  d hu t
g  d ptor
m r   
mp,
v
rtuou y of 
f.[350]

Rcrt
o  d pctc[d
t]
S o: Lud
, Chr
ot rc
g  d Gd
tor
W p
t
g dp
ct
g  port r
ot t th mph
thtr of Pomp

, h
ch d
to th b
g of gd
tor combt
th to [351]
Wh Juv  comp
d tht th Rom pop hd xch gd th
r po
t
c 
b
rty for "brd  d c
rcu", h  rfrr
g to th tt-prov
dd gr
do
 d th c
rc , v t hd
th  trt
m t v u cd  c
rcu
Lt

. Th rgt uch v u
Rom  th C
rcu Mx
mu, th tt
g of hor
rc, chr
ot rc, th qutr
 Troy Gm, tgd bt hu t (v t
o ),
tht
c co tt, gd
tor combt,  d h
tor
c r- ctm t. From r

t t
m, vr r
g
ou ft
v hd fturd gm (ud
), pr
mr
y hor
 d chr
ot rc (ud
c
rc ).[352] Athough th
r  trt
m t vu t d
d to ovrhdo r
tu 
g
f
c c, th rc rm
d prt of rch
c r
g
o
u obrv c tht prt
d to gr
cutur,

t
t
o ,  d th cyc of b
rth
 d dth.[353]
U dr Augutu, pub
c  trt
m t r pr td o 77 dy of th yr; by
th r
g of Mrcu Aur
u, th umbr of dy hd xp dd to 135.[354] C
rcu
 gm r prcdd by  bort prd (pomp c
rc 
) tht  dd t th
v u.[355] Compt
t
v v t r hd o
mr v u uch  th mp
h
thtr, h
ch bcm th chrctr
t
c Rom pctc v u,  d td
um. G
rk-ty tht
c
cudd footrc, box
g, rt
g,  d th p crt
um.[
356] Aqut
c d
py, uch  th mock  btt ( umch
)  d  form of "
tr bt", r pr td
 g
rd poo.[357] Stt-upportd thtr
c
v t (ud
c
c
) took pc o tmp tp or
gr d to  thtr, o
r
th mr  cod thtr cd  odum.[358]
A v
ctor
h
 four-hor chr
ot
C
rcu r th rgt tructur rgury bu
t
th Rom ord,[359] tho
ugh th Grk hd th
r o rch
tctur trd
t
o  for th 
m
ry purpod
h
ppodrom. Th Fv
 Amph
thtr, bttr k o  th Cooum, bcm th
rgur r  for bood port
Rom ftr
t op d
80 AD.[360] Th c
rcu
 rc co t
ud to b hd mor frqu ty.[361] Th C
rcu Mx
mu coud t
rou d 150,000 pcttor,  d th Cooum bout 50,000 
th t d
g room fo
r bout 10,000 mor.[362] M y Rom mph
thtr, c
rcu  d thtr bu
t

c
t
 out
d Ity r v

b  ru
 tody.[363] Th oc ru
g 
t
r rpo 
b for po or
g pctc  d r  v t, h
ch both  h cd
th
r ttu  d dr
d th
r rourc.[364]
Th phy
c rr gm t of th mph
thtr rpr td th ordr of Rom oc

ty: th mpror pr
d
g
h
 opu t box;  tor  d qutr
  tch
g
from th dv tgou t rrvd for thm; om td t  rmov from th
 ct
o ; v g
v th ort pc,  d vrybody  pckd
-bt .[3
65] Th crod coud c for  outcom by boo
g or chr
g, but th mpror h
d th f
 y. Spctc coud qu
cky bcom 
t of oc
  d po
t
c
prott,  d mpror omt
m hd to dpoy forc to put do crod u rt, mo
t otor
ouy t th N
k r
ot
th yr 532, h troop u dr Jut

 
ughtrd thou d.[366]
Th Z
t mo
c, from  d

g room
pr t-dy L
by, dp
ct  r
 of
r  c : from top, mu
c
  py
g  Rom tub,  tr p
p org  d t
o hor ; 
x p
r of gd
tor 
th to rfr; four bt f
ghtr;  d th
r co v
ct co dm d to th bt[367]
Th chr
ot tm r k o by th coour thy or, 
th th Bu  d Gr 
th mot popur. F oyty  f
rc  d t t
m ruptd
to port r
ot

.[368] Rc
g  pr
ou, but chr
otr r mo g th mot cbrtd  d 
-comp td tht.[369] O  tr of th port  D
oc, from Lu
t

(pr t-dy Portug), ho rcd chr
ot for 24 yr  d hd crr r
g
of 35 m

o trc.[370] Hor hd th
r f  too,  d r commmortd

rt  d
cr
pt
o , omt
m by m.[371] Th d
g of Rom c
rcu 
 dvopd to ur tht o tm hd  u f
r dv tg  d to m

m
z co


o  ( ufrg
, "h
prck"),[372] h
ch r o th frqu t  d pct
cury t
fy
g to th crod.[373] Th rc rt
d  mg
c ur through
th
r ry oc
t
o 
th chtho
c r
tu: c
rcu
mg r co 
drd pro
tct
v or ucky, cur tbt hv b fou d bur
d t th 
t of rctrck
,  d chr
otr r oft upctd of orcry.[374] Chr
ot rc
g co t
ud

to th Byz t
 pr
od u dr
mpr
 po orh
p, but th dc
 of c
t


th 6th  d 7th c tur
 d to
t v tu dm
.[375]
Th Rom  thought gd
tor co tt hd or
g
td 
th fu r gm  d cr

f
c
h
ch ct cpt
v rr
or r forcd to f
ght to xp
t th dt
h of ob Rom . Som of th r
t ty of gd
tor f
ght
g hd th
c
d
g t
o  uch  "Thrc
 " or "G
c".[376] Th tgd combt r co 

drd mu r, "rv
c, offr
g, b fct
o ",

t
y d
t
ct from th f
/rf>
Throughout h
 40-yr r
g , Augutu pr td 
ght gd
tor ho
h
ch
 tot of 10,000 m fought,    26 tgd bt hu t tht rutd

th dth of 3,500 
m.[377] To mrk th op
g of th Cooum, th mp
ror T
tu pr td 100 dy of r  v t, 
th 3,000 gd
tor compt
g o
 
g dy.[378] Rom fc
t
o 
th gd
tor

d
ctd by ho 
dy
thy r dp
ctd o mo
c,  p
t
g, mp,  d v grff
t
dr
g
.[379]
Gd
tor r tr
d combt t ho m
ght b v, co v
ct, or fr vou t
r.[380] Dth  ot  cry or v d
rb outcom
mtch bt
th h
ghy k
d f
ghtr, ho tr

g rpr td  coty  d t
m-co
um
g
vtm t.[381] By co trt, ox

r co v
ct  t cd to th r 

th 
tt or o tr

g, oft u rmd,  d 
th o xpctt
o of urv
v.
Phy
c uffr
g  d hum

t
o r co 
drd ppropr
t rtr
but
v jut

c for th cr
m thy hd comm
ttd.[382] Th xcut
o  r omt
m tg
d or r
tu
zd  r- ctm t of myth,  d mph
thtr r qu
ppd 
th
bort tg mch
ry to crt pc
 ffct.[383] Trtu
 co 
drd
dth
th r  to b oth
g mor th  drd-up form of hum cr
f
c
.[384]
Modr chor hv fou d th pur Rom  took
th "thtr of 
f  d
dth"[385] to b o  of th mor d
ff
cut pct of th
r c
v

zt
o to u d
rt d  d xp
.[386] Th you gr P
y rt
o 
zd gd
tor pctc 
good for th pop,  y "to
p
r thm to fc ho ourb ou d  d dp

 dth, by xh
b
t
g ov of gory  d d
r for v
ctory v
th bod

of v  d cr
m
".[387] Som Rom  uch  S c r cr
t
c of th b
rut pctc, but fou d v
rtu
th courg  d d
g
ty of th dftd f

ghtr rthr th
v
ctory[388] tt
tud tht f
d
t fut xpr
o 

th th Chr
t
  mrtyrd
th r . Ev mrtyr 
trtur, hovr, offr
"dt
d,
dd uxur
 t, dcr
pt
o  of bod
y uffr
g",[389]  d bcm
 popur g r t t
m
d
t
gu
hb from f
ct
o .[390]
Pro  tr

g  d py[d
t]
Boy  d g
r py
g b gm (2 d c tury r
f from th Louvr)
I th pur, ud
mot y rfr to th rg-c pcttor gm. Th

gur udu, "py, gm, port, tr

g," hd  
d r g of m
g uc
h  "ord py," "thtr
c prform c," "bord gm," "pr
mry choo,"  d
v "gd
tor tr

g choo" (
Ludu Mg u, th rgt uch tr

g

cmp t Rom).[391]
Act
v
t
 for ch
dr  d you g pop
cudd hoop ro
g  d k uckbo 
(trg
or "jck"). Th rcophg
of ch
dr oft ho thm py
g gm
. G
r hd do, typ
cy 1516 cm t 
th jo
td 
mb, md of mtr
 
uch  ood, trrcott,  d pc
y bo   d
vory.[392] B gm
cud
tr
go , h
ch rqu
rd dxtr
ty,  d hrptum,  roughr port.[393] Pt pp
r oft o ch
dr ' mmor
  d

trtur,
cud
g b
rd, dog, ct,
got, hp, rbb
t  d g.[394]
So-cd "b
k

g
r" mo
c from th V
 d C, S
c
y
Aftr doc c, mot phy
c tr

g for m  of  m

try tur. Th
 Cmpu Mrt
u or
g
y   xrc
 f
d hr you g m dvopd th
k
 of horm h
p  d rfr. Hu t
g  o co 
drd  ppropr
t p
t
m. Accord
g to Putrch, co rvt
v Rom  d
pprovd of Grk-ty t
ht
c tht promotd  f
 body for
t o k,  d co dm d Nro' ffort
to  courg gym t
c gm
th Grk m r.[395]
Som om tr
d  gym t  d d cr,  d  rr f  fm gd
tor.
Th fmou "b
k

g
r" mo
c ho you g om  gg
g
pprtu rout

 tht m
ght b comprd to rhythm
c gym t
c.[396] Wom
g r r  c
ourgd to m
t
th
r hth through ct
v
t
 uch  py
g b, 
mm

g, k
g, rd
g oud (  brth
g xrc
), r
d
g
vh
c,  d tr
v.[397]
Sto  gm bord from Aphrod

: bord coud o b md of ood, 
th dux
 vr
o 
coty mtr
 uch 
vory; gm p
c or cou tr r bo ,
g, or po
hd to ,  d m
ght b coourd or hv mrk
g or
mg[398]
Pop of  g pyd bord gm p
tt
g to pyr g
t ch othr,

cud
g tru cu
("R
dr"),  gm of trtgy
h
ch oppo  t coord
t
d th movm t  d cptur of mut
p gm p
c,  d XII cr
pt ("Tv M
rk"),
vov
g d
c  d rr g
g p
c o  gr
d of ttr or ord.[399] A
gm rfrrd to   (d
c) or tbu (th bord), to h
ch th mpror C
ud
u  otor
ouy dd
ctd, my hv b 
m
r to bckgmmo , u
g  d
c
-cup (pyrgu).[400] Py
g 
th d
c   form of gmb
g  d
pprovd of,
but   popur pt
m dur
g th Dcmbr ft
v of th Stur 
 
th

t cr
v, orm-ovrtur d tmophr.
Coth
g[d
t]
M
rt
c: Coth
g
 c
 t Rom
I  ttu-co c
ou oc
ty 
k tht of th Rom , coth
g  d pro  do
r m t gv
mmd
t v
u cu bout th t
qutt of
trct
g 
th th 
rr.[401] Wr
g th corrct coth
g  uppod to rfct  oc
ty
go
od ordr.[402] Th tog  th d
t
ct
v t
o  grm t of th Rom m c

t
z , but
t  hvy  d
mprct
c, or m
y for co duct
g po
t
c b
u
  d r
g
ou r
t,  d for go
g to court.[403] Co trry to popur p
rcpt
o , th coth
g Rom  or ord
r
y  drk or coourfu,  d th mo
t commo m tt
r  d
y throughout th prov
c oud hv b tu
c,
cok,  d
om rg
o  trour.[404] Th tudy of ho Rom  drd
d

y 
f
 comp
ctd by  ck of d
rct v
d c, 
c portr
tur my ho
 th ubjct
coth
g 
th ymbo
c vu,  d urv
v
g txt
 from th p
r
od r rr.[405]
Wom from th  p
t
g t th V
 of th Mytr
, Pomp


Th b
c grm t for  Rom , rgrd of g dr or th,  th 
mp
vd tu
c. Th  gth d
ffrd by rr:  m ' rchd m
d-cf, but  
od
r'  omht hortr;  om ' f to hr ft,  d  ch
d' to
t

k .[406] Th tu
c of poor pop  d bour
g v r md from cor
oo

tur, du hd, 
th th  gth dtrm
d by th typ of ork th
y d
d. F
r tu
c r md of 
ght
ght oo or 
 . A m ho bo gd
to th  tor
 or qutr
 ordr or  tu
c 
th to purp tr
p (cv

) ov vrt
cy
to th fbr
c: th 
dr th tr
p, th h
ghr th rr
' ttu.[406] Othr grm t coud b yrd ovr th tu
c.
Th Impr
 tog   "vt xp " of m
-c
rcur h
t oo tht coud o
t b put o  d drpd corrcty 
thout 
t c.[407] I h
 ork o ortory
, Qu
t

 dcr
b
dt
 ho th pub
c pkr ought to orchtrt h

gtur
rt
o to h
 tog.[408] I rt, th tog
 ho 
th th o g
 d d
pp
g bt th ft,  dp curvd fod
fro t,  d  bubou fp t
th m
dct
o .[409] Th drpry bcm mor
tr
ct  d tructurd ovr t
m
, 
th th coth form
g  t
ght ro cro th cht
tr pr
od.[410] Th
 tog prtxt, 
th  purp or purp
h-rd tr
p rpr t
g
v
ob

t
y,  or by ch
dr ho hd ot com of g, curu mg
trt,  d tt p
r
t.[411] O y th mpror coud r  -purp tog (tog p
ct).[412]
Cud
u r
g  ry Impr
 tog (  tr, mor tructurd tog bov
),  d th p
um  or by  pr
t of Srp
,[413] omt
m
d t
f
d 
th mpror Ju

I th 2 d c tury, mpror  d m of ttu r oft portryd r
g th p

um,  or
g
y Grk m t (h
mt
o ) fodd t
ghty rou d th body. Wo
m r o portryd
th p
um. Trtu
 co 
drd th p
um  ppr
opr
t grm t both for Chr
t
 ,
co trt to th tog,  d for ductd p
op, 
c
t  oc
td 
th ph
oophr.[414] By th 4th c tury, th t
og hd b mor or  rpcd by th p
um   grm t tht mbod
d oc

 u
ty.[415]
Rom coth
g ty ch gd ovr t
m, though ot  rp
dy  fh
o  tody
.[416] I th Dom
t, coth
g or by both od
r  d govr m t burucrt
 bcm h
ghy dcortd, 
th ov or mbro
drd tr
p (cv
)  d c
rcu
r rou d (orb
cu
) pp
d to tu
c  d cok. Th dcort
v m t co

td of gomtr
c pttr , ty
d p t mot
f,  d
mor bort x
mp, hum or 
m f
gur.[417] Th u of 
k
crd,  d court
r o
f th tr Emp
r or bort 
k rob. Th m

tr
zt
o of Rom oc
t
y,  d th 
g of cutur 
f bd o urb
d, ffctd hb
t of dr
: hvy m

try-ty bt r or by burucrt    od
r,  d
th tog  b do d.[418]
Th rt[d
t]
M
rt
c: Rom rt
Th Wdd
g of Zphyru  d Chor
 (5468 AD, Pomp
 Fourth Sty) 
th
p
t
d rch
tctur p  from th C d Nv
g
o
Pop v

t
g or 
v
g
Rom or th c
t
 throughout th Emp
r oud hv
 rt
 r g of ty  d md
 o  d
y b
. Pub
c or off
c
 r
t
cud
g cuptur, mo um t uch  v
ctory coum  or tr
umph rch,  d
th
co ogrphy o co

 oft  yd for
t h
tor
c 
g
f
c c or  
xpr
o of
mpr

doogy.[419] At Impr
 pub
c bth,  pro of hu
mb m  coud v
  p
t
g, mo
c, ttu,  d
tr
or dcort
o
oft of h
gh qu
ty.[420] I th pr
vt phr, objct md for r
g
ou d
d
ct
o , fu rry commmort
o , domt
c u,  d commrc c ho vry
g d
gr of tht
c qu
ty  d rt
t
c k
.[421] A thy pro m
ght dv
rt
 h
 pprc
t
o of cutur through p
t
g, cuptur,  d dcort
v r
t t h
 homthough om ffort tr
k modr v
r  d om  c
 t co o

ur  tr uou rthr th ttfu.[422] Grk rt hd  profou d
fu c
o th Rom trd
t
o ,  d om of th mot fmou xmp of Grk ttu r
 k o o y from Rom Impr
 vr
o   d th occ
o  dcr
pt
o
 Gr

k or Lt

trry ourc.[423]

