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  • Edexcel AS Biology Student Book by Ann Fullick by Ariful Islam

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    It is the Edexcel AS Biology Book Author: Ann Fullick Published in scribd: Ariful Islam ISBN-13: 978-1405896320 Ignore this: edexcel,AS,Biology,Edexcel AS biology,book,by ann fullick,ann Fullick,student book,Edexcel

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    It is the Edexcel AS Biology Book Author: Ann Fullick Published in scribd: Ariful Islam ISBN-13: 978-1405896320 Ignore this: edexcel,AS,Biology,Edexcel AS biology,book,by ann fullick,ann Fullick,student book,Edexcel

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    21K visualizações272 páginas

    Edexcel AS Biology Student Book by Ann Fullick by Ariful Islam

    Enviado por

    Ariful Islam
    It is the Edexcel AS Biology Book Author: Ann Fullick Published in scribd: Ariful Islam ISBN-13: 978-1405896320 Ignore this: edexcel,AS,Biology,Edexcel AS biology,book,by ann fullick,ann Fullick,student book,Edexcel

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    Edexcel AS Biology How to use this book Thit book eontaines numbered great fastures that will help:you fine! yourway around yourAS Biok gy course and support your learning Introductory pages Fach top: has tro introductory pagestahelp you identity oer the main text is arranged to eoversilthat you need to lam The ft hand page gher a bret summary the topic, linking the content to three Rey areas of Hom Sciaroe Wotks:Whataw the theories! Hhatis the evdence? What ae the implications? ‘The right-hand page of the introduction consistsot atopic map that shows you horyallthe required content of the Elexcel specification that topic iscoverd in the chapters and hoy that content al inerinks Linke to other ‘opis are al shorn including rbere previous Knowledge is buition within the tope Main text The main part of the bookcowersallyou need to kam for yourcouse, The text & supported by many disgra msand photographs that will help you unde mand the cenezpte you net to lem. ey terms in the text se shown in bold type. These terms are defined in the interactive glessary that can be found on the ActiteBook CD-ROM using the ‘wach glowary'teatum, in et heex> The voice of the genome bmresicory page pete nae tt ars ren ne Heke bata sia iota bacyedias line ee nmnoilepe priests araore page Baantone pages 2 the end ot each ople you Wil fi to pages exam questions fom pat paves Yon can 38 tase questions tates Ro Fy you Fae nda the opi asweliaste fly you poste foryouraras, HSW boxes How Seienes Wane ies bey festa of your corm. The many HSW bees ‘within the text will help you coverall the nem aspects of How Sckence Works ‘that you reed. These inclide how scientists imestigate Wear ard develop ‘theories, how to evaluate data ard the design of tudis to teat thelr vality are relebilty.ard hory ack nceatfects the ealyiort including informing, decisione that read to be takan by individuals and society, Practical boxes Your cours contains a numterot come practical tht you may be tested on. These tenes indicate links to cor practice lwrk Your tea er will ge you opportunities to cover these investigations Question boxes 2 the end of each section of txt you wild box containing questions thateerihat you taxe fist arm. ov cue these questions 1 help you chackinhetheryou have undertaod vat you hae jist weal, and whether them isanything that you ned to bskat agin The contemsUststonsyou that thane aretwow nits and fourtopis inte book matching the BleiceLAS specification for biobgy. Page numbering in the contents list, and in the index at the back the book wil help you find itt you a boking Br How to use your ActiveBook ThesetneBenkisan eketroni enpyot the boolwhich you can use ona compatible computer. The CD-ROM will only play while the disc Is in the computer The ActiveBook has thee features: Click this tab at the tp othe sereen to sness the elecroric ‘yrsin of the book. == Cid on any cf the words in bel to e-sbex wth the werd and what itmesns Click*play! to ——) liven tosameone read # out br yu ts hp you preneanes. Click this button to see all, = ‘the icore on the page