Dp
t th h
gh vu pcd o ork of rt, v fmou rt
t r of o 
oc
 ttu mo g th Grk  d Rom , ho rgrdd rt
t, rt
 ,  d cr
ftm 
k  m u bourr. At th m t
m, th v of k
 rqu
rd
to produc qu
ty ork  rcog
zd,  d v co 
drd  d
v
 g
ft.[424]
Portr
tur[d
t]
M
rt
c: Rom

portr
tur

To portr
t c
rc 130 AD: th mpr V
b
 Sb
 (ft);  d th A t
ou Mo
drgo , o  of th bu d t 
k  of Hdr
 ' fmouy but
fu m co
mp
o A t
ou
Portr
tur, h
ch urv
v m
y
th md
um of cuptur,  th mot cop

ou form of
mpr
 rt. Portr
t dur
g th Augut pr
od ut

z youthfu
 d c
c proport
o , vov
g tr
to  m
xtur of r
m  d
d
m
.[425] Rpub
c portr
t hd b chrctr
zd by  "rt  d " vr
m,
but  ry  th 2 d c tury BC, th Grk co v t
o of hro
c ud
ty  d
optd omt
m for portry
g co qur
g g r.[426] Impr
 portr
t cup
tur my mod th hd  mtur, v crggy, top  ud or m
ud body th
t
 mooth  d youthfu 
th prfct mucutur;  portr
t hd m
ght v b
 ddd to  body crtd for  othr purpo.[427] Cothd
th tog or m

t
ry rg
, th body commu
ct r k or phr of ct
v
ty, ot th chrctr

t
c of th
d
v
du.[428]
Wom of th mpror' fm
y r oft dp
ctd drd  godd or d
v

pro
f
ct
o  uch  Px ("Pc"). Portr
tur
p
t
g
 rpr td
pr
mr
y by th Fyum mummy portr
t, h
ch vok Egypt
  d Rom trd
t
o
 of commmort
g th dd 
th th r
t
c p
t
g tch
qu of th Emp
r
. Mrb portr
t cuptur oud hv b p
td,  d h
 trc of p
t h
v o y rry urv
vd th c tur
, th Fyum portr
t
d
ct hy  c
 t

trry ourc mrvd t ho 
f
k rt
t
c rpr tt
o  coud b.[4
29]
Th bro z Dru k Styr, xcvtd t Hrcu um  d xh
b
td
th 18th c
tury,
p
rd 
trt mo g tr cuptor

m
r "crfr" ubjct[
430]
Scuptur[d
t]
M
rt
c: Rom cuptur
Exmp of Rom cuptur urv
v bu d ty, though oft
dmgd or frgm
 try co d
t
o ,
cud
g frt d
g ttu  d ttutt
mrb, bro z
  d trrcott,  d r
f from pub
c bu
d
g, tmp,  d mo um t uch
 th Ar Pc
, Trj ' Coum ,  d th Arch of T
tu. N
ch
mph
thtr
 uch  th Cooum r or
g
y f
d 
th ttu,[431]  d o form
grd  compt 
thout ttury.[432]
Tmp houd th cut
mg of d
t
, oft by fmd cuptor.[433] Th r

g
o
ty of th Rom   courgd th product
o of dcortd tr, m rp
r tt
o  of d
t
 for th houhod hr
 or vot
v offr
g,  d othr
p
c for dd
ct
g t tmp. D
v
  d mythoog
c f
gur r o g
v
cur, humorou,  d v obc  dp
ct
o .[c
tt
o dd]
O th Ludov

rcophgu,  xmp of th btt c  fvourd dur
g th
Cr

 of th Th
rd C tury, th "r
th
g  d h
ghy mot
v" Rom   d Goth
f
 th urfc
 pckd,  t
-c
c compo
t
o [434]
Srcophg
[d
t]
M
rt
c: A c
 t Rom rcophg

Eborty crvd mrb  d 
mto  rcophg
r chrctr
t
c of th 2 d

to th 4th c tur
[435] 
th t t 10,000 xmp urv
v
g.[436] Athoug
h mythoog
c c  hv b mot 
dy tud
d,[437] rcophgu r
f h
b cd th "r
cht 
g ourc of Rom
co ogrphy,"[438]  d my o
dp
ct th dcd' occupt
o or 
f cour, m

try c ,  d othr ub
jct mttr. Th m orkhop producd rcophg

th J
h or Chr
t

m
gry.[439]
Th Pr
mvr of Stb
, prhp th godd For
P
t
g[d
t]
Much of ht
 k o of Rom p
t
g
 bd o th
tr
or dcort
o of p
r
vt hom, prt
cury  prrvd t Pomp

 d Hrcu um by th rupt

o of Vuv
u
79 AD. I dd
t
o to dcort
v bordr  d p  
th gom
tr
c or vgtt
v mot
f,  p
t
g dp
ct c  from mythoogy  d th t
htr,  dcp  d grd , rcrt
o  d pctc, ork  d vrydy 
f
,  d fr k por ogrphy. B
rd, 
m,  d mr
 
f r oft dp
ctd 
t
h crfu tt t
o to r
t
c dt
.[c
tt
o dd]
A u
qu ourc for J
h f
gurt
v p
t
g u dr th Emp
r
 th Dur-Euro
po y gogu, dubbd "th Pomp

of th Syr
 Drt,"[440] bur
d  d prr
vd
th m
d-3rd c tury ftr th c
ty  dtroyd by Pr
 .[441]
Mo
c[d
t]
M
rt
c: Rom

mo
c

Th Tr
umph of Nptu  foor mo
c from Afr
c Proco ur
 (pr t-dy Tu


), cbrt
g gr
cutur ucc 
th gor
 of th So , vgtt
o
, orkr  d 
m v
b from mut
p prpct
v
th room (ttr 2
d c tury)[442]
Mo
c r mo g th mot  dur
g of Rom dcort
v rt,  d r fou d o t
h urfc of foor  d othr rch
tctur ftur uch  , vutd c


g,  d coum . Th mot commo form
 th ttd mo
c, formd from
u
form p
c (tr) of mtr
 uch  to   d g.[443] Mo
c 
r uuy crftd o 
t, but omt
m mbd  d h
ppd  rdy-md p
. A mo
c orkhop  d by th mtr rt
t (p
ctor) ho orkd 
th t
o grd of 
t t.[444]
F
gurt
v mo
c hr m y thm 
th p
t
g,  d
om c portry u
bjct mttr
mot
d t
c compo
t
o . Athough gomtr
c pttr   d m
ythoog
c c  occur throughout th Emp
r, rg
o  prfr c o f
d 
xpr
o . I North Afr
c,  prt
cury r
ch ourc of mo
c, homo r of
t cho c  of 
f o th
r tt, hu t
g, gr
cutur,  d oc 
d

f.[442] P t
fu  d mjor xmp of Rom mo
c com o from pr t-d
y Turky, Ity, outhr Fr c, Sp
,  d Portug. Mor th 300 A t
och mo

c from th 3rd c tury r k o .[c
tt
o dd]
Opu ct

  rtd tch
qu
h
ch ft to , uuy coourd mrb
,
 cut prc
y
to hp from h
ch gomtr
c or f
gurt
v pttr  r f
ormd. Th
 mor d
ff
cut tch
qu  h
ghy pr
zd,  d bcm pc
y po
pur for uxury urfc
th 4th c tury,  bu d t xmp of h
ch
 th
 B

c of Ju
u Bu.[445]
Dcort
v rt[d
t]
S o: A c
 t Rom pottry  d Rom g
Dcort
v rt for uxury co umr
cudd f
 pottry, 
vr  d bro z v
  d
mpm t,  d gr. Th m ufctur of pottry
 
d r g
of qu
ty 
mport t to trd  d mpoym t,  r th g  d mtor
k
g
dutr
. Import t
mutd  rg
o  c tr of product
o . Southr
Gu bcm  d
g producr of th f
r rd-go pottry (trr 
g
t)

tht   mjor
tm of trd
1t-c tury Europ.[446] Gbo
g  rg
rdd by th Rom   or
g
t
g
Syr

th 1t c tury BC,  d by th 3r
d c tury Egypt  d th Rh
 d hd bcom otd for f
 g.[447]
S
vr cup, from th Bocor trur (ry 1t c tury AD)
F
gur bro z o
 mp from Nov Zgor
Rom -r Bugr
 (1t2 d c tury)
F
y dcortd Go-Rom trr 
g
t bo
God rr
g 
th gmto , 3rd c tury
G cg cup from th Rh
 d, ttr 4th c tury
Prform
g rt[d
t]
M
rt
c: Thtr of  c
 t Rom  d Mu
c of  c
 t Rom
I Rom trd
t
o , borrod from th Grk, 
trry thtr  prformd by
-m troup tht ud fc mk 
th xggrtd fc
 xpr
o  tht 
od ud
 c to "" ho  chrctr  f
g. Such mk r occ
o 
y o pc
f
c to  prt
cur ro,  d  ctor coud th py mut
p ro
 mry by 
tch
g mk. Fm ro r pyd by m
drg (trvt

). Rom 
trry thtr trd
t
o
 prt
cury  rpr td
Lt


trtur by th trgd
 of S c. Th c
rcumt c u dr h
ch S c' trg
d
 r prformd r hovr u cr; chory co jctur r g from m

m
y tgd rd
g to fu product
o pg t. Mor popur th 
trry th
tr  th g r-dfy
g m
mu thtr, h
ch fturd cr
ptd c r
o 
th
fr
mprov
t
o , r
qu  gug  d jok, x c , ct
o qu c,  d
po
t
c t
r, o g 
th d c umbr, jugg
g, crobt
c, t
ghtrop k

g, tr
pt,  d d c
g br.[448] U 
k 
trry thtr, m
mu  py
d 
thout mk,  d  courgd ty
t
c r
m
ct
g. Fm ro r
prformd by om , ot by m .[449] M
mu  rtd to th g r cd p to
m
mu,  ry form of tory bt tht co t
d o pok d
ogu. P tom
m
u comb
d xpr
v d c
g,
trum t mu
c  d  u g 
brtto, oft my
thoog
c, tht coud b 
thr trg
c or com
c.[450]
A-m thtr
c troup prpr
g for  mkd prform c, o  mo
c from
th Hou of th Trg
c Pot
Athough omt
m rgrdd  for
g m t
Rom cutur, mu
c  d d c
 hd x
td
Rom from r
t t
m.[451] Mu
c  cutomry t fu r,
 d th t
b
 (Grk uo),  ood
d
trum t,  pyd t cr
f
c to
rd off

fu c.[452] So g (crm )  
tgr prt of mot vr
y oc
 occ
o .[453] Th Scur Od of Horc, comm

o d by Augutu, 
prformd pub
cy
17 BC by  m
xd ch
dr ' cho
r. Mu
c  thought to r
fct th ordr
 of th como,  d  oc
td prt
cury 
th mth
mt
c  d k odg.[454]
Vr
ou ood
d  d "br"
trum t r pyd,  r tr
gd
trum
t uch  th c
thr,  d prcu
o .[455] Th cor u,  o g tubur mt 

d
trum t tht curvd rou d th mu
c
 ' body,  ud for m

try 
g
  d o prd.[456] Th
trum t r fou d
prt of th Emp
r hr
thy d
d ot or
g
t,  d
d
ct tht mu
c  mo g th pct of Rom
cutur tht prd throughout th prov
c. I trum t r 
dy dp
ctd

Rom rt.[c
tt
o dd]
Th hydru
c p
p org

(hydru
)  "o  of th mot 
g
f
c t tch
c

 d mu
c ch
vm t of  t
qu
ty",[457]  d ccomp
d gd
tor gm  d

v t
th mph
thtr,    tg prform c. It  mo g th

trum t tht th mpror Nro pyd.[457]
Athough crt
form of d c r d
pprovd of t t
m  o -Rom or u m
 y, d c
g  mbddd
r
g
ou r
tu of rch
c Rom, uch  tho o
f th d c
g rmd S
 pr
t  d of th Arv Brothr, pr
thood h
ch
u dr t  rv
v dur
g th Pr
c
pt.[458] Ectt
c d c
g   ftur o
f th
tr t
o  mytry r
g
o , prt
cury th cut of Cyb  prct

d by hr u uch pr
t th G
[459]  d of I
. I th cur rm, d c

g g
r from Syr
  d Cd
z r xtrmy popur.[460]
L
k gd
tor,  trt
r r
fm
th y of th , 
tt bttr
th v v
f thy r tch
cy fr. "Str", hovr, coud  joy c
o 
drb th  d cbr
ty,  d m
gd oc
y  d oft xuy 
th t
h uppr c,
cud
g mpror.[461] Prformr upportd ch othr by fo
rm
g gu
d,  d vr mmor
 for mmbr of th thtr commu
ty urv
v
.[462] Thtr  d d c r oft co dm d by Chr
t
 pom
c
t
th 
tr Emp
r,[463]  d Chr
t
  ho
tgrtd d c trd
t
o   d mu
c
to t
h
r orh
p prct
c r rgrdd by th Church Fthr  hock
gy "pg .
"[464] St. Augut

 uppod to hv 
d tht br
g
g co , ctor,  d
d cr
to  hou  
k
v
t
g
 g g of u c p
r
t.[465]
L
trcy, book,  d duct
o [d
t]
M
rt
c: Educt
o
 c
 t Rom
Pr
d

trcy  d
pyd
portr
tur through mbm of rd
g  d r

t
g, 
th
 xmp of  coup from Pomp

(Portr
t of Pqu
u Procuo)
Et
mt of th vrg 
trcy rt
th Emp
r r g from 5 to 30 prc t
or h
ghr, dp d
g
prt o th df

t
o of "
trcy".[466] Th Rom ob

o 
th docum t  d pub
c
cr
pt
o 
d
ct th h
gh vu pcd o
th r
tt ord.[467] Th Impr
 burucrcy  o dp d t o r
t
g th
t th Bbyo
 Tmud dcrd "
f   r
k,  rd r p , 
k
 prchm t,  d  m cr
b, thy oud b u b to t do th fu
cop of th Rom govr m t' co cr ."[468] L  d d
ct r potd

r
t
g    rd out. I
trt Rom ubjct oud hv omo  uch 
 govr m t cr
b (cr
b) rd or r
t th
r off
c
 docum t for thm.[4
69] Pub
c rt  d r
g
ou crmo
 r y to commu
ct
mpr

doo
gy rgrd of b

ty to rd.[470] Athough th Rom  r ot  "Pop of
th Book", thy hd  xt 
v pr
ty rch
v,  d
cr
pt
o  ppr thro
ughout th Emp
r
co ct
o 
th ttu  d m vot
v dd
ctd by ord

ry pop to d
v

t
,    o b
d
g tbt  d othr "mg
c p
", 
th hu drd of xmp coctd
th Grk Mg
c Ppyr
.[471] Th m


try producd  vt mou t of r
tt rport  d rv
c rcord,[472]  d 

trcy
th rmy  "tr
k
gy h
gh".[473] Urb grff
t
, h
ch
cud 
t
rry quott
o ,  d o-qu
ty
cr
pt
o  
th m
p
g  d oc
m

d
ct cu 
trcy mo g o -
t.[474] I dd
t
o , umrcy  c
ry for  y form of commrc.[475] Sv r umrt  d 
trt

g
f
c
t umbr,  d om r h
ghy ductd.[476]
Book r xp 
v, 
c ch copy hd to b r
tt out
d
v
duy o  ro
 of ppyru (voum ) by cr
b ho hd ppr t
cd to th trd.[477] Th co
dx book 
th pg bou d to  p
 t
  ovty
th t
m of th pot M
rt
 (1t c tury AD),[478] but by th  d of th 3rd c tury  rpc
g th
 voum [479]  d  th rgur form for book 
th Chr
t
 co t t.[480] C
ommrc
 product
o of book hd b tb
hd by th t Rpub
c,[481] 
d by th 1t c tury AD crt

ghbourhood of Rom r k o for th
r book
hop (tbr  
brr
), h
ch r fou d o
Wtr prov
c
 c
t
 
uch  Lugdu um (pr t-dy Lyo , Fr c).[482] Th qu
ty of d
t
g vr
d 

dy,  d om  c
 t uthor comp
bout rror-r
dd cop
,[483]  

 pg
r
m or forgry, 
c thr  o copyr
ght .[484] A k
d v

 copy
t (rvu 
ttrtu) coud b vud  h
ghy  100,000 trc.[48
5]
Rco truct
o of  r
t
g tbt: th tyu  ud to
cr
b ttr
to
th x urfc for drft, cu ttrr
t
g,  d chooork, h
 txt m
 t to b prm  t r cop
d o to ppyru
Coctor md pro  
brr
,[486] uch  tht of th V
 of th Pp
yr

Hrcu um,  d  f
 
brry  prt of th cut
vtd 
ur (ot
um
) oc
td 
th th v
 
fty.[487] S
g
f
c t coct
o  m
ght ttrc
t "
-hou" chor; Luc
 mockd mrc ry Grk
tctu ho ttchd
thmv to ph

t
 Rom ptro .[488] A
d
v
du b fctor m
ght  do
  commu
ty 
th  
brry: P
y th You gr gv th c
ty of Comum  
brry
vud t 1 m

o trc, o g 
th  othr 100,000 to m
t

t.[489]
Impr
 
brr
 houd
tt bu
d
g r op to ur   pr
v
g o
 
m
td b
,  d rpr td  
trry c o from h
ch d
rputb r
t
r coud b xcudd.[490] Book co 
drd ubvr
v m
ght b pub
cy bur d
,[491]  d Dom
t
 cruc
f
d copy
t for rproduc
g ork dmd tro ou.[
492]
L
trry txt r oft hrd oud t m or 
th rd
g group.[493] Sch
or uch  P
y th Edr  ggd
"mut
tk
g" by hv
g ork rd o
ud to thm h
 thy d
d, bthd or trvd, t
m dur
g h
ch thy m
ght
o d
ctt drft or ot to th
r crtr
.[494] Th mut
voum Att
c N

ght of Auu G
u
  xt dd xport
o of ho Rom  co tructd th
r

trry cutur.[495] Th rd
g pub
c xp dd from th 1t through th 3rd
c tury,  d h
 tho ho rd for pur rm
d  m
or
ty, thy r
o o gr co f
d to  oph
t
ctd ru
g 
t, rfct
g th oc
 fu
d
t
y of th Emp
r   ho  d g
v
g r
 to "co umr 
trtur" m t for 
trt
m t.[496] Iutrtd book,
cud
g rot
c, r popur, but r po
ory rpr td by xt t frgm t.[497]
Pr
mry duct
o [d
t]
A tchr 
th to tud t,   th
rd rr
v 
th h
 ocuu,  r
t
g c
tht oud co t
p ,
k pot,  d  po g to corrct rror[498]
Trd
t
o  Rom duct
o  mor  d prct
c. Stor
 bout grt m  d
om , or cut
o ry t bout
d
v
du f
ur, r m t to
t
 Rom
 vu (mor m
orum). Pr t  d fm
y mmbr r xpctd to ct  ro
 mod,  d pr t ho orkd for  
v
g pd th
r k
 o to th
r c
h
dr , ho m
ght o  tr ppr t
ch
p for mor dv cd tr

g
crf
t or trd.[499] Form duct
o  v
b o y to ch
dr from fm


ho coud py for
t,  d th ck of tt
trv t
o
cc to duct
o
co tr
butd to th o rt of 
trcy.[500]
You g ch
dr r tt
, uuy  Grk v
, tught f-d
c
p

tor
g.[502] Th mpror
ho rrd h
m from th
y, hovr, pdgogu

dd by  pdgogu, or  frqu ty  fm pdgog

or formr v.[501] Th pdgogu kpt th ch
d f
 d pub
c bhv
our, tt dd c  d hpd 
th tu
Ju
 rcd h
 pdgogu Mrdo
u,  u uch v
g of 7 to 15, 
th ffct
o  d grt
tud.[503] Uu
rc
vd 
tt rpct.[504]

Pr
mry duct
o
rd
g, r
t
g,  d r
thmt
c m
ght tk pc t hom f

or pr
v
gd ch
dr ho pr t h
rd or bought  tchr.[505] Othr tt
dd  choo tht  "pub
c," though ot tt-upportd, org
zd by 
d

v
du choomtr (ud
mg
tr) ho ccptd f from mut
p pr t.[506
] Vr  (hombor v ch
dr ) m
ght hr
hom- or pub
c-choo
g.[507
] Schoo bcm mor umrou dur
g th Emp
r,  d
crd th opportu
t

 for ch
dr to cqu
r  duct
o .[508] Schoo coud b hd rgury


r td pc, or
 y v
b pub
c
ch, v outdoor. Boy  d g
r r

c
vd pr
mry duct
o g ry from g 7 to 12, but c r ot gr
gtd by grd or g.[509] For th oc
y mb
t
ou, b

gu duct
o

Grk    Lt
  mut.[508]
Qu
t

 prov
d th mot xt 
v thory of pr
mry duct
o
Lt

t
rtur. Accord
g to Qu
t

 , ch ch
d h
-bor
g
um,  t t for 
r
g or 
gu
t
c
t
g c tht
 rdy to b cut
vtd  d hrp d,
 v
d cd by th you g ch
d' b

ty to mmor
z  d
m
tt.[510] Th ch

d
cpb of r
g  rr.[511] To Qu
t

 ,
g
um rpr td  po
t t
 bt r
zd
th oc
 tt
g of choo,  d h rgud g
t hom
choo
g.[511] H o rcog
zd th
mport c of py
ch
d dvopm t,
[512]  d d
pprovd of corpor pu
hm t bcu
t d
courgd ov of r

g
co trt to th prct
c
mot Rom pr
mry choo of rout
y tr
k

g ch
dr 
th  c  (fru) or b
rch rod for b
g o or d
rupt
v.[513]
Sco dry duct
o [d
t]
Mo
c from Pomp

dp
ct
g th Acdmy of Pto
At th g of 14, upprc m md th
r r
t of pg
to duthood, 
d bg to r drh
p ro
po
t
c, r
g
ou,  d m

try 
f thr
ough m tor
g from  
or mmbr of th
r fm
y or  fm
y fr
 d.[514] H
g
hr duct
o  prov
dd by grmmt
c
or rhtor.[515] Th grmmt
cu or "g
rmmr
 " tught m
y Grk  d Lt

trtur, 
th h
tory, gogrphy, ph

oophy or mthmt
c trtd  xp
ct
o  of th txt.[516] W
th th r

of Augutu, co tmporry Lt
uthor uch  Vrg
  d L
vy o bcm prt
of th curr
cuum.[517] Th rhtor   tchr of ortory or pub
c pk
g.
Th rt of pk
g (r d
c d
)  h
ghy pr
zd   mrkr of oc
  d

tctu upr
or
ty,  d oqu t
 ("pk
g b

ty, oqu c")  co 

drd th "gu" of  c
v

zd oc
ty.[518] Rhtor
c  ot o much  body o
f k odg (though
t rqu
rd  comm d of rfr c to th 
trry c o [51
9]) 
t   mod of xpr
o  d dcorum tht d
t
gu
hd tho ho hd
oc
 por.[520] Th  c
 t mod of rhtor
c tr

g"rtr
t, coo 
u dr prur, modty,  d good humour"[521] durd
to th 18th c tury  
Wtr duct
o 
d.[522]
I Lt
,

trtu (Grk grmmto) coud m both "u b to rd  d r

t"  d "ck
g
cutur r  or oph
t
ct
o ."[523] H
ghr duct
o
promotd crr dv cm t, prt
cury for  qutr

Impr
 rv
c
: "oqu c  d r
g r co 
drd mrk of  -brd m  d orthy of
rrd".[524] Th pot Horc, for
t c,  g
v  top- otch duct
o by
h
 fthr,  proprou formr v.[525]
Urb 
t throughout th Emp
r hrd  
trry cutur mbud 
th Grk 
duct
o 
d (p
d
).[526] H
t
c c
t
 po ord choo of h
ghr
r
g   xpr
o of cutur ch
vm t.[527] You g m from Rom ho

hd to puru th h
ght v of duct
o oft  t brod to tudy rh
tor
c  d ph
oophy, moty to o  of vr Grk choo
Ath . Th curr

cuum
th Et  mor 
ky to
cud mu
c  d phy
c tr

g o g

th 
trcy  d umrcy.[528] O th H
t
c mod, Vp
  dod ch

r of grmmr, Lt
 d Grk rhtor
c,  d ph
oophy t Rom,  d gv tch
r pc
 xmpt
o  from tx  d g p t
, though pr
mry choomt
r d
d ot rc
v th b f
t. Qu
t

 hd th f
rt ch
r of grmmr.[
529] I th tr mp
r, Brytu (pr t-dy B
rut)  u uu
offr
g
 Lt
duct
o ,  d bcm fmou for
t choo of Rom .[530] Th cut
ur movm t k o  th Sco d Soph
t
c (1t3rd c tury AD) promotd th 

m
t
o of Grk  d Rom oc
, duct
o ,  d tht
c vu,  d th G
rk proc
v
t
 for h
ch Nro hd b cr
t
c
zd r rgrdd from th t
m
of Hdr
 o rd 
tgr to Impr
 cutur.[531]

Eductd om [d
t]

Portr
t of  
trry om from Pomp

(c. 50 AD)
L
trt om r gd from cuturd r
tocrt to g
r tr
d to b c
grp
hr  d cr
b.[532] Th "g
rfr
 d" ddrd
Augut ov potry, th
ough f
ct
o , rpr t 
d tht  d
rb om houd b ductd, 
-vrd
th rt,  d
dp d t to  frutrt
g dgr.[533] Educt
o 
m to hv b t drd for dughtr of th  tor
  d qutr
 ordr
dur
g th Emp
r.[507] A h
ghy ductd 
f   t for th oc
y m
b
t
ou houhod, but o  tht Mrt
 rgrd   u cry uxury.[534]
Th om ho ch
vd th grtt prom
 c
th  c
 t ord for hr r

g  Hypt
 of Ax dr
, ho ductd you g m
mthmt
c, ph
ooph
y,  d tro omy,  d dv
d th Rom prfct of Egypt o po
t
c. Hr
fu
c put hr
to co f
ct 
th th b
hop of Ax dr
, Cyr
, ho my hv b

mp
ctd
hr v
o t dth
415 t th h d of  Chr
t
 mob.[535]
Dc
 of 
trcy[d
t]
L
trcy bg to dc
, prhp drmt
cy, dur
g th oc
o-po
t
c Cr


 of th Th
rd C tury.[536] Athough th Church Fthr r -ductd, th
y rgrdd C
c 
trtur  d grou,
f vub,  d rco trud
t t
hrough mor
z
g  d gor
c rd
g. Ju
 , th o y mpror ftr th c
o vr
o of Co t t
 to rjct Chr
t

ty, b d Chr
t
  from tch
g
th C
c curr
cuum, o th grou d tht thy m
ght corrupt th m
d of y
outh.[537]
Wh
 th book ro hd mph
zd th co t
u
ty of th txt, th codx formt
 courgd  "p
cm" pproch to rd
g by m  of c
tt
o , frgm td

trprtt
o ,  d th xtrct
o of mx
m.[538] I th 5th  d 6th c tur
, r
d
g bcm rrr v for tho 
th
th Church h
rrchy.[539]
L
trtur[d
t]
M
rt
c: Lt

trtur
S o: Rom h
tor
ogrphy  d Church Fthr
Sttu
Co t , Rom
 (th  c
 t coo y Tom
), commmort
g Ov
d' x


I th trd
t
o  
trry c o , 
trtur u dr Augutu, o g 
th tht of
th t Rpub
c, h b v
d  th "God Ag" of Lt

trtur, mb
ody
g th c
c
d of "u
ty of th ho, th proport
o of th prt,
 d th crfu rt
cut
o of  ppr ty m compo
t
o ."[540] Th t
hr mot
fu t
 C
c Lt
potVrg
, Horc,  d Ov
dbo g to th

pr
od. Vrg
 rot th A 
d, crt
g  t
o  p
c for Rom
th m r
of th Homr
c p
c of Grc. Horc prfctd th u of Grk yr
c mtr

Lt
vr. Ov
d' rot
c potry   ormouy popur, but r fou of th
 Augut mor progrmm;
t  o  of th ot 
b cu for h
ch th m
pror x
d h
m to Tom
 (pr t-dy Co t , Rom
), hr h rm
d to t
h  d of h
 
f. Ov
d' Mtmorpho   co t
uou pom of f
ft book
v
g togthr Grco-Rom mythoogy from th crt
o of th u
vr to th
d
f
ct
o of Ju
u Cr. Ov
d' vr
o  of Grk myth bcm o  of th p
r
mry ourc of tr c
c mythoogy,  d h
 ork  o
fu t


th M
dd Ag tht th 12th  d 13th c tur
 hv b cd th "Ag of Ov

d."[541]
Th pr
c
p Lt
pro uthor of th Augut g
 th h
tor
 L
vy, ho
 ccou t of Rom' fou d
g  d ry h
tory bcm th mot fm

r vr
o

modr -r 
trtur. V
truv
u' book D Arch
tctur, th o y compt o
rk o rch
tctur to urv
v from  t
qu
ty, o bo g to th
 pr
od.
Lt
r
tr r
mmrd

th Grk 
trry trd
t
o ,  d dptd
t for

m  d much of
t co t t, but Rom  rgrdd t
r   g r
h
ch thy

urpd th Grk. Horc rot vr t
r bfor fh
o
g h
mf  
Augut court pot,  d th ry Pr
c
pt o producd th t
r
t Pr

u  d Juv . Th potry of Juv  offr  
vy curmudgo ' prpct
v o
urb oc
ty.
Th pr
od from th m
d-1t c tury through th m
d-2 d c tury h co v t
o 
y b cd th "S
vr Ag" of Lt

trtur. U dr Nro, d

u
o d 
r
tr rctd to Augut
m.[542] Th thr d
g r
trS c th ph
ooph
r, drmt
t,  d tutor of Nro; Luc , h
 ph, ho tur d Cr' c
v
 
r
to  p
c pom;  d th ov
t Ptro
u (Styr
co ) comm
ttd u
c
d
ftr
curr
g th mpror' d
pur. S c  d Luc r from Rom Sp

,   th tr p
grmmt
t  d k oc
 obrvr Mrt
, ho xpr
d h
 pr
d
h
 Ct
br
 hr
tg.[543] Mrt
  d th p
c pot Stt
u
, ho potry coct
o S
v hd  fr-rch
g
fu c o R 
 c 
t
rtur,[544] rot dur
g th r
g of Dom
t
 .
Th o-cd "S
vr Ag" producd vr d
t
gu
hd r
tr,
cud
g th
 cycopd
t P
y th Edr; h
 ph, k o  P
y th You gr;  d th
h
tor
 Tc
tu. Th Ntur H
tory of th dr P
y, ho d
d dur
g d

tr r
f ffort
th k of th rupt
o of Vuv
u,
  vt coct
o
o for  d fu , gm  d m
r, c
mt, md
c
, frk of tur, or
k of rt,  d  t
qur
 or. Tc
tu' rputt
o   
trry rt
t mtch
 or xcd h
 vu   h
tor
 ;[545] h
 ty
t
c xpr
m tt
o produ
cd "o  of th mot porfu of Lt
pro ty."[546] Th Tv Cr by
h
 co tmporry Suto
u
 o  of th pr
mry ourc for
mpr
 b
ogrphy
.
Amo g Impr
 h
tor
  ho rot
Grk r D
o y
u of H
cr u, th
J
h h
tor
 Jophu,  d th  tor C
u D
o. Othr mjor Grk utho
r of th Emp
r
cud th b
ogrphr  d  t
qur
 Putrch, th gogrphr
Strbo,  d th rhtor
c
  d t
r
t Luc
 . Popur Grk rom c ov 
r prt of th dvopm t of o g-form f
ct
o ork, rpr td
Lt
by
th Styr
co of Ptro
u  d Th God A of Apu
u.
From th 2 d to th 4th c tur
, th Chr
t
 uthor ho oud bcom th L
t
Church Fthr r
ct
v d
ogu 
th th C
c trd
t
o , 
th

h
ch thy hd b ductd. Trtu
 ,  co vrt to Chr
t

ty from Rom A
fr
c,  th co tmporry of Apu
u  d o  of th r
t pro uthor to
tb
h  d
t
cty Chr
t
 vo
c. Aftr th co vr
o of Co t t
, L
t

trtur
 dom
td by th Chr
t
 prpct
v.[547] Wh th ortor S
ymmchu rgud for th prrvt
o of Rom' r
g
ou trd
t
o , h  ff
ct
vy oppod by Ambro, th b
hop of M
  d futur 
t dbt prrv
d by th
r m

v.[548]
Brc
 Ckt, 
vory box 
th B
b
c
mgry (t 4th c tury)
I th t 4th c tury, Jrom producd th Lt
tr t
o of th B
b tht
bcm uthor
tt
v  th Vugt. Augut
,  othr of th Church Fthr f
rom th prov
c of Afr
c, h b cd "o  of th mot
fu t
 r
tr
of tr cutur",  d h
 Co f
o 
 omt
m co 
drd th f
rt uto
b
ogrphy of Wtr 
trtur. I Th C
ty of God g
t th Pg , Augut

 bu
d  v

o of  tr , p
r
tu Rom,  
mpr
um 
 f
 tht 

 outt th cop
g Emp
r.
I co trt to th u
ty of C
c Lt
, th 
trry tht
c of t  t

qu
ty h  ttd qu
ty tht h b comprd to th mo
c chrctr

t
c of th pr
od.[549] A co t
u
g
trt
th r
g
ou trd
t
o  of Ro
m pr
or to Chr
t
 dom

o
 fou d
to th 5th c tury, 
th th Stur 

 of Mcrob
u  d Th Mrr
g of Ph
oogy  d Mrcury of Mrt
 u Cp. P

rom
 t Lt
pot of t  t
qu
ty
cud Auo
u, Prud t
u, Cud
 , 
d S
do
u. Auo
u (d. c. 394), th Bord
 tutor of th mpror Grt
 ,
 t t om
y  Chr
t
 , though throughout h
 occ
o y obc 
m
xd-g r pom, h rt
  
trry
trt
th Grco-Rom god  d v
 dru
d
m. Th
mpr
 p gyr
t Cud
 (d. 404)   v
r
utr
 ho 
ppr vr to hv co vrtd. Prud t
u (d. c. 413), bor
 prov
c of R
om Sp
 d  frv t Chr
t
 ,  thoroughy vrd
th pot of th C

c trd
t
o ,[550]  d tr form th
r v

o of potry   mo um t of

mmort
ty
to  xpr
o of th pot' qut for tr  
f cum
t
g

Chr
t
 vt
o .[551] S
do
u (d. 486),  t
v of Lugdu um,   Rom
 tor  d b
hop of Crmo t ho cut
vtd  trd
t
o  v
 
fty 
h tchd th Wtr mp
r uccumb to brbr

cur
o . H
 potry  d co
ctd ttr offr  u
qu v
 of 
f
t Rom Gu from th prpct

v of  m ho "urv
vd th  d of h
 ord".[552]
R
g
o [d
t]
A Rom pr
t, h
 hd r
tuy covrd 
th  fod of h
 tog, xt d  pt
r
 gtur of 
bt
o (2 d3rd c tury)
M
rt
c: R
g
o
 c
 t Rom  d Impr
 cut ( c
 t Rom)
S o: H
tory of th J
th Rom Emp
r, Ery Chr
t

ty  d R
g

ou prcut
o
th Rom Emp
r
Th Rom 
g  d dtruct
o of Jrum, from  Wtr r
g
ou m ucr
p
t, c.1504
R
g
o
th Rom Emp
r  compd th prct
c  d b
f th Rom  r
grdd  th
r o ,    th m y cut
mportd to Rom or prct
d by
pop throughout th prov
c. Th Rom  thought of thmv  h
ghy r

g
ou,  d ttr
butd th
r ucc   ord por to th
r coct
v p
ty
(p
t)
m
t

g good rt
o  
th th god (px dorum). Th rch
c r

g
o b
vd to hv b h dd do from th r
t k
g of Rom  th
 fou dt
o of th mo m
orum, "th y of th  ctor" or "trd
t
o ", v

d  c tr to Rom
d t
ty. Thr  o pr
c
p  ogou to "prt
o
of church  d tt". Th pr
thood of th tt r
g
o r f
d from th
 m oc
 poo of m ho hd pub
c off
c,  d
th Impr
 r, th P
o t
fx Mx
mu  th mpror.
Rom r
g
o  prct
c  d co trctu, bd o th pr
c
p of do ut d
, "I g
v tht you m
ght g
v." R
g
o dp dd o k odg  d th corrct
prct
c of pryr, r
tu,  d cr
f
c, ot o f
th or dogm, though Lt


trtur prrv r d pcut
o o th tur of th d
v
  d
t r
t
o to hum ff
r. For ord
ry Rom , r
g
o   prt of d
y 
f.
[553] Ech hom hd  houhod hr
 t h
ch pryr  d 
bt
o  to th fm

y' domt
c d
t
 r offrd. N
ghborhood hr
  d crd pc uch
 pr
g  d grov dottd th c
ty. Apu
u (2 d c tury) dcr
bd th v
rydy qu
ty of r
g
o
obrv
g ho pop ho pd  cut pc m
ght
mk  vo or  fru
t offr
g, or mry 
t for  h
.[554] Th Rom c d
r  tructurd rou d r
g
ou obrv c. I th Impr
 r,  m y 
135 dy of th yr r dvotd to r
g
ou ft
v  d gm (ud
).[555]
Wom , v,  d ch
dr  prt
c
ptd
 r g of r
g
ou ct
v
t
.
I th k of th Rpub
c' cop, tt r
g
o hd dptd to upport th
  rg
m of th mpror. A th f
rt Rom mpror, Augutu jut
f
d th
ovty of o -m ru 
th  vt progrm of r
g
ou rv
v
m  d rform.
Pub
c vo formry md for th cur
ty of th rpub
c o r d
rctd t
th b
g of th mpror. So-cd "mpror orh
p" xp dd o  gr d 
c th trd
t
o  Rom v rt
o of th  ctr dd  d of th G
u, t
h d
v
 tutry of vry
d
v
du. Upo dth,  mpror coud b md  
tt d
v

ty (d
vu) by vot of th S t. Impr
 cut,
fu cd by H

t
c rur cut, bcm o  of th mjor y Rom dvrt
d
t pr c
t

h prov
c  d cut
vtd hrd cutur
d t
ty  d oyty throughout th
Emp
r. Cutur prcd t
th Etr prov
c fc

ttd  rp
d d
m

t
o of Impr
 cut, xt d
g  fr  th Augut m

try ttm t t
Njr ,
pr t-dy Sud
Arb
.[556] Rjct
o of th tt r
g
o bcm
t tmou t to tro g
t th mpror. Th
  th co txt for Rom' co f

ct 
th Chr
t

ty, h
ch Rom  vr
ouy rgrdd   form of th
m  d
ov uprt
t
o.
Sttutt rpr t
g Rom  d G
c d
t
, for pro  dvot
o t pr
v
t hr

Th Rom  r k o for th grt umbr of d
t
 thy ho ourd,  cpc
ty t
ht r d th mockry of ry Chr
t
 pom
c
t.[557] A th Rom  xt d
d th
r dom
 c throughout th Md
trr  ord, th
r po
cy
g r 
 to borb th d
t
  d cut of othr pop rthr th try to rd
ct
thm.[558] O  y tht Rom promotd tb

ty mo g d
vr pop  by u
pport
g th
r r
g
ou hr
tg, bu
d
g tmp to oc d
t
 tht frmd
th
r thoogy 
th
th h
rrchy of Rom r
g
o . I cr
pt
o  throughout
th Emp
r rcord th 
d-by-
d orh
p of oc  d Rom d
t
,
cud
g
dd
ct
o  md by Rom  to oc god.[559] By th h
ght of th Emp
r, um
rou cut of pudo-for
g god (Rom r
v t
o  of for
g god) r cu
t
vtd t Rom  d
th prov
c, mo g thm cut of Cyb, I
, Epo , 
d of or god uch  M
thr  d So I v
ctu, fou d  fr orth  Rom B
r
t
. Bcu Rom  hd vr b ob
gtd to cut
vt o  god or o  cut
o y, r
g
ou tor c  ot 
u
th   tht
t
 for compt

g mo oth
t
c ytm.[560]
Mytry r
g
o , h
ch offrd

t
t vt
o
th ftr
f, r  m
ttr of pro  cho
c for 
d
v
du, prct
d
dd
t
o to crry
g o
o ' fm
y r
t  d prt
c
pt
g
pub
c r
g
o . Th mytr
, hovr,

vovd xcu
v oth  d crcy, co d
t
o  tht co rvt
v Rom  v

d 
th up
c
o  chrctr
t
c of "mg
c", co p
rcy (co
urt
o),  d ubv
r
v ct
v
ty. Spord
c  d omt
m brut ttmpt r md to uppr r

g
o
t ho md to thrt trd
t
o  mor
ty  d u
ty. I Gu, th p
or of th dru
d  chckd, f
rt by forb
dd
g Rom c
t
z  to bo g to
th ordr,  d th by b
g dru
d
m togthr. At th m t
m, hovr, C
t
c trd
t
o  r r
trprtd (
trprtt
o rom ) 
th
th co txt of
Impr
 thoogy,  d   Go-Rom r
g
o cocd, 
th
t cp
t 
t th S ctury of th Thr Gu
Lugdu um (pr t-dy Lyo , Fr c). Th 
 ctury tb
hd prcd t for Wtr cut   form of Rom -prov
c

d
 t
ty.[561]
Th
 fu rry t from th 3rd c tury
 mo g th r
t Chr
t

cr
p
t
o , r
tt
both Grk  d Lt
: th bbrv
t
o D.M. t th top rfr
to th D
M , th trd
t
o  Rom p
r
t of th dd, but ccomp
 Chr

t
 f
h ymbo
m.
R
f from th Arch of T
tu
Rom dp
ct
g  m orh  d othr po
 from
th Tmp of Jrum crr
d
Rom tr
umph.
Th mo oth
t
c r
gour of Jud
m pod d
ff
cut
 for Rom po
cy tht d
t t
m to comprom
  d th gr t
g of pc
 xmpt
o . Trtu
 otd
tht th J
h r
g
o , u 
k tht of th Chr
t
 ,  co 
drd  r
g

o 
c
t, "g
t
mt r
g
o ." Wr bt th Rom   d th J occurrd 
h co f
ct, po
t
c    r
g
ou, bcm
trctb. Wh C
gu
 td to pc  god ttu of h
 d
f
d f
th Tmp
Jrum,
th pot t
 cr
g  d 
ky r r prv td o y by h
 t
my dth.[
562] Th S
g of Jrum
70 AD d to th ck
g of th tmp  d th d

pr of J
h po
t
c por ( J
h d
por).

Chr
t

ty mrgd
Rom Jud   J
h r
g
ou ct
th 1t c tur
y AD. Th r
g
o grduy prd out of Jrum,

t
y tb
h
g mj
or b
f
rt A t
och, th Ax dr
,  d ovr t
m throughout th Emp
r
   byo d. Impr
y uthor
zd prcut
o  r 
m
td  d pord
c,

th mrtyrdom occurr
g mot oft u dr th uthor
ty of oc off
c
.[56
3]
Th f
rt prcut
o by  mpror occurrd u dr Nro,  d  co f
d to th
c
ty of Rom. Tc
tu rport tht ftr th Grt F
r of Rom
AD 64, om
mo g th poput
o hd Nro rpo 
b  d tht th mpror ttmptd to df
ct bm o to th Chr
t
 .[564] Aftr Nro,  mjor prcut
o occurrd u
dr th mpror Dom
t
 [565][566]  d  prcut
o
177 took pc t Lugdu
um, th Go-Rom r
g
ou cp
t. A urv
v
g ttr from P
y th You gr
, govr or of Byth

, to th mpror Trj dcr
b h
 prcut
o  d xc
ut
o  of Chr
t
 .[567] Th Dc
 prcut
o of 246251   r
ou thrt
to th Church, but ut
mty tr gth d Chr
t
 df
 c.[568] D
oct
 u
drtook ht  to b th mot vr prcut
o of Chr
t
 , t
g from
303 to 311.
I th ry 4th c tury, Co t t
 I bcm th f
rt mpror to co vrt to C
hr
t

ty. Dur
g th rt of th fourth c tury Chr
t

ty bcm th dom

 t r
g
o of th Emp
r. Th mpror Ju
 md  hort-
vd ttmpt to rv

v trd
t
o   d H
t
c r
g
o  d to ff
rm th pc
 ttu of Jud

m, but
380 (Ed
ct of Tho
c), u dr Thodo
u I Chr
t

ty bcm
th off
c
 tt church of th Rom Emp
r, to th xcu
o of  othr.
From th 2 d c tury o rd, th Church Fthr hd bgu to co dm th d
vr
r
g
o  prct
d throughout th Emp
r coct
vy  "pg ."[569] P f
or r
g
ou tor c from trd
t
o 
t uch  th  tor Symmchu (d. 40
2) r rjctd,  d Chr
t
 mo oth
m bcm  ftur of Impr
 dom
t

o . Chr
t
 hrt
c    o -Chr
t
  r ubjct to xcu
o from
pub
c 
f or prcut
o , but Rom' or
g
 r
g
ou h
rrchy  d m y p
ct of
t r
tu
fu cd Chr
t
 form,[570]  d m y pr-Chr
t
 b

f  d prct
c urv
vd
Chr
t
 ft
v  d oc trd
t
o .
Po
t
c gcy[d
t]
M
rt
c: Lgcy of th Rom Emp
r
Svr tt c
md to b th Rom Emp
r' uccor ftr th f of th
Wtr Rom Emp
r. Th Hoy Rom Emp
r,  ttmpt to rurrct th Emp
r

th Wt,  tb
hd
800 h Pop Lo III cro d Fr k
h K
g Ch
rmg   Rom Empror o Chr
tm Dy, though th mp
r  d th
mpr
 o
ff
c d
d ot bcom form
zd for om dcd. Aftr th f of Co t t
op
, th Ru
 Trdom, 
hr
tor of th Byz t
 Emp
r' Orthodox Chr
t

 trd
t
o , cou td
tf th Th
rd Rom (Co t t
op hv
g b th co
d). Th co cpt r k o  Tr t
o
mpr

.[571]
Wh th Ottom , ho bd th
r tt o th Byz t
 mod, took Co t t

op
1453, Mhmd II tb
hd h
 cp
t thr  d c
md to 
t o th
thro  of th Rom Emp
r.[572] H v  t o fr  to u ch 
v
o of
Ity 
th th purpo of r-u
t
g th Emp
r  d
v
td Europ rt
t to
h
 cp
t,
cud
g G t
 B

.[573]
I th md
v Wt, "Rom " cm to m th church  d th Pop of Rom. Th
Grk form Rom
o
rm
d ttchd to th Grk-pk
g Chr
t
 poput
o
of th Etr Rom Emp
r,  d
 t
 ud by Grk
dd
t
o to th
r co
mmo ppt
o .[574]
Th Rom Emp
r' trr
tor
 gcy of co tro
g th It
 p
u oud
rv  
fu c to It
 t
o 
m  d th u
f
ct
o of Ity (R
o
rg
m to)
1861.[575]

Th V
rg

 Stt Cp
to (ft), bu
t
th t 1700,  modd ftr t
h M
o Crr,  Go-Rom tmp bu
t rou d 16 BC u dr Augutu
I th U
td Stt, th fou dr r ductd
th c
c trd
t
o ,[576
]  d ud c
c mod for  dmrk  d bu
d
g
Wh
gto , D.C., to
vo
d th fud  d r
g
ou co ott
o  of Europ rch
tctur uch  c
t  d cthdr.[577] I form
g th
r thory of th m
xd co t
tut
o , th
fou dr ookd to Ath
 dmocrcy  d Rom rpub
c
m for mod, but r
grdd th Rom mpror   f
gur of tyr y.[578] Thy o th doptd
Rom Impr
 form uch  th dom,  rpr td by th US Cp
to  d um
rou tt cp
to bu
d
g, to xpr c
c
d through rch
tctur.[
579] Thom Jffro  th Emp
r   gt
v po
t
c o , but   c
h
f propo  t of
t rch
tctur mod. Jffro ' d
g for th V
rg


Stt Cp
to, for
t c,
 modd d
rcty from th M
o Crr,  GoRom tmp bu
t u dr Augutu.[580] Th r ovt
o  of th Nt
o  M t
th bg

g of th 20th c tury hv b v
d  xpr
g  mor ovrt
m
pr

t k
h
p 
th Rom.[581]
S o[d
t]
Impr
 Ity
It
 Emp
r
SPQRom
.vgA c
 t Rom port 2006 01 21 Ath  Prth o .JPGC
c C
v

t

o port Md
trr  R
f.jpgMd
trr  port Bbyo 
o .JPGA c
 t N
r Et port
Not[d
t]
Jump up ^ Othr y of rfrr
g to th "Rom Emp
r" mo g th Rom   d Gr
k thmv
cudd R pub
c Rom  or Impr
um Rom orum (o
Grk:
B
 t Rhm ["Dom

o (L
try 'k
gdom') of th Rom
 "commo th"  d c rfr to both th Rpub
c  d th Impr
 r. Im
pr
um Rom um (or Rom orum) rfr to th trr
tor
 xt t of Rom uthor
t
y. Popuu Rom u ("th Rom pop") /
 oft ud to
d
ct th Rom
tt
mttr
vov
g othr t
o . Th trm Rom
,

t
y  cooqu

 trm for th mp
r' trr
tory     coct
v m for
t
hb
t
t, ppr
Grk  d Lt
ourc from th 4th c tury o rd  d  v
tuy crr
d ovr to th Byz t
 Emp
r ( R. L. Woff, "Rom
: Th Lt

Emp
r of Co t t
op"
Spcuum 23 (1948), pp. 134  d pc
y pp. 23).
Rfr c[d
t]
Jump up ^ B tt, J. Trj : Opt
mu Pr
cp. 1997. F
g. 1. Rg
o  t of th
 Euphrt r
vr r hd o y
th yr 116117.
^ Jump up to:  b c d Tgpr, R
(1979). "S
z  d Durt
o of Emp
r: Gro
th-Dc
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tory (Duk U
vr
t
y Pr) 3 (3/4): 118. do
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Jump up ^ Joh D. Dur d, H
tor
c Et
mt of Word Poput
o : A Evut
o
, 1977, pp. 253296.
^ Jump up to:  b Turch
, Ptr; Adm, Jo th M.; H, Thom D (Dcmbr 2
006). "Et-Wt Or
 tt
o of H
tor
c Emp
r" (PDF). Jour  of ord-yt
m rrch 12 (2): 219229. ISSN 1076-156X. Rtr
vd 12 Augut 2010.
Jump up ^ () I Morr
, Soc
 Dvopm t, St ford U
vr
ty, Octobr 2010.
Th
 co t
 upport
g mtr
 for th foo
g book: (b) I Morr
, Why
th Wt RuFor No, N York: Frrr, Stru  d G
roux, 2010. ISBN 978-0-37429002-3.
Jump up ^  vrg of f
gur from d
ffr t ourc  
td t th US C u
 Buru' H
tor
c Et
mt of Word Poput
o ;  o *Krmr, M
ch (
1993). "Poput
o Groth  d Tch oog
c Ch g: O  M

o B.C. to 1990"

Th Qurtry Jour  of Eco om
c 108(3): 681716.
Jump up ^ Norm A. St
m Th J of Arb L d pp 22 J
h Pub
ct
o Soc

ty, 1979 ISBN 0827611552
Jump up ^ I tr t
o  Co gr of Byz t
 Stud
 Procd
g of th 21t I
tr t
o  Co gr of Byz t
 Stud
, Lo do , 2126 Augut 2006, Voum 13 pp

29. Ahgt Pub Co, 30 p. 2006 ISBN 075465740X

Jump up ^ J.H. Brtd A c
 t T
m  H
tory of th Ery Word pp 675. ISBN
Jump up ^ Chr
tophr Ky, Th Rom Emp
r: A Vry Short I troduct
o (Oxford
U
vr
ty Pr, 2006), p. 4ff.; Cud N
cot, Spc, Gogrphy,  d Po
t
c

th Ery Rom Emp
r (U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr, 1991, or
g
y pub

hd
Fr ch 1988), pp. 1, 15; T. Cory Br  , Th Prtorh
p
th Rom
Rpub
c (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2000), p. 605 t p
m; C
fford A do, "Fro
m Rpub
c to Emp
r",
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o 
th Rom W
ord (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, pp. 3940.
Jump up ^ C
fford A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c",
A Comp
o t
o th Rom Emp
r (Bck, 2010), p. 179.
Jump up ^ N
cot, Spc, Gogrphy,  d Po
t
c
th Ery Rom Emp
r, pp.
1, 15; O
v
r Hktr  d Td K
zr, prfc to Fro t
r
th Rom Word.
Procd
g of th N
th Workhop of th I tr t
o  Ntork Impct of Emp
r
(Durhm, 1619 Apr
 2009) (Br
, 2011), p. v


; A dr L
tott, Th Co t
tut

o of th Rom Rpub
c (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 1999), p. 114; W. Edr, "Th
Augut Pr
c
pt  B
d
g L
k,"
Bt Rpub
c  d Emp
r (U
vr
ty
of C
for
 Pr, 1993), p. 98.
Jump up ^ Joh R
chrdo , "F
 prov
c
",
Fro t
r
th Rom Word,
p. 10.
Jump up ^ R
chrdo , "F
 prov
c
",
Fro t
r
th Rom Word, pp. 12
.
Jump up ^ Ro d Sym,Th Rom Rvout
o , Oford: Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 1939
, 34.
Jump up ^ Mry T. Botr
ght, Hdr
  d th C
t
 of th Rom Emp
r (Pr
c
to U
vr
ty Pr, 2000), p. 4.
Jump up ^ Yro Z. E
v, "J  d Jud
m 70429 CE",
A Comp
o to th Rom
Emp
r (Bck, 2010), p. 571.
Jump up ^ D
o C
u 72.36.4, Lob d
t
o tr td E. Cry
Jump up ^ Bro , P., Th Word of Lt A t
qu
ty, Lo do 1971, p. 22.
Jump up ^ Adr
 Godorth, Ho Rom F: Dth of  Suprpor (Y U
vr

ty Pr, 2009), pp. 405415.
Jump up ^ Pottr, Dv
d. Th Rom Emp
r t By. 29698.
Jump up ^ Chtr G. Strr, A H
tory of th A c
 t Word, Sco d Ed
t
o . Oxfo
rd U
vr
ty Pr, 1974. pp. 670678.
Jump up ^ Ic A
mov (1989) A
mov' Chro oogy of th Word, p. 110, N York
, NY, USA: HrprCo
.[bttr ourc dd]
Jump up ^ Du
kr, 2001. pg 347.
^ Jump up to:  b Th Byz t
 Emp
r by R
chrd Hookr. Wh
gto Stt U
v
r
ty. Wr
tt 6 Ju  1999. Rtr
vd 8 Apr
 2007.
Jump up ^ Bry, R.S. (2004). Arm
 of Pt
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dg: Jm Crk & Co.
p. 26. ISBN 978-0-227-17240-7.
Jump up ^ Krutz, Brbr M. (1996). Bfor th Norm : Southr Ity
th N

th  d T th C tur
. Ph
dph
: U
vr
ty of P yv
 Pr. ISBN 9
78-0-8122-1587-8.
Jump up ^ Du
kr, 2001. pg 349.
Jump up ^ B
 II (AD 9761025) by Cthr
 Hom. D Imprtor
bu Rom
. Wr

tt 1 Apr
 2003. Rtr
vd 22 Mrch 2007.
Jump up ^ G
bbo , Edrd. H
tory of th Dc
  d F of th Rom Emp
r. C
hptr 61. Rtr
vd 11 Apr
 2007.
Jump up ^ Mhmt II by Korkut Ozg . Thottom .org. Rtr
vd 3 Apr
 2007.
Jump up ^ Ky, Th Rom Emp
r, p. 3.
Jump up ^ N
cot, Spc, Gogrphy,  d Po
t
c
th Ery Rom Emp
r, p.
29; tr td  "por 
thout  d"
Pt Southr , Th Rom Emp
r from Sv
ru to Co t t
 (Routdg, 2001), p. 16.
Jump up ^ Vrg
, A 
d 1.278; N
cot, Spc, Gogrphy,  d Po
t
c, p. 29;
Dv
d J. Mtt
gy, Impr

m, Por,  d Id t
ty: Expr
 c
g th Rom Emp

r (Pr
cto U
vr
ty Pr, 2011), p. 15; G. Mortt
, "Th Othr Word  d
th 'A t
pod': Th Myth of U k o Cou tr
 bt A t
qu
ty  d th R 

 c,"
Th C
c Trd
t
o  d th Amr
c: Europ Img of th Amr

c (Wtr d Gruytr, 1993), p. 257; Southr , Th Rom Emp
r from Svru t
o Co t t
, p. 16.
Jump up ^ Prud t
u (348413)
prt
cur Chr
t

z th thm
h
 potry
,  otd by Mrc Mtr go, Th Rom Sf
Lt A t
qu
ty: Prud t
u  d
th Pot
c of th Sou (Joh  Hopk
 U
vr
ty Pr, 2008), pp. 73, 203. St
. Augut
, hovr, d
t
gu
hd bt th cur  d tr  "Rom"
Th
 C
ty of God. S o J. Rufu Fr, "Th Cut of Jup
tr  d Rom Impr

Idoogy," Auft
g u d N
drg g dr rm
ch Wt II.17.1 (1981), p. 136 t p

m, o ho C
c Rom
doogy
fu cd Chr
t
 Impr
 doctr
; P
tr F
b
gr B g, "Th K
g of K
g: U
vr Hgmo y, Impr
 Por,  d 
N Comprt
v H
tory of Rom,"
Th Rom Emp
r
Co txt: H
tor
c  d
Comprt
v Prpct
v (Joh W
y & So , 2011);  d th Grk co cpt of g
ob
m (o
koum ).
Jump up ^ N
cot, Spc, Gogrphy,  d Po
t
c, pp. 78.
Jump up ^ N
cot, Spc, Gogrphy,  d Po
t
c, pp. 9, 16.
Jump up ^ N
cot, Spc, Gogrphy,  d Po
t
c, pp. 1011.
Jump up ^ Southr , Th Rom Emp
r from Svru to Co t t
, p. 14.
^ Jump up to:  b K
th Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r,"

Th Dy m
c of A c
 t Emp
r : Stt Por from Ayr
 to Byz t
um (Oxford
U
vr
ty Pr, 2009), p. 183.
^ Jump up to:  b Ky, Th Rom Emp
r, p. 1.
^ Jump up to:  b Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r," p. 184.
Jump up ^ Rymo d W. Godm
th,"A Et
mt of th S
z  d Structur of th Nt

o  Product of th Ery Rom Emp
r", Rv
 of I com  d Wth, 30.3 (198
4), pp. 263288, pc
y p. 263.
Jump up ^ Wtr Sch
d: Poput
o  d dmogrphy, Pr
cto /St ford Work
g
Ppr
C
c, Vr
o 1.0, Apr
 2006, p. 9
Jump up ^ W.V. Hrr
, "Trd,"
Th Cmbr
dg A c
 t H
tory: Th H
gh Emp
r
 A.D. 70192 (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2000), vo. 11, p. 721.
Jump up ^ Southr , Th Rom Emp
r from Svru to Co t t
, pp. 1416.
Jump up ^ O
v
r Hktr  d Td K
zr, prfc to Fro t
r
th Rom Wor
d. Procd
g of th N
th Workhop of th I tr t
o  Ntork Impct of Emp

r (Durh , 1619 Apr
 2009) (Br
, 2011), p. v


.
Jump up ^ Grg Woof, d
tor, Cmbr
dg Iutrtd H
tory of th Rom Word (
Cmbr
dg: Ivy Pr, 2003), p. 340; Thort Oppr, Hdr
 : Emp
r  d Co f
c
t (Hrvrd U
vr
ty Pr, 2008), p. 64; N
c F
d, Hdr
 ' W AD 122410,
h
ch , of cour, t th bottom of Hdr
 ' grd . (Opry Pub
h
g, 200
3), p. 35.
Jump up ^ Vrg
, A 
d 12.834  d 837; Bru o Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

t
h Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," tr td by Jm Ccko ,
A Comp
o to t
h Lt
L gug (Bck, 2011), pp. 549, 563; J.N. Adm, "Rom
t  d th
 Lt
L gug," C
c Qurtry 53.1 (2003), p. 184.
Jump up ^ Adm, "Rom
t  d th Lt
L gug," pp. 186187.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," pp. 55
4, 556.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," p. 549
; Chr Frm , Th Grk Ach
vm t: Th Fou dt
o of th Wtr Word (N
 York: P gu
, 1999), pp. 389433.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," p. 549
, c
t
g Putrch, L
f of Ax dr 47.6.
Jump up ^ Frgu M
r, A Grk Rom Emp
r: Por  d B
f u dr Thodo
u
II (408450) (U
vr
ty of C
for
 Pr, 2006), p. 279; Wrr Trdgod, "A
H
tory of th Byz t
 Stt  d Soc
ty" (St ford U
vr
ty Pr, 1997),
p. 5.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," p. 553
.
Jump up ^ C
cro, I Ct

m 2.15, P.Ry. I 61 "rcto".
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," pp. 55
0552.
^ Jump up to:  b Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r,

" p. 552.
Jump up ^ Suto
u, L
f of Cud
u 42.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," pp. 55
3554.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," p. 556
; Adm, "Rom
t  d th Lt
L gug," p. 200.
Jump up ^ Adm, "Rom
t  d th Lt
L gug," pp. 185186, 205.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," p. 560
.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," pp. 56
2563.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," pp. 55
8559.
Jump up ^ R
chrd M
, "Commu
ct
g Cutur, Id t
ty,  d Por,"
Expr

 c
g Por: Cutur, Id t
ty  d Por
th Rom Emp
r (Routdg, 200),
pp. 5859.
Jump up ^ Adm, "Rom
t  d th Lt
L gug," p. 199.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," pp. 55
3555.
Jump up ^ M
, "Commu
ct
g Cutur, Id t
ty,  d Por," pp. 5960.
Jump up ^ Rochtt, "L gug Po
c

th Rom Rpub
c  d Emp
r," p. 550
; Stf Z
mmr, "I do-Europ ,"
Ct
c Cutur: A H
tor
c E cycopd
 (
ABC-C
o, 2006), p. 961; Lo rd A. Curch
, "L
trcy
th Rom Prov
c: Q
u
tt
v  d Qu t
tt
v Dt from C tr Sp
," Amr
c Jour  of Ph
o
ogy 116.3 (1995), p. 464.
Jump up ^ Fr o
 Wqut, Lt
, Or, Th Emp
r of th S
g : From th S
xt th
to th T t
th C tury (Vro, 2001; or
g
y pub
hd 1998
Fr ch), pp.
12; Kr
t
 J  , "Th Hum
t Rform of Lt
 d Lt
Tch
g,"
Th C
mbr
dg Comp
o to R 
 c Hum
m (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 1996, 20
03), pp. 6364.
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tory of th Byz t
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th
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g prt
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ch Soz
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t, pot t,  d 
dy
t
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c chrctr of Rom oc
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ty Pr: Amr
c Ph
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t
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ou b fr c
t
z . A od
r, for
t c,  b d from mrry
g h


rv
c, but
f h formd  o g-trm u
o 
th  oc om h
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o 
d
th prov
c, h coud mrry hr gy ftr h  d
chrgd,  d  y
ch
dr thy hd oud b co 
drd th offpr
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t
z 
ffct gr t
g
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t  rc
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t
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Jump up ^ M
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c, p.114; ISBN 0-500-05124-0
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 183.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," pp. 177179. Mot govr m
t rcord tht r prrvd com from Rom Egypt, hr th c
mt prrvd

th ppyr
.
^ Jump up to:  b A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 179.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 179. Th xcu
o of
Egypt from th  tor
 prov
c dt to th r
 of Octv
 bfor h bc
m Augutu: Egypt hd b th tro ghod of h
 t oppo
t
o , Mrk A to y 
d h
 y Coptr.
^ Jump up to:  b c A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 180.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," pp. 179, 187.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 180; Chr
tophr J. Fu
hrm , Po
c
g th Rom Emp
r: Sod
r, Adm

trt
o ,  d Pub
c Ordr (O
xford U
vr
ty Pr, 2012), p. 197, 214, 224.
Jump up ^ Ptr Gr y  d R
chrd Sr, Th Rom Emp
r: Eco omy, Soc
ty 
d Cutur (U
vr
ty of C
for
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Jump up ^ Gr y  d Sr, Th Rom Emp
r: Eco omy, Soc
ty  d Cutur, p.
110; C
fford A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c,"
A Comp
o to th
 Rom Emp
r (Bck, 2010), pp. 184185.
Jump up ^ Add B. Bozm , Po
t
c  d Cutur
I tr t
o  H
tory from th
 A c
 t Nr Et to th Op
g of th Modr Ag (Tr ct
o Pub
hr, 20
10, 2 d d., or
g
y pub
hd 1960 by Pr
cto U
vr
ty Pr), pp. 20820
Jump up ^ Gr y  d Sr, Th Rom Emp
r: Eco omy, Soc
ty  d Cutur, p.
110; A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," pp. 184185. Th
 prct
c 
tb
hd
th Rpub
c;  for
t c th c of Co trb
 tr r
ght
 hrd by G. Vr
u Fccu  govr or of H
p

th 9080 BC.
Jump up ^ Gr y  d Sr, Th Rom Emp
r, pp. 110111.
Jump up ^ E
zbth DPm D
gr, Th Mk
g of  Chr
t
 Emp
r: Lct t
u
  d Rom (Cor  U
vr
ty Pr, 2000), p. 53.
^ Jump up to:  b c d A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 187.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," pp. 185187.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 185; Hopk
, "Th Po

t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r," p. 184.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 185.
^ Jump up to:  b A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 188.
^ Jump up to:  b A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 186.
Jump up ^ C
u D
o 55.31.4.
Jump up ^ Tc
tu, A  13.31.2.
Jump up ^ Th
  th v
c
m 
brtt
, "th t t
th for frdom"; A do, "
Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 187.
Jump up ^ Dv
d Mtt
gy, "Th Impr
 Eco omy,"
A Comp
o to th Rom E
mp
r (Bck, 2010), p. 283.
^ Jump up to:  b Mtt
gy, "Th Impr
 Eco omy," p. 285.
^ Jump up to:  b Mtt
gy, "Th Impr
 Eco omy," p. 286.
Jump up ^ Mtt
gy, "Th Impr
 Eco omy," p. 292.
Jump up ^ Mtt
gy, "Th Impr
 Eco omy," pp. 285286, p. 296f.
Jump up ^ Mtt
gy, "Th Impr
 Eco omy," p. 296.
Jump up ^ Mtt
gy, "Th Impr
 Eco omy," pp. 286, 295.
Jump up ^ Ko rd Vrbov , "Th Aoc
t
v Ordr: Sttu  d Etho mo g Rom
Bu
m
th Lt Rpub
c  d Ery Emp
r," Ath um 95 (2007), prpr

t.
Jump up ^ Dv
d Kr  d Ptr Tm
, "Mo y  d Pr
c
th Ery Rom Em
p
r,"
Th Mo try Sytm of th Grk  d Rom ,
Th Mo try Sytm
of th Grk  d Rom  (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2008), .p.
Jump up ^ K th W. Hrt, Co
g
th Rom Eco omy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700 (J
oh  Hopk
 U
vr
ty Pr, 1996), p. 135.
Jump up ^ M
r
 Corb
r, "Co
g  d Txt
o : Th Stt' Po
t of V
, A.
D. 193337,"
Cmbr
dg A c
 t H
tory: Th Cr

 of Emp
r, A.D. 193197 (Cmbr

dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2005), vo. 12, p. 333.
Jump up ^ Co
W, Th Rom Emp
r (Hrvrd U
vr
ty Pr, 1984, 1992),
p. 8.
Jump up ^ W.V. Hrr
, "Th Ntur of Rom Mo y,"
Th Mo try Sytm of t
h Grk  d Rom , .p.

Jump up ^ Kr  d Tm
, "Mo y  d Pr
c
th Ery Rom Emp
r," .p.
Jump up ^ Wtr Sch
d, "Th Mo try Sytm of th H  d Rom Emp
r",

: Sch
d, Wtr, d. (2009): Rom  d Ch
. Comprt
v Prpct
v o A
c
 t Word Emp
r (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2009), N York, ISBN 978-0-19-533
690-0, pp. 137207, pc
y p. 205.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, "Th Ntur of Rom Mo y," .p.
Jump up ^ J. Rufu Fr, "Th Thoogy of V
ctory t Rom: Approch  d Prob
m," Auft
g u d N
drg g dr rm
ch Wt II.17.2 (1981), pp. 752  d 824, 
d
th m voum, "Th Cut of V
rtu  d Rom Impr
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.
Jump up ^ J A dru, B k
g  d Bu

th Rom Word (Cmbr
dg U
v
r
ty Pr, 1999), p. 2.
Jump up ^ A dru, B k
g  d Bu

th Rom Word, p. 2; Hrr
, "Th N
tur of Rom Mo y," .p.
Jump up ^ Tc
tu, A  6.17.3.
^ Jump up to:  b c Hrr
, "Th Ntur of Rom Mo y,"
Th Mo try Sytm
of th Grk  d Rom , .p.
Jump up ^ R
chrd Du c -Jo , Mo y  d Govr m t
th Rom Emp
r (Cmbr

dg U
vr
ty Pr, 1994), pp. 34.
Jump up ^ Hrt, Co
g
th Rom Eco omy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, p. 125136.
Jump up ^ Hrt, Co
g
th Rom Eco omy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700, pp. 128129.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, "Th Ntur of Rom Mo y,"
Th Mo try Sytm of th Gr
k  d Rom , .p.; Hrt, Co
g
th Rom Eco omy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700,
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Jump up ^ "M

g,"
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, Por  d th A c
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Jump up ^ Crddock, Pu T. (2008): "M