that link te etctronic ibs, such as of ruclele ackds docurentsand spreadsheets, ah INA Oko po to ed You have acces to allot the features that ae useful foryou ‘9 use at hone on your on, Ifyou don't want tosee these links you can return to Book Nucleotides the building blacks baseD ick cn the tab to see merus vihich let al he eleemeni te ca the sctweod ‘hte betel asaen arse Clad this tab tosee allo the key weds and ft they ean, Clidplytoletan te semnanne red them out tohelp you pronounce them, Buldding the pokymucteotides a Es 4 TANTS of 187 ClicKoon thictab at any time te search forbalp on how to use the ActiveBook: Justelekens setion ofthe rage and will reagnityso ‘est you can mad it early on screen This abo meare that youcan be kcbsetyat photos i and disgne Unit 1 Lifestyle, transport, genes and health TOPIC Peter crs TOPIC 1 Lifestyle, haath ane isk 1 Transport sree the body Transport systems ‘Wate rin ving omganierne “The fob of bleod “Transporting oxygen ard carton dioxide “The blbed. lam ng wechaniem, Bled circutation HOW Mert naye of treating cancer? 1.2. The heart and heslth “The hurran heart How your heart norls Beod pressim Jthersclemsic andiovarcule disease 1.3 Fone are haslth “The nurriert's you nesd ‘Omganic molecules in hing things Lipits Proteins HW Uncovering the stricture of proteins ‘Why a bata ead diet important? The energy budget ‘Weighs izues 1A The rick of developing eardiovascular disease What ie ko Epidemiotogical sudiesand CVD HW Lifesty factorsin C¥Ds canton riallink ‘The benefits and rete of tmatrmant Using the evidence Examame:Topte 1 practice questions 10 10 2 4 6 v7 18 2 24 2 26 28 30 Er] 4 34 36 40 az 46 48 50 52 54 54 56 58 52 ea 58 70 “Z oe aoe TOPIC? Gareandl teslth 2) Moles sees thas resale a Lie Nucleic acide HSWETHe stony of the double helt The double beard hewn & works Hory does DNA act asthe genetic code? Mutation Enaymes What dessan endymme do? 22 Thebaseyot genetic HSVr The worker Gregor Mendel Understanding hurnan genetic trate 2. Tretaport sttves membranes Membrarasincell Hory the membrane works Osrasis —a-specialews of difusion betive transport Diffusion and gareous exchares Diffusion and the hurvan epirtory system Traneport proteins inaction 24 Indepth studyot's genetic dseses (Gpstc fits Treating cystic fibrosis roy Gore the apy for cyte fibacis Genetics ening Emrone-Topk 2 practice questions M2 4 16 116 1 12 128 10 Brel es) Ue ee us TOPIC 2 The voice onthe gens ne 2.1 Animal aol sdsrueus | mpreaturtisn loobing at one “The characteristic of euleyotic lle Protein trarepor in cals “The axeriaation ofcels Calldnein Miresis ‘Asemal poduction ard natural coring ‘Geomth 3.2. Semal repmduction andcell specialization “Why 22tual repred ution? Meiosis ‘Camatagenasis Fenilistion Embryo development ard cell differ tiation Using totipotent cate ‘What causes alld iferentiation? 2.3) Sern celleand beyond! Stemcolls and nhem ne find them ‘Who could benefit from stem cell srenpy? HW The ethics of using'stem celle 34. Expressingthe gem me How geres interact Irteractione between genes ard the environment “Vatiation ‘Genes and armimniment in hurran features ammo: Topic 2 plactice questions 132 Bt a4 BE 140 a4 146 188 1 164 186 156. 158, 760 16 168 170 we WE We 180 182 184 784 186 "80 2 Be TOPICA Biesive sity snd mature sources 4 Plant structure Pont osl.stricture Plant celLorganalles The struc of plant stam Transpo tissues in plots Trebeation of water The uptake of naterby plants The uptake of miners by plants 42 Plantes ratural msouraes Food for thought Fromcarstriction w clathing HW Biaplarties— into the future Peart pharmacies Modem drug deve pment 43 Spacer andevelition The backgound tobidbersy HW? Ne eclarshycgey and the thes domaine seoogyand adaption Natural seecticn ot gone lel fxoluton inaction HSW'The soy of the peppered nth Irerasing beaversty Endemim 44, Theimportan of biodiversity Biadberity Mescurirg bidive sity The natu eof extrction Concenving habitats Conmenving spaces HSW Maire choices the story of Guam Examzone: Topic 4 practice que thons Inder 198 200 200 204 208 208 210 2 2 216 26 2a 2m 222 224 228 228 2m 24 236 238 240 242 2a 246 246 20 254 256 258 262 264 266 OS et es cues er Topic1 