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: Oo , Joh P
tr (d.): Th Oxford H dbook of E g
r
g  d Tch oogy
th C
c Wo
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t
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g  d Mturgy
th Grk  d Rom Word, Thm  d Hudo , Lo do , ISBN
0-500-40035-0, p. 196. Aum  product
v cpc
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t. H
y, Joh F. (1978): M

g  d Mturgy
th Grk  d Rom Word, Thm
 d Hudo , Lo do , ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196
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; C do , J -P
rr; Pttro , C
r C.; Boutro , C
ud F. (1996): "H
tory of A c
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g Pout
o Dur
g Rom  d
Md
v T
m Rcordd
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o , A dr (2002): "Mch
, Por  d th A c
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, Vo. 92, pp. 132 (2529)
Jump up ^ Ho g, Su gm
; C do , J -P
rr; Pttro , C
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ud F. (1994): "Gr  d Ic Ev
d c of Hm
phr
c Ld Pout
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zt
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th Supr Lo g-Ru :
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o , A dr (2002): "Mch
, Por  d th A c
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, Th Jour  of Rom Stud
, Vo. 92, pp. 132 (2529)
Jump up ^ Ct, Fr o
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th Supr Lo gRu : Ld, Coppr,  d Sh
prck", Jour  of Rom Archoogy, Vo. 18, pp. 3
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; C do , J -P
rr; Pttro , C
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g Pout
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; C do , J -P
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Pttro , C
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d c of Hm

phr
c Ld Pout
o To M

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zt
o ", Sc

c, Vo. 265, No. 5180, pp. 18411843; Stt, Dorothy M.; Pttro , C
r C. (19

80): "Ld
Abcor: Gu
d to Ld Pout
o
Amr
c ", Sc
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, No. 4436, pp. 11671176 (1170f.)
Jump up ^ Ho g, Su gm
; C do , J -P
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ud F. (1994). "Gr  d Ic Ev
d c of Hm
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c Ld Pout
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v T
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th Supr Lo g-Ru : L
d, Coppr,  d Sh
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Jump up ^ Pttro , C. C. (1972): "S
vr Stock  d Lo
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 t  d Md

v T
m", Th Eco om
c H
tory Rv
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th Supr Lo g-Ru : L
d, Coppr,  d Sh
prck", Jour  of Rom Archoogy, Vo. 18, pp. 361372 (
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, Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r, p. 197.
Jump up ^ 
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r, "L to u  Gu rom
," G
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r, "Co
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CAH 12, p. 404.
Jump up ^ Kv
Gr , Th Archoogy of th Rom Eco omy p. 17.
Jump up ^ W.V. Hrr
, "Trd,"
Th Cmbr
dg A c
 t H
tory: Th H
gh Emp
r
 A.D. 70192 (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2000), vo. 11, p. 713.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, "Trd,"
CAH 11, p. 714.
Jump up ^ Rogr Brdy Ur
ch, Rom Woodork
g (Y U
vr
ty Pr, pp. 12.
^ Jump up to:  b c Stmbugh, Th A c
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ty, p. 253.
Jump up ^ Ry Lur c, "L d Tr port
Rom Ity: Cot, Prct
c  d th
Eco omy,"
Trd, Trdr  d th A c
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ty (Routdg, 1998), p. 129.
Jump up ^ K
th Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r,"
Th Dy
m
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ty Pr, 2009), p. 187.
Jump up ^ Hor , Shopp
g
A c
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Jump up ^ Hrr
, "Trd,"
CAH 11, p. 713.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, "Trd,"
CAH 11, p. 710.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, "Trd,"
CAH 11, pp. 717729.
Jump up ^ M
r
 Corb
r, "Co
g, Soc
ty,  d Eco omy,"
Cmbr
dg A c

t H
tory: Th Cr

 of Emp
r, A.D. 193337 (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2005),
vo. 12, p. 404; Hrr
, "Trd,"
CAH 11, p. 719.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, "Trd,"
CAH 11, p. 720.
Jump up ^ Hor , Shopp
g
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Jump up ^ Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r," p. 196.
Jump up ^ Vrbov , "Th Aoc
t
v Ordr: Sttu  d Etho mo g Rom Bu

m ," prpr
t pp. 18, 23.
Jump up ^ Eborr

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tr
r

: Vrbov , "Th Aoc
t
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tho mo g Rom Bu
m ," prpr
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Th Oxford E cycopd
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Th Oxford E cycopd
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m, p. 323.
^ Jump up to:  b Gr y  d Sr, Th Rom Emp
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ty  d Cu
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Jump up ^ Ptr Tm
, "Th Lbor Mrkt of th Ery Rom Emp
r," Jour  of
I trd
c
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ry H
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Jump up ^ A.H.M. Jo , "Th Coth I dutry u dr th Rom Emp
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c H

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 13.2 (1960), pp. 184185.
^ Jump up to:  b Jo , "Th Coth I dutry u dr th Rom Emp
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Jump up ^ Jo , "Th Coth I dutry u dr th Rom Emp
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Jump up ^ Jo , "Th Coth I dutry u dr th Rom Emp
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Jump up ^ Vout, "Th Myth of th Tog," p. 212. Th cog of c to r


 
u
v top
c
chorh
p, 
c thy r o 
dy tttd  urb f
rf

ghtr;  J
yu L
u, Cog
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orum: Th Gu
d of Txt
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th Rom Wt (Br
, 2009). L
u  thm  "pr
mr
y trdm  d/or m u
fcturr  ggd
th product
o  d d
tr
but
o of o- or md
um-qu
ty 
oo txt
  d coth
g,
cud
g ft  d
t product."
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d, Wtr; Morr
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chrd, d. (2007): Th Cmbr

dg Eco om
c H
tory of th Grco-Rom Word, Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, ISBN
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Jump up ^ Lo Cc
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o; M
m, Poo (Dc. 2009): "GDP
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o of th Et
mt", R
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t d
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c, Vo. 25, No. 3, pp. 391420 (391401)
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Jump up ^ Wtr Sch
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 , "Th S
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Jump up ^ W. L. McDo d, Th Arch
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r, rv. d. Y U

vr
ty Pr, N Hv , 1982, f
g. 131B; Lchtm  d Hobb "Rom Co crt
 d th Rom Arch
tctur Rvout
o "
Jump up ^ V
truv
u, D Arch. Book 1, prfc. ct
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Jump up ^ E cycopd
 Br
t
c, Apoodoru of Dmcu, "Grk  g
r  d
rch
tct ho orkd pr
mr
y for th Rom mpror Trj ."
Gorg Srto (1936), "Th U
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g
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g from Dmcu
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Jump up ^ Ch dr, F
o  "Th Ubor  I tr t L
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 of th Rom
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Jump up ^ Form , Jo "Th Rom ", pg 34. Mcdo d Educt
o  Ltd. 1975
Jump up ^ J. Cro 2007 "Erth,   d tr
Lt A t
qu Co t t
op"

Tch oogy
Tr 
t
o AD 300650
d. L.Lv , E.Z

& A. Sr t
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, L
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orth-t Sp

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Jump up ^ W
th th cr k  d co ct
g rod ytm,  m t for co truct

g  tm  g
 (
v td
1712)Hro' o
p
 (g rt
g tm por), th
cy
dr  d p
to (
mt forc pump), o -rtur vv (
tr pump),
gr
g (
tr m
  d cock)r k o
Rom t
m.R
tt
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Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p. 192.
Jump up ^ Pu Rhk, Impr
um  d Como: Augutu  d th Northr Cmpu Mrt

u (U
vr
ty of W
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Jump up ^ Rhk, Impr
um  d Como, pp. 78.
Jump up ^ Joh E. Stmbugh, Th A c
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ty (Joh  Hopk
 U
vr
ty Pr
, 1988), pp. 23ff.  d 244
Jump up ^ Rub
 Rj, Urb Dvopm t  d Rg
o  Id t
ty
th Etr Ro
m Prov
c 50 BCAD 250 (Muum Tucu um Pr, 2012), 
th co cu
o  pp. 2
15218; D
 Sprbr, Th C
ty
Rom Pt
 (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 1998
).
Jump up ^ Stmbugh, Th A c
 t Rom C
ty, pp. 252253; Br d Lo gfo, Rom
Impr

m  d C
v
c Ptro g: Form, M
g  d Idoogy
Mo um t Fou t

Compx (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2011), p. 2. Ju
u Cr f
rt pp

d th Lt
ord opp
dum to th
 typ of ttm t,  d v cd Avr
cum
(Bourg, Fr c),  c tr of th B
tur
g,  urb, "c
ty." Archoogy
d
c
t tht opp
d r c tr of r
g
o , trd (
cud
g
mport/xport),  d

dutr
 product
o , d for th purpo of df , but thy my ot hv

b
hb
td by co c trtd poput
o  yr-rou d:  D.W. Hrd
g, Th Ar

choogy of Ct
c Art (Routdg, 2007), pp. 211212; Joh Co
, "'Ct
c' Opp

d,"
A Comprt
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rty C
ty-tt Cutur (D k V
d kbr 
 Skb, 2000), pp. 229238; Ct
c Ch
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c Stt: Th Evout
o of Com
px Soc
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(Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 1995, 1999), p. 61.
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r, "Emp
r  d C
ty, Augutu to Ju
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Jump up ^ Vrg
, A 
d 6.852; A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," p.
192.
Jump up ^ A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov
c," pp. 185186.
Jump up ^ Trtu
 , D 
m 30.3 (ub
qu domu, ub
qu popuu, ub
qu rpub

c, ub
qu u
t),  c
td  d frmd by A do, "Th Adm

trt
o of th Prov

c," p. 185.
Jump up ^ M
r, "Emp
r  d C
ty, Augutu to Ju
 ,", p. 76ff.
Jump up ^ Lo gfo, Rom Impr

m  d C
v
c Ptro g, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Jo , Mrk W
o Pr
c
p of Rom Arch
tctur. N Hv : Y U

vr
ty Pr, 2000.
Jump up ^ Hrry B. Ev , Wtr D
tr
but
o
A c
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vr
ty of M
ch

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Jump up ^ Grrtt G. Fg , "Soc

z
g t th Bth,"
Th Oxford H dbook o
f Soc
 Rt
o 
th Rom Word (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2011), p. 366.
Jump up ^ Grrtt G. Fg , "Th G 
 of th Rom Pub
c Bth: Rc t Appro
ch  d Futur D
rct
o ," Amr
c Jour  of Archoogy 105.3 (2001), p. 40
4.
Jump up ^ Fg , "Th G 
 of th Rom Pub
c Bth," p. 404.
Jump up ^ Roy Bo Wrd, "Wom
Rom Bth," Hrvrd Thoog
c Rv
 85.
2 (1992) 125147, pc
y pp. 137, 140.
Jump up ^ Wrd, "Wom
Rom Bth," pp. 142143.
Jump up ^ Trtu
 , Apoogt
cum 42,  c
td by Roy Bo Wrd, "Wom
Rom
 Bth," Hrvrd Thoog
c Rv
 85.2 (1992), p. 125.
Jump up ^ Fg , "Th G 
 of th Rom Pub
c Bth," p. 417.
Jump up ^ Joh R. Crk, Th Hou of Rom Ity, 100 B.C.-A.D. 250: R
tu,
Spc,  d Dcort
o (U
vr
ty of C
for
 Pr, 1992), pp. 12.
Jump up ^ Rhk, Impr
um  d Como, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Crk, Th Hou of Rom Ity, pp. 1112.
Jump up ^ Crk, Th Hou of Rom Ity, p. 2.
Jump up ^ Stmbugh, Th A c
 t Rom C
ty, pp. 144, 147; Crk, Th Hou of
Rom Ity, pp. 12, 17, 22ff.
Jump up ^ Rbu Tyor, "Rom oc
: A Am t," RES: A thropoogy  d A
tht
c 48 (2005) 83105.
Jump up ^ E
 K. Gzd,
troduct
o to Rom Art
th Pr
vt Sphr: Arch

tctur  d Dcor of th Domu, V
,  d I u (U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr,
1991, 1994), p. 9.
^ Jump up to:  b Crk, Th Hou of Rom Ity, p. 19.
Jump up ^ S vr
ou rt
c
Th Ntur H
tory of Pomp

, d
td by W
h
m
 Fmtr Jhmk
 d Frdr
ck G. Myr (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 200
2).
Jump up ^ Horc, St
r 2.6; N
k Hozbrg, Th A c
 t Fb: A I troduct
o
(I d
  U
vr
ty Pr, 2002, or
g
y pub
hd 2001
Grm ), p. 35;
Sm
th Pmr Bov
,
troduct
o to Horc. St
r  d Ep
t (U
vr
ty of
Ch
cgo Pr, 2002), pp. 9293.
^ Jump up to:  b c d  f Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r,"
p. 191.
Jump up ^ Ptr Gr y, "Th L d,"
Th Cmbr
dg A c
 t H
tory: Th H
gh
Emp
r A.D. 70192 (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2000), vo. 11, p. 679.
Jump up ^ Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r," pp. 195196.
Jump up ^ Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco omy of th Rom Emp
r," p. 191, rcko

g tht th urpu of ht from th prov
c of Egypt o  coud mt  d xc
d th d of th c
ty of Rom  d th prov
c
 rm
.
Jump up ^ T.P. W
m , "Th C u
th F
rt C tury B.C.", Jour  of Rom
Stud
 59 (1969), p. 73.

Jump up ^ Cthr
 K , F
gur
g G r
Rom St
r (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr

, 2006), p. 36; Eckhrt Kh , "Brd  d C
rcu: Th Po
t
c of E trt
m
t,"
Gd
tor  d Cr: Th Por of Spctc
A c
 t Rom (U
vr
t
y of C
for
 Pr, 2000), p. 8.
Jump up ^ Juv , St
r 10.7781.
Jump up ^ Joh E. Stmbugh, Th A c
 t Rom C
ty (Joh  Hopk
 U
vr
ty Pr
, 1988), pp. 144, 178; Kthry H
d, Evrydy L
f
th Rom Emp
r (Mr
h Cv d
h, 2010), p. 90.
Jump up ^ C
r Hor , Shopp
g
A c
 t Rom: Th Rt
 Trd
th Lt
 Rpub
c  d th Pr
c
pt (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2012), p. 136ff.
Jump up ^ So, "Cook  d Cookbook,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Gr
c  d Rom, p. 299.
Jump up ^ Ptr
ck F, Arou d th Rom Tb: Food  d Ft
g
A c
 t Rom
 (U
vr
ty of Ch
cgo Pr, 1994, 2005), p. 29.
Jump up ^ Ptr Gr y, "Th L d,"
Cmbr
dg A c
 t H
tory: Th H
gh Emp

r A.D. 70192 (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2000), vo. 11, p. 681.
Jump up ^ P
y th Edr, Ntur H
tory 19.8384; Em
y Gor, Th Lodd Tb
: Rpr tt
o of Food
Rom L
trtur (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 1993, 20
03), p. 17; So, "Food  d Dr
k, Rom ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t
Grc  d Rom, p. 198.
Jump up ^ Stmbugh, Th A c
 t Rom C
ty, p. 144.
Jump up ^ Hor , Shopp
g
A c
 t Rom, pp. 136137.
Jump up ^ Gr y, "Th L d," CAH 11, p. 681.
Jump up ^ Hor , Shopp
g
A c
 t Rom, pp. 134135.
Jump up ^ Stmbugh, Th A c
 t Rom C
ty, p. 146; Hopk
, "Th Po
t
c Eco
omy of th Rom Emp
r," p. 191; Hor , Shopp
g
A c
 t Rom, p. 134.
Jump up ^ Mrk Gr t, G o Food  d D
t (Routdg, 2000), pp. 7, 11 t p

m.
Jump up ^ Vro
k E. Gr
mm, "O Food  d th Body,"
A Comp
o to th Rom
Emp
r, p. 354.
Jump up ^ Gr
mm, "O Food  d th Body," p. 356.
Jump up ^ Mtth B. Ror, D

g Potur
A c
 t Rom (Pr
cto U
vr
t
y Pr, 2006), p. 96ff.
Jump up ^ Gr
mm, "O Food  d th Body," p. 359.
Jump up ^ Jo P. Acock, Food
th A c
 t Word (Gr ood Pr, 2006), p.
184.
Jump up ^ Joh Do hu, Th Rom Commu
ty t Tb dur
g th Pr
c
pt (U
v
r
ty of M
ch
g Pr, 2004, 2007), p. 9.
Jump up ^ Cthy K. Kufm , "Rmmbr c of M Pt: Cook
g by Ap
c
u' Book
,"
Food  d th Mmory: Procd
g of th Oxford Sympo
um o Food  d Cook
r p. 125ff.
Jump up ^ Suto
u, L
f of V
t
u 13.2; Gor, Th Lodd Tb, p. 20.
Jump up ^ So, "Food  d Dr
k, Rom ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Gr
c  d Rom, p. 201.
Jump up ^ Tc
tu, Grm
 23; Gor, Th Lodd Tb, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Mo t r
, "Rom , Brbr
 , Chr
t
 ," p. 166.
Jump up ^ Gr
mm, "O Food  d th Body," pp. 365366.
Jump up ^ "Foodtuff,"
Lt A t
qu
ty, p. 455; Mo t r
, "Rom , Brbr
 
, Chr
t
 ," p. 165167.
^ Jump up to:  b "Foodtuff,"
Lt A t
qu
ty, p. 455.
Jump up ^ Mo t r
, "Rom , Brbr
 , Chr
t
 ," p. 165167.
Jump up ^ Jm L. Fr k
, Jr., Pomp
 D
ff
c
 Et: Stud

th Po
t
c
 L
f of Impr
 Pomp

(U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr, 2001), p. 137; Ry Lu
r c, Rom Pomp

: Spc  d Soc
ty (Routdg, 2007), p. 173; rcou td by
Tc
tu, A  14.17.
Jump up ^ Mry Brd, J.A. North,  d S.R.F. Pr
c, R
g
o  of Rom: A H
tory
(Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 1998), p. 66.
Jump up ^ Such  th Co u
  d th Octobr Hor cr
f
c: Joh H. Humphr
y, Rom C
rcu: Ar  for Chr
ot Rc
g (U
vr
ty of C
for
 Pr, 19
86), pp. 544, 558; Augut Bouch-Lcrcq, M u d I t
tut
o  Rom
 (Hch

tt, 1886), p. 549; "Pur
f
cz
o ,"
Thuru Cutu t R
tuum A t
quorum (

LIMC, 2004), p. 83.
Jump up ^ Stph L. Dyo , Rom: A L
v
g Portr
t of  A c
 t C
ty (Joh  Ho
pk
 U
vr
ty Pr, 2010), p. 240.
Jump up ^ H.S. Vr , Tr
umphu: A I qu
ry
to th Or
g
, Dvopm t  d M

g of th Rom Tr
umph (Br
, 1970), pp. 9697.
Jump up ^ Hz Dodg, "Amu
g th M: Bu
d
g for E trt
m t  d L

ur
th Rom Word,"
L
f, Dth,  d E trt
m t
th Rom Emp
r (
U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr, 1999), p. 242.
Jump up ^ Dodg, "Amu
g th M," pp. 235236.
Jump up ^ Dodg, "Amu
g th M," pp. 223224.
Jump up ^ Dv
d S. Pottr, "E trt
r
th Rom Emp
r,"
L
f, Dth, 
d E trt
m t
th Rom Emp
r, p. 303.
Jump up ^ Humphry, Rom C
rcu, p. 1.
Jump up ^ J.C. Edmo do , "Dy m
c Ar : Gd
tor
 Pr tt
o 
th C
t
y of Rom  d th Co truct
o of Rom Soc
ty dur
g th Ery Emp
r,"
Rom
 Thtr  d Soc
ty (U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr, 1996), p. 112.
Jump up ^ Dyo , Rom: A L
v
g Portr
t, pp. 237, 239.
Jump up ^ Humphry, Rom C
rcu, pp. 13.
Jump up ^ K.M. Com , "Ft Chrd: Rom Excut
o  Stgd  Mythoog
c
E ctm t," Jour  of Rom Stud
 80 (1990), pp. 5051.
Jump up ^ Edmo do , "Dy m
c Ar ," pp. 7374, 106, t p
m; Ro d Augut, C
ruty  d C
v

zt
o : Th Rom Gm (Routdg, 1972, 1994), p. 54; Joh Mc
C d, Body  d M
d: Sport
Europ from th Rom Emp
r to th R 
 c
 (Routdg, 2007), p. 67.
Jump up ^ Dyo , Rom: A L
v
g Portr
t, pp. 238239; A
o Futr, "Chr
ot r
c
g,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom, p. 85; Humphry, R
om C
rcu, p. 461; McC d, Body  d M
d, p. 61.
Jump up ^ Thom W
dm , Empror  d Gd
tor (Routdg, 1992, 1995), p.
15.
Jump up ^ Humphry, Rom C
rcu, pp. 459, 461, 512, 630631; Futr, "Chr
ot
rc
g,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom, p. 85; Dyo , Ro
m: A L
v
g Portr
t of  A c
 t C
ty, p. 237.
Jump up ^ Dyo , Rom: A L
v
g Portr
t, p. 238.
Jump up ^ Pottr, "E trt
r
th Rom Emp
r," p. 296; Dyo , Rom: A L
v

g Portr
t, pp. 238239.
Jump up ^ Humphry, Rom C
rcu, p. 238; Pottr, "E trt
r
th Rom E
mp
r," p. 299.
Jump up ^ Humphry, Rom C
rcu, pp. 1821; Futr, "Chr
ot rc
g,"
Th O
xford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom, p. 84.
Jump up ^ Augut, Cruty  d C
v

zt
o , pp. 131132; Dodg, "Amu
g th M
," p. 237.
Jump up ^ Augut, Cruty  d C
v

zt
o , p. 144; Dyo , Rom: A L
v
g Portr

t, p. 238; Mtth D
ck
, Mg
c  d Mg
c
 
th Grco-Rom Word (Rout
dg, 2001, 2003), pp. 282287; Ev D'Ambr, "Rc
g 
th Dth: C
rcu Srcophg

 d th Commmort
o of Ch
dr
Rom Ity"
Co truct
o  of Ch
dhood

A c
 t Grc  d Ity (Amr
c Schoo of C
c Stud
 t Ath , 200
7), pp. 348349; N
co Bych, "R
g
ou Actor
D
y L
f: Prct
c  d R
td B
f,"
A Comp
o to Rom R
g
o (Bck, 2007), p. 289.
Jump up ^ Pottr, "E trt
r
th Rom Emp
r," p. 303.
Jump up ^ Vro
k E. Gr
mm, "O Food  d th Body,"
A Comp
o to th Rom
Emp
r, p. 354; Cthr
 Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom (Y U
vr
ty Pr
, 2007), p. 59; Pottr, "E trt
r
th Rom Emp
r," p. 305.
Jump up ^ C
o D
o 54.2.2; R Gt D
v
Augut
22.1, 3; Edrd, Dth

A c
 t Rom, p. 49; Edmo do , "Dy m
c Ar ," p. 70.
Jump up ^ C
u D
o 66.25; Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom, p. 55; Humphry, Ro
m C
rcu, p. 1.
Jump up ^ Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom, p. 49.
Jump up ^ Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom, p. 50.
Jump up ^ Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom, p. 55; Pottr, "E trt
r
th Ro

m Emp
r," p. 307; McC d, Body  d M
d, p. 66, c
t
g o Mrcu Ju k

m .
Jump up ^ Com , "Ft Chrd," pp. 4547.
Jump up ^ Suto
u, Nro 12.2; Com , "Ft Chrd," pp. 4473; Edmo do , "
Dy m
c Ar ," p. 73.
Jump up ^ Trtu
 , D pctcu
 12; Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom, pp. 5960
; Dodg, "Amu
g th M," p. 224.
Jump up ^ Mr
  McDo d  d J. M
ch Wto ,
troduct
o to Th Cmbr
dg
Comp
o to Grk  d Rom Thtr (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2007), p. 8.
Jump up ^ Do d G. Ky, Spctc of Dth
A c
 t Rom (Routdg, 1998,
2001), p. 81; Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom, p. 63.
Jump up ^ P
y, P gyr
c 33.1; Edrd, Dth
th Ar , p. 52.
Jump up ^ Edrd, Dth
th Ar , pp. 6667, 72.
Jump up ^ Edrd, Dth
A c
 t Rom, p. 212.
Jump up ^ G.W. Borock, Mrtyrdom  d Rom (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 1995),
pp. 2526; Gug
mo Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx: Rd
g
th Rom Wo
rd,"
A H
tory of Rd
g
th Wt (Po
ty Pr, 1999, or
g
y pub

hd
Fr ch 1995), p. 79; Gr
d Hubr-Rb
ch, "Hg
ogrph
c F
ct
o  E
trt
m t,"
Lt
F
ct
o : Th Lt
Nov
Co txt (Routg, 1999), pp.
158178; S.R. Ly  d A.M. Nobb, "Th Er
t Dtd Rfr c to Su dy

th Ppyr
,"
N Docum t Iutrt
g Ery Chr
t

ty (Wm. B. Erdm ,
2002), p. 109; H r
k H
dbr dt, "Ery Chr
t

ty
Rom P o
Fct or
F
ct
o ?"
Stud
 Ptr
t
c: Ppr Pr td t th Fourt th I tr t
o 
Co fr c o Ptr
t
c Stud
 Hd
Oxford 2003 (Ptr, 2006), pp. 5964; A
do, Impr
 Idoogy  d Prov
c
 Loyty
th Rom Emp
r, p. 382.
Jump up ^ Oxford Lt
D
ct
o ry (Oxford: Cr do Pr, 1982, 1985 rpr
t),
pp. 10481049; Thom N. Hb
k, Th Word of Rom So g: From R
tu
zd Spch
to Soc
 Ordr (Joh  Hopk
 U
vr
ty Pr, 2005), pp. 5, 143, t p
m.
Jump up ^ Bry Ro , Ch
dr  d Ch
dhood
Rom Ity (Oxford U
vr
ty
Pr, 2003), p. 128.
Jump up ^ Wto Brook McD
, "Som Pg co cr
g B-Gm," Tr c
t
o   d Procd
g of th Amr
c Ph
oog
c Aoc
t
o 37 (1906), pp. 12
2123, 125126.
Jump up ^ Ro , Ch
dr  d Ch
dhood
Rom Ity, pp. 129130.
Jump up ^ Em
 Eyb , Rt Youth
A c
 t Rom (Routdg, 1977, 1993), p
p. 7982, 110.
Jump up ^ Schor r d
v
dd
th
r rt
v mph
 o th tht
c  d d
c m t of th xrc
: H. L, "Atht
c  d th B
k

G
r from P

zz Armr
," Std
o 10 (1984) 4575,  thm  gym t, h
 M. Tor
,
"P
zz Armr
: Not d

co oog
",
L V
 rom  d C d
P
zz A
rmr
, d
td by G. R
zz (Ct
, 1988), p. 152, th
k thy r d cr t
th gm. Summr
zd by Kthr
 M.D. Du bb
, Mo
c of th Grk  d Rom
Word (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 1999), p. 133.
Jump up ^ A E
 H o , "Th Rtructur
g of Fm Phy
oogy t Rom,"

L co md
c Rom (U
vr
t d N t, 1991), pp. 260, 264, prt
cury c

t
g th Gy coogy of Sor u.
Jump up ^ R.G. Aut
, "Rom Bord Gm II," Grc & Rom 4.11 (1935), pp. 808
1.
Jump up ^ R.G. Aut
, "Rom Bord Gm I," Grc & Rom 4.10 (1934) 2434.
Jump up ^ Aut
, "Rom Bord Gm II," pp. 7679.
Jump up ^ M
r
 M. L, "Coth
g,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Gr
c  d Rom (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2010), p. 230.
Jump up ^ Ly d L. Coo , Scrd F
ct
o : Hoy Wom  d Hg
ogrphy
Lt A t

qu
ty (U
vr
ty of P yv
 Pr, 1997), p. 57.
Jump up ^ Cro
 Vout, "Th Myth of th Tog: U drt d
g th H
tory of Rom
 Dr," Grc & Rom 43.2 (1996), p. 216; Mrgrt B
br, "Rom M
Gr
k H
mt
o (Rom
P
t
)  Co tr
but
o to th H
tory of Copy
g," Proc
d
g of th Amr
c Ph
ooph
c Soc
ty 103.3 (1959), p. 412.
Jump up ^ Vout, "Th Myth of th Tog," p. 218.
Jump up ^ Vout, "Th Myth of th Tog," pp. 204220, pc
y pp. 206, 211; B
b

r, "Rom M
Grk H
mt
o ," pp. 374417; Guy P.R. Mtrux, "Prudry  d Ch
c

Lt A t
qu Coth
g,"
Rom Dr  d th Fbr
c of Rom Cutur (U
v
r
ty of Toro to Pr, 2008), p. 286.
^ Jump up to:  b L, "Coth
g," Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom
, p. 231.
Jump up ^ Vout, "Th Myth of th Tog," p. 216
Jump up ^ Qu
t

 , I t
tut
o Ortor
 11.3.137149; B
br, "Rom M
Gr
k H
mt
o ," p. 412; Coo , Scrd F
ct
o , pp. 5758.
Jump up ^ B
br, "Rom M
Grk H
mt
o ," p. 415.
Jump up ^ Mtrux, "Prudry  d Ch
c
Lt A t
qu Coth
g," pp. 282283.
Jump up ^ L
z C d, Grk  d Rom Dr from A to Z (Routdg, 2007), p.
194.
Jump up ^ C d, Grk  d Rom Dr from A to Z, p. 194.
Jump up ^ Modr copy of  2 d-c tury or
g
, from th Louvr.
Jump up ^ Trtu
 , D P
o 5.2; B
br, "Rom M
Grk H
mt
o ," pp.
399411; Coo , Scrd F
ct
o , p. 58.
Jump up ^ Vout, "Th Myth of th Tog," p. 217.
Jump up ^ L, "Coth
g," Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom p. 232
.
Jump up ^ Rff D'Amto, Rom M

try Coth
g (3) AD 400 to 640 (Opry, 2
005), pp. 79.
Jump up ^ Chr
 W
ckhm, Th I hr
t c of Rom (P gu
Book Ltd., 2009), p.
106. ISBN 978-0-670-02098-0
Jump up ^ Rch Mrd
th Kou, H
t
c  d Rom Id Scuptur: Th A
ur of th C
c (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2008), p. 1; L St
r
g, "Ar
t, Arch
tctur,  d Archoogy
th Rom Emp
r,"
A Comp
o to th Rom
 Emp
r, pp. 7576.
Jump up ^ St
r
g, "Art, Arch
tctur,  d Archoogy
th Rom Emp
r," pp
. 8283.
Jump up ^ E
 K. Gzd,
troduct
o to Rom Art
th Pr
vt Sphr: Arch

tctur  d Dcor of th Domu, V
,  d I u (U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr,
1991, 1994), pp. 13.
Jump up ^ Pu Z kr, Pomp

: Pub
c  d Pr
vt L
f, tr td by Dborh L
uc Sch 
dr (Hrvrd U
vr
ty Pr, 1998, or
g
y pub
hd 1995
Gr
m ), p. 189.
Jump up ^ Kou, H
t
c  d Rom Id Scuptur, pp. 45, 8.
Jump up ^ Lur Hckorth Ptr , "Crft  d Art
 ,"
Th Oxford E cyc
opd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom, pp. 312313.
Jump up ^ Toy b, J. M. C. (Dcmbr 1971). "Rom Art". Th C
c Rv
 2
1 (3): 439442. do
:10.1017/S0009840X00221331. JSTOR 708631.
Jump up ^ Pu Z kr, Th Por of Img
th Ag of Augutu (U
vr
ty of
M
ch
g Pr, 1988), p. 5ff.
Jump up ^ Sh
 D
o , "Portr
t  d Portr
tur,"
Th Oxford E cycopd

of A c
 t Grc  d Rom, p. 451.
Jump up ^ J  Fjfr, Rom Portr
t
Co txt (Wtr d Gruytr, 2008), p.
10.
Jump up ^ D
o , "Portr
t  d Portr
tur,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c

 t Grc  d Rom, p. 453.
Jump up ^ Cro C. Mttuch, Th V
 d
Pp
r
t Hrcu um: L
f  d Aftr

f of  Scuptur Coct
o (Gtty Pub
ct
o , 2005), p. 322.
Jump up ^ Kou, H
t
c  d Rom Id Scuptur, p. 13; Do d Stro g, R
om Art (Y U
vr
ty Pr, 1976, 2 d d. 1988), p. 11.
Jump up ^ K
m J. Hrt
ck, "Grd ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Gr
c  d Rom, pp. 274275.
Jump up ^ J
fr N
, "Scuptur,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Gr
c  d Rom, p. 242.
Jump up ^ Frd S. K
r, A H
tory of Rom Art (Wdorth, 2007, 2010,  h c
d d.), p. 272.
Jump up ^ Zhr Nby, "Myth  d Dth: Rom Mythoog
c Srcophg
,"
A Com
p
o to Grk Mythoogy (Bck, 2011), p. 301.

Jump up ^ J E r,
troduct
o to L
f, Dth  d Rpr tt
o : Som N Wor
k o Rom Srcophg
(D Gruytr, 2011), p. 1.
Jump up ^ E r,
troduct
o to L
f, Dth  d Rpr tt
o , p. 12.
Jump up ^ E r,
troduct
o to L
f, Dth  d Rpr tt
o , p. 14.
Jump up ^ E r,
troduct
o to L
f, Dth  d Rpr tt
o , pp. 1, 9.
Jump up ^ By M
ch Rotovtzff,  otd by Rob
M. J  , "Th Dur-Europo
Sy gogu, Ery-Chr
t
 Art  d R
g
ou L
f
Dur Europo,"
J, Ch
r
t
   d Poyth
t
th A c
 t Sy gogu: Cutur I trct
o dur
g t
h Grco-Rom Pr
od (Routdg, 1999), p. 154.
Jump up ^ J  ,"Th Dur-Europo Sy gogu," p. 154ff.; Rch Hch

, A c

t J
h Art  d Archoogy
th D
por (Br
, 1998), p. 96ff.; H
z Sch
rck brg  d Kurt Schubrt, J
h H
tor
ogrphy  d Ico ogrphy
Ery  d
Md
v Chr
t

ty (Fortr Pr, 1991), p. 171ff.
^ Jump up to:  b "Mo
c,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom
 p. 463.
Jump up ^ "Mo
c,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom p. 459
.
Jump up ^ "Mo
c,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom pp. 45
9460.
Jump up ^ Kthr
 M.D. Du bb
, Mo
c of th Grk  d Rom Word (Cmbr
d
g U
vr
ty Pr, 1999), p. 254ff.
Jump up ^ "Archoogy: S
t Ehr
Europ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 o
f A c
 t Grc  d Rom, p. 202.
Jump up ^ Kv
Butchr, Rom Syr
  d th Nr Et (Gtty Pub
ct
o , 2003
), p. 201ff.; M
r
 Corb
r, "Co
g, Soc
ty,  d Eco omy,"
Cmbr
dg A
c
 t H
tory: Th Cr

 of Emp
r, A.D. 193337 (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 200
5), vo. 12, p. 421.
Jump up ^ E
 F thm, "M
m: Th M

g L
k
Rom L
trry H
tory," C

c Word 82 (1989), p. 230; W

m J. Str, "M
m Probm: C
cro Ad f
m. 7.1  d Mrt
 9.38," Pho
x 56 (2002), p. 315; Dv
d S. Pottr, "E trt

r
th Rom Emp
r,"
L
f, Dth,  d E trt
m t
th Rom Emp
r
(U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr, 1999), p. 257.
Jump up ^ G
 B
g
o Co t, Lt
L
trtur: A H
tory (Joh  Hopk
 U
vr

ty Pr, 1994, or
g
y pub
hd 1987
It
 ), p. 128.
Jump up ^ Jm L. Fr k
, Jr., "P tom
m
t t Pomp

: Act
u A
ctu  d
H
 Troup," Amr
c Jour  of Ph
oogy 108.1 (1987), Joh H. Strk, Jr., "P
 tom
m Actr
Lt
I cr
pt
o ,"
N D
rct
o 
A c
 t P tom
m
 (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2008), p. 95; p. 14ff.
Jump up ^ Frdr
ck G. Nrbout, "D c
th Rom Emp
r  d It D
co t t
,"
R
tu Dy m
c  d R
g
ou Ch g
th Rom Emp
r. Procd
g of t
h E
ghth Workhop of th I tr t
o  Ntork Impct of Emp
r (H
dbrg, Ju
y 57, 2007) (Br
, 2009), p. 146.
Jump up ^ Mr
 E. G
brg-Kr, "Th Archoogy of Mu
c I trum t
Gr
m y dur
g th Rom Pr
od," Word Archoogy 12.3 (1981), pp. 313, 316.
Jump up ^ Thom Hb
k, Th Word of Rom So g (Joh  Hopk
 U
vr
ty Pr
, 2005) p
m.
Jump up ^ Hb
k, Th Word of Rom So g, p. 90ff.
Jump up ^ G
brg-Kr, "Th Archoogy of Mu
c I trum t
Grm y dur

g th Rom Pr
od," p. 313.
Jump up ^ G
brg-Kr, "Th Archoogy of Mu
c I trum t
Grm y dur

g th Rom Pr
od," p. 314.
^ Jump up to:  b G
brg-Kr, "Th Archoogy of Mu
c I trum t
Grm
 y dur
g th Rom Pr
od," p. 316.
Jump up ^ Nrbout, "D c
th Rom Emp
r," p. 146ff.
Jump up ^ Nrbout, "D c
th Rom Emp
r," pp. 154, 157.
Jump up ^ Nrbout, "D c
th Rom Emp
r," pp. 156157.
Jump up ^ Amy R
ch
, "Not bfor Homoxu
ty: Th Mtr

ty of th c
du
  d th Rom L g
t Lov bt M ," Jour  of th H
tory of Sxu

ty 3.4 (1993), pp. 539540.
Jump up ^ Er
c Cpo  d W

m J. Str, Th Co txt of A c
 t Drm (U
vr


ty of M
ch
g Pr, 1994), p. 377.