Lifestyle, health and risk ‘This topic dha with one of the mort erucil are of your life ~ your health. It Jools at how the way that people le - ther fectyle— might atfeet their heath, Tt focuses in particule on the effect of diet, level of exercise and habits such 25 emalting on the well being of the heart and simulatsey (suniovseeuls stem, What are the theories? ‘The eardiowzeuks cyster plays a vital im your body. This topie bole at how the diferem cements of the gstem. weds together and how your Hifstyle and enitic imberitunss right afteet it: heslth Tt ele at what happere when thing 0 wong with your cardiomscular system and how they might be prevented or cued. Dist i a crucial past of your well-being shadied in the topis, What impact dows diet Mave on your heath? What am the effaets of beings oveneiglt or sunderveiclu? The topic ako Jools at how food is wed in the body. You. vwill kar femething abou the bieckeminy ef food — how fhede euch oe carbolydmtes and far are built up and biolcen chown, and the differert wles ‘they ply in your body. What is the evidence? ‘All the infcemation we have abevt dist, Uwe: andl hesih comes from esientis Teseuch and you wil be boing at how thé is carsiad out. "You wil aso be comsidaring how to evaluate the resulls and conclusions from scientific studies, ironing those which prodice conflicting eviconce about the same pootiem, ‘Tiere willbe opportunities 19 cury out your own imestieaions, for example om ‘the lovele of vitamize in fond and the effects of diffirent subetances on the hent me. What are the implications? Science does not eis in a moral vatumm. In this pic you will tecin wexplore some ethical beues, for ample using animals in medial research and what is ‘nwolved in irectigating Farum hecith, inally there i the qusstion of how to use a this information in everyeay Li Wnt ae the zis of getting camlivaecular die? How de you seers em and ‘mabe decisions about your Mestyls bacedon them> How does the way people estimate rik affect ther Lieende chaioe > ‘The map opposite shows you all te Inowkige and slals you reed ta have by the endef the topie. The oclour inaach bert show: whieh elapter they are cevemea in and the numbers refer to the Eee specification. beeen ee as fo an plan nt riary sire: hare sqtin te iporenceotvater ig. afeatand citation nthe yg. siptantowttestuctsesot in warepor 2) el or mas tarepert (6) Hhond yess rate to tet lunctere 2) debe tebocdciotng pes | aes sad it rele in cxchorecite cdessoe (V0) 19} sdocnbe hecuda cvas and tetas the stucnre of thehesrt ‘eit friction) sactba hehe efecto feathine | plan theccuse of sents ttt en hentrtecanbe neesipaed last athwroscs (11) spdretaad efica ise) sete he-smfhess ofa sree data on evegy bunts descibebor sninaasid stucne Aigheais by condensation anddeto stobeate © ard sequence in 3 protein rxtore seddisureush betreen decry theccreagunncss of fess teao snus shustedard uestuated pis 8) rang babar (17 ol he poten ad its properties ‘cit tat este the srguihbaneonstucnne sctba-ts temonot “ieann Coontentor Redd Sls of mcrae dates, sxc and paps stink (16) xed sc trough comensatcn reactors rushed (3) aan stars usrg os (4 sdocbe the bats tat ‘redyce aed intarret dota cube thebenelteandricsof ingeseethevsk of CVD (12) ‘Hood chnletncbrels ‘nesimens fr C¥0 (12) Upegrotie aed feath aed cectibe theeickrce br cack. raienchip beta Hood chests 20 (14 ety rd cepa ny disnss how propte integretdstacn Pepe's perepnens usestient ic lures ard erty ofr ate ofen rowed stout rates to detemine dient fo iat exer seand heath sks (18) acta rks 20) stooling to reduce ‘hak other ies (19 1.1 Transport around the body e717 Thea hee es toxcune ro oftie tiny ly teh tna alata lege aes ple dtkaion onsupglyits rneportimedk. Transport systems ‘wrtin any ling oman, susanecs med toe moved fom one piace to another Celb mquir a supply of chernicak, such as chucose and oxjgen for celuhr respraton These rmst be tnsponed from arse te oan ints te oes, Respiaton supp emery forthe other reactions of life but it ako produces the toxic waste product carbon vile, This and other waste prechcts need in be removed from the cel and the body betore they damage them. Transport in simple organisms One of the main