Jump up ^ Nrbout, "D c
th Rom Emp
r," p. 146.
Jump up ^ Rmy McMu , Chr
t

z
g th Rom Emp
r: (A. D. 100400) (Y
U
vr
ty Pr, 1984), pp. 7475, 84.
Jump up ^ A quotd by Acu
, Ep
tu 175 (Nc
t homo, qu
h
tr
o  t m
mo
 t ttor
troduct
domum um, qum mg  o
mmu dorum qu
tur turb
 p
r
tum); Y
tzhk H , Cutur  d R
g
o
Mrov
g
 Gu, AD 481751 (Br

, 1995), p. 230.
Jump up ^ W

m V. Hrr
, A c
 t L
trcy (Hrvrd U
vr
ty Pr, 1989),
p. 5; W

m A. Joh o , A c
 t L
trc
: Th Cutur of Rd
g
Grc 
d Rom (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2009), pp. 34, pc
y ot 5; T.J. Kru, "
(I)
trcy
No -L
trry Ppyr
from Grco-Rom Egypt: Furthr Apct of
th Educt
o  Id
A c
 t L
trry Sourc  d Modr T
m," M moym 5
3.3 (2000), p. 325; Mr
tt Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dboo
k of Soc
 Rt
o 
th Rom Word, pp. 89, 9798.
Jump up ^ Su P. Mttr , Rom  d th E my: Impr
 Strtgy
th Pr
c
p
t (U
vr
ty of C
for
 Pr, 1999), p. 197; Tr Morg , L
trt Educ
t
o
th H
t
c  d Rom Word (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 1998, 200
0), pp. 12 t p
m; Grg Woof, "L
trcy or L
trc

Rom?"
A c
 t L

trc
, p. 46ff.; Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc

 Rt
o 
th Rom Word, p. 97. C
fford A do po th qut
o  "h
t good oud 'potd d
ct' do
 ord of o 
trcy?'
Impr
 Idoog
y  d Prov
c
 Loyty
th Rom Emp
r (U
vr
ty of C
for
 Pr, 20
00), p. 101 ( o p. 87 o "th govr m t' ob
v docum tt
o ").
Jump up ^ A do, Impr
 Idoogy  d Prov
c
 Loyty
th Rom Emp
r, pp
. 8687.
Jump up ^ A do, Impr
 Idoogy  d Prov
c
 Loyty
th Rom Emp
r, p.
101; Kru, "(I)
trcy
No -L
trry Ppyr
from Grco-Rom Egypt," pp.
325327.
Jump up ^ A do, Impr
 Idoogy  d Prov
c
 Loyty
th Rom Emp
r, pp
. 152, 210.
Jump up ^ Mry Brd, "A c
 t L
trcy  d th Wr
tt Word
Rom R
g
o ,"

L
trcy
th Rom Word (U
vr
ty of M
ch
g Pr, 1991), p. 59ff; M
tth W. D
ck
, Mg
c  d Mg
c
 
th Grco-Rom Word (Routdg, 2001,
2003), pp. 9495, 181182,  d 196; Dv
d Fr kfurtr, "Trd
t
o  Cut,"
A Com
p
o to th Rom Emp
r (Bck, 2010), p. 555; Hrr
, A c
 t L
trcy,
pp. 29, 218219.
Jump up ^ Sr E
 Ph g, "M

try Docum t, L gug,  d L
trcy,"
A
Comp
o to th Rom Army (Bck, 2011), pp. 286301.
Jump up ^ Mttr , Rom  d th E my, p. 197, c
t
g Hrr
, A c
 t L
trcy,
pp. 253255.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, A c
 t L
trcy, pp. 9, 48, 215, 248, 258269. S o Kr
t

 M
 or, "L
trry L
trcy
Rom Pomp

: Th C of Vrg
' A 
d," p.
290ff.; Woof, "L
trcy or L
trc

Rom?" pp. 47, 54, both
A c
 t L
t
rc
. Po
t
c og   d obc
t
 r 
dy prrvd  grff
t

P
omp

: A to
o Vro , Erot
c Pomp
 : Lov I cr
pt
o  o th W of Pom
p

("L'Erm" d
Brtch 
dr, 2002), p
m. Sod
r omt
m
cr
bd 

g but 
th ggr
v mg: Ph g, "M

try Docum t, L gug,  d
L
trcy," p. 300. For  c tudy of  pc
f
c rg
o
th Wtr prov
c
,  Curch
, "L
trcy
th Rom Prov
c", pc
y p. 473.
Jump up ^ Mttr , Rom  d th E my, p. 197; Morg , L
trt Educt
o
th
H
t
c  d Rom Word, pp. 12 t p
m.
Jump up ^ Tr Morg , "Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Gr
c  d Rom (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2010), pp. 1920.
Jump up ^ W

m A. Joh o , Rdr  d Rd
g Cutur
th H
gh Rom Emp
r
: A Study of E
t Commu
t
 (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2010), pp. 1718.
Jump up ^ Mrt
, Ep
grm 1.2  d 14.18492,  c
td by Joh o , Rdr  d R
d
g Cutur
th H
gh Rom Emp
r, p. 17; Gug
mo Cvo, "Bt Voum
  d Codx: Rd
g
th Rom Word,"
A H
tory of Rd
g
th Wt (
Po
ty Pr, 1999, or
g
y pub
hd
Fr ch 1995), pp. 8384.

Jump up ^ Joh o , Rdr  d Rd
g Cutur
th H
gh Rom Emp
r, p. 17;
Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx: Rd
g
th Rom Word," pp. 8485.
Jump up ^ Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx: Rd
g
th Rom Word," p. 8
4.
Jump up ^ A tho y J. Mrh, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom,"
Pho
x 30.3 (1976), p. 253.
Jump up ^ Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx," p. 71; Mrh, "L
brry Rour
c  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," p. 253, c
t
g o th book trd
th prov

c P
y th You gr, Ep
tu 9.11.2; Mrt
, Ep
grm 7.88; Horc, Crm

 2.20.13f.  d Ar Pot
c 345; Ov
d, Tr
t
 4.9.21  d 4.10.128; P
y th E
dr, Ntur H
tory 35.2.11; S
do
u, Ep
tu 9.7.1.
Jump up ^ Strbo 13.1.54, 50.13.419; Mrt
, Ep
grm 2.8; Luc
 , Advru I d
octum 1; Mrh, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," p. 253.
Jump up ^ Mrh, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," p. 253.
Jump up ^ Accord
g to S c, Ep
tu 27.6f.; Mrh, "L
brry Rourc 
d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," p. 254.
Jump up ^ Mrh, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," pp. 252264.
Jump up ^ Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx," pp. 6768.
Jump up ^ Mrh, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," pp. 257, 2
60.
Jump up ^ P
y, Ep
tu 1.8.2; CIL 5.5262 (= ILS 2927); Mrh, "L
brry R
ourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," p. 255.
Jump up ^ Mrh, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," pp. 261262;
Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx," p. 70.
Jump up ^ Tc
tu, Agr
co 2.1  d A  4.35  d 14.50; P
y th You gr, E
p
tu 7.19.6; Suto
u, Augutu 31, T
br
u 61.3,  d C
gu 16; Mrh
, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," p. 263.
Jump up ^ Suto
u, Dom
t
 10; Qu
t

 , I t
tut
o Ortor
 9.2.65; Mrh
, "L
brry Rourc  d Crt
v Wr
t
g t Rom," p. 263.
Jump up ^ Thom Hb
k, "S
tut
g L
trcy t Rom," p. 114ff.,  d Hot N. P
rkr, "Book  d Rd
g Lt
Potry," p. 186ff., both
A c
 t L
trc
;
Grrtt G. Fg , "L
ur,"
A Comp
o to th Rom Emp
r (Bck, 2010
), p. 372.
Jump up ^ Joh o , Rdr  d Rd
g Cutur
th H
gh Rom Emp
r, p. 14.
Jump up ^ W

m A. Joh o , "Co truct
g E
t Rd
g Commu
t

th H
g
h Emp
r,"
A c
 t L
trc
, p. 320ff.
Jump up ^ Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx," pp. 6869, 7879.
Jump up ^ Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx," pp. 8182.
Jump up ^ Horc, St
r 1.6.74; Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H
dbook of Soc
 Rt
o 
th Rom Word, p. 95.
Jump up ^ Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o

th Rom Word, pp. 8485.
Jump up ^ Chr
t
 L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r: Out
dr W
th
(Cmbr

dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2011, or
g
y pub
hd
Dutch 2006), p. 108; Hortr
, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o 
th Rom W
ord, p. 89.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, p. 113116.
Jump up ^ Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o

th Rom Word, pp. 90, 92; L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, p. 120.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, p. 120.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, pp. 116121.
Jump up ^ Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o

th Rom Word, pp. 8789.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, p. 122.
^ Jump up to:  b Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc

Rt
o 
th Rom Word, p. 90.
^ Jump up to:  b Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc

Rt
o 
th Rom Word, p. 89.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, pp. 107108, 132.
Jump up ^ W. Mrt
Boomr, Th Schoo of Rom: Lt
Stud
  d th Or
g
 o

f L
br Educt
o (U
vr
ty of C
for
 Pr, 2011), pp. 9397; Morg , L
t
rt Educt
o
th H
t
c  d Rom Word, p. 250. Qu
t

 u th
mtphor cur
g
um, "to hrp t t,"    gr
cutur mtphor
.
^ Jump up to:  b Boomr, Th Schoo of Rom, pp. 9394.
Jump up ^ Boomr, Th Schoo of Rom, p. 99.
Jump up ^ Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o

th Rom Word, pp. 9394.
Jump up ^ Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ," p. 88,  d Joy Co oy, "Rhtor
c Edu
ct
o ," p. 106, both
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o 
th Rom Wo
rd.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, p. 109.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, p. 132.
Jump up ^ K. Sr Myr, "Impr
 Potry,"
A Comp
o to th Rom Emp
r,
pp. 439, 442.
Jump up ^ Co oy, "Rhtor
c Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 R
t
o 
th Rom Word, pp. 102103, 105.
Jump up ^ Co oy, "Rhtor
c Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 R
t
o 
th Rom Word, pp. 104105.
Jump up ^ Co oy, "Rhtor
c Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 R
t
o 
th Rom Word, pp. 103, 106.
Jump up ^ Co oy, "Rhtor
c Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 R
t
o 
th Rom Word, p. 110.
Jump up ^ Co oy, "Rhtor
c Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 R
t
o 
th Rom Word, p. 107.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, A c
 t L
trcy, p. 5.
Jump up ^ R.P. Sr, "Promot
o  d Ptro g
Equtr
 Crr," Jour 
of Rom Stud
 70 (1980), p. 56.
Jump up ^ Dv
d Armtro , "Th B
ogrph
c  d Soc
 Fou dt
o  of Horc' P
ot
c Vo
c,"
A Comp
o to Horc (Bck, 2010), p. 11; R.O.A.M. Ly ,
Horc: Byo d th Pub
c Potry (Y U
vr
ty Pr, 1995), pp. 23; Mr
tt
Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o 
th
Rom Word, p. 94.
Jump up ^ Pu Frdr
k , "Chr
t
 
th Rom Emp
r
th F
rt Thr C
 tur
 CE,"
A Comp
o to th Rom Emp
r (Bck, 2010), p. 598.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, pp. 109110.
Jump up ^ Hortr, "Pr
mry Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford H dbook of Soc
 Rt
o

th Rom Word, p. 88.
Jump up ^ L, Ch
dr
th Rom Emp
r, p. 110; Morg , "Educt
o ,"
Th
 Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d Rom, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Morg , "Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d
Rom, p. 18.
Jump up ^ Th 
d-r g
g 21t-c tury chorh
p o th Sco d Soph
t
c
c
ud B
g Grk u dr Rom: Cutur Id t
ty, th Sco d Soph
t
c  d th Dv
opm t of Emp
r, d
td by S
mo Godh
 (Cmbr
dg U
vr
ty Pr, 2001);
P
d
: Th Word of th Sco d Soph
t
c, d
td by Brbr E. Borg (D Gruyt
r, 2004);  d T
m Wh
tmrh, Th Sco d Soph
t
c (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 200
5).
Jump up ^ Thom N. Hb
k, Th Po
t
c of Lt
L
trtur: Wr
t
g, Id t
ty
,  d Emp
r
A c
 t Rom (Pr
cto U
vr
ty Pr, 1998), p. 122; Bry R
o , Ch
dr  d Ch
dhood
Rom Ity (Oxford U
vr
ty Pr, 2003), p.
80.
Jump up ^ Shro L. Jm, Lr d G
r  d M Pru
o : G dr  d Rd
g

Rom Lov Egy (U
vr
ty of C
for
 Pr, 2003), pp. 2125; W.R. Joh 
o , "Proprt
u," pp. 4243,  d Shro L. Jm, "Egy  d N Comdy," p. 262,
both
A Comp
o to Rom Lov Egy (Bck, 2012).
Jump up ^ Hb
k, Th Po
t
c of Lt
L
trtur, p. 123.
Jump up ^ Morg , "Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d
Rom, p. 20.
Jump up ^ Hrr
, A c
 t L
trcy, p. 3.

Jump up ^ Morg , "Educt
o ,"
Th Oxford E cycopd
 of A c
 t Grc  d

Rom, p. 19.
Jump up ^ Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx: Rd
g
th Rom Word," pp.
8789.
Jump up ^ Cvo, "Bt Voum  d Codx: Rd
g
th Rom Word," p. 8
6.
Jump up ^ M
ch Robrt, Th Jd Sty: Potry  d Pot
c
Lt A t
qu

ty (Cor  U
vr
ty Pr, 1989, 2010), p. 3.
Jump up ^ At Ov
d
 ; Chr McN
, "Ov
d
 Strtg

Ery Impr

L
trtur,"
A Comp
o to Ov
d (Bck, 2007), p. 397.
Jump up ^ Robrt, Th Jd Sty, p. 8.
Jump up ^ Lo rd A. Curch
, "L
trcy
th Rom Prov
c: Qu
tt
v  d
Qu t
tt
v Dt from C tr Sp
," Amr
c Jour  of Ph
oogy 116.3 (1995
), p. 465.
Jump up ^ Hrm-J v Dm, "W dr
g Wood Ag
: From Po
z
 o to Grot
u,"

Th Potry of Stt
u (Br
, 2008), p. 45ff.
Jump up ^ Jo th Mtr, "Th H
tor
,"
A Comp
o to Tc
tu (Bck
, 2012), p. 88.
Jump up ^ M
ch M. Sg, "Tc
tu' H
tor
c Work: A Survy  d Appr
,"
Auft
g u d N
drg g dr rm
ch Wt II.33.2 (1990), p. 853.
Jump up ^ M
ch vo Abrcht, A H
tory of Rom L
trtur: From L
v
u A dro

cu to Both
u (Br
, 1997), vo. 2, p. 1294 t p
m.
Jump up ^ Vo Abrcht, A H
tory of Rom L
trtur, p. 1443.
Jump up ^ Robrt, Th Jd Sty, p. 70.
Jump up ^ Vo Abrcht, A H
tory of Rom L
trtur, vo. 2, p. 1359ff.
Jump up ^ "Not 
c Vrg
 hd thr b  Rom pot o ffct
v t tb

h
g  mtr rrt
v for h
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c Prpct
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t
o 
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ct
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m  d
mpr

m.
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td Stt,"
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c Trd
t
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Jump up ^ M

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c, Mrk Gr tr, A H
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d
g
Th
r Cutur  d Tch oog
c Co txt (U
vr
ty
Pr of N E g d, 1999) p. 13.

Jump up ^ R
chrd Guy W
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c Arch
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r
c Ag d,"
Thom Jffro , th C
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Arthr Frr
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r: Th M

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d Hudo , 1988 (ISBN 0-500-27495-9).
Godorthy, Adr
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0-05124-0).
B jm
Ic, "Th L
m
t of Emp
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th Et" Oxford U
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ty Pr, 1992 (ISBN 0-19-814926-3).
A dr L
tott, Impr
um Rom um: Po
t
c  d dm

trt
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Edrd Luttk, Th Gr d Strtgy of th Rom Emp
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R
tt
, Tu
; Gr, Ku; K r, Pu (2007), "A R
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t Imp
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Rom Archoogy 20: 138163
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32-15090-0
Furthr rd
g[d
t]
L
brry rourc bout
Rom Emp
r
O 
 book
Rourc
your 
brry
Rourc
othr 
brr

Joh Bg  Bury, A H
tory of th Rom Emp
r from
t Fou dt
o to th dt
h of Mrcu Aur
u, 1913, ISBN 978-1-4367-3416-5
Du c B Cmpb, Th R
 of Impr
 Rom, AD 14-193, Opry, 2013, ISBN 9781-78096-280-1
W
to Church
, A H
tory of th E g
h-Spk
g Pop, C, 1998, ISB
N 0-304-34912-7
Edrd G
bbo , Th H
tory of th Dc
  d F of th Rom Emp
r, 17761789
Adr
 Godorthy. I th Nm of Rom: Th M Who Wo th Rom Emp
r, W
d
f
d  d N
choo , 2003, ISBN 0-297-84666-3
M
ch Gr t, Th H
tory of Rom, Fbr  d Fbr, 1993, ISBN 0-571-11461-X
A to
o S touoo, Storm
g th Hv : Sod
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