ways substances move im and out of ol by fasion. Ditfisiom i: the tree movement of parties ina liquid ora gasdown a concentration gradient trom an area where they am at a relatively high concentration to an area wher they are at a relatively bw comenration. For a uniceladhr oremism suchas am Aimocha, nutsients and cacygen can life directly into the cell from its extemal emizonmnem, and waste cubrtanses can difiies directly out, This werle well besruse the eurfane area of the Amos memtaare i contact with the outside is very latee relative to the volume of the ireide of ite cell Tha i, ite surface areate volume Patio is large. Because the organism just one eel. substances db not need to travel from cell cellirside it (ee fig. 11.1) “The surface area tovcumerate of an ergniem legely deter nes whether diffusion acne wil sller abstince: tormeve i and cutot ol oF ‘the als However, tt sn Teasy 10 caus the surface area to-Ylume ratio of cerns such ar ‘elephants poople and cak tees, Ws ky een fer an Anmeba because of ts rregder shane, Se seirnin? use medal te halp shew what happens in therealsiuaten.& smnple cube makes surface area to lume calalations 229 The biggerthe crgnim gate, the smaller the surfce ‘fea to olume rata baccmnes he distance fron ‘utes the crginirn to the sila gets lage, and ‘here Close curios fer substances toerter through So i te longer br ubstance: to difive in. athe w= tenf va aur 2 Tank Loon rtor wa tatme nto 26:1 artes waz cnt Seles Sant roa wavelriinte 2 eure 27a Bebe se.vebmvets se4ar= es F112 tee agar the cabeersprcantindalzst annie, Transport in large organisms In contmet to unicellar omganiare such = am Amoeba, lmger opsanéms are made up of biliors of eels, often organised into specialised tissues and oreans. Substanses need to travel Jong disemee: fromm the Outside to Teach the cytoplasm of all the cells. Nutter and cayeen woul eventually reach the inner eelb of the body by simple diffusion, Dut not fast enough to sustain the proceses of lie Complex organise have evolved specialived systems to get food and crygen inte their becker én humane, thew systems are the gut and the lungs) amd to remtve waste (the gut, lige, sin and lédnays}. They ako have an internal transport system which carries substances to every cell in the body, delivering cnycen and nutrient: and talire away waste quilly +5 tht cells cam carry out their reactions efficiently. In bree complex organémns such a Immans, chemical made in eel in one part of the body - eg a hormone such insulin or adkenaline ~-may have an effect on a different ‘ype of coll ekewhure in the body. Sa cubstmees made internally nied to be moved around the body as well In umare this transport system is the heart and cirubatory system and the blood which flaws throuch it. The ican examph of amass twanspert system, ~ substances are tareported in the flow of fad with a.meshaniem for moving it around the bedy. Allan complex organiurs have some form of mass trareport system. Subviances are delivered over shost distances from the mag: trareport system ta individual celk dap in the body by processes suchas diffusion, osmosis (he moverem of water alg a consentmtion gractent tuough a partly permeable membrane} and acti transport (in which energy is wedto move substaness paint a consentemion gmcion) Features of mass transport systems Pei: tarcport mule: an effective tmanepom system. Pest mass wansport systeis have certain features in common. They have: + asystem of vessels that carry substances ~ these are wuslly tubes, sometimes folowing a very specific route, sometimes widespread and branching, + away of making sure that substances are moved in the right dineetiom, g¢ mutants m and warte out + amamnt of moving material fast enough to supply the reeds of the organism ~ this may invelve mechanised method (eg the pumping of the her} oF ways of maintaining a concentration eratient yo that substance: move quildy dom one place to another (gg wing active tmnspor) + asuitabl tanepor matium, Bg. Te Human terportaystum pits ary allwihhesey diheiondetsrcs af Hood cally, Jn this unit you will be boling at how the human cardiovascular system fulfils its wnsport functors ~and what happere when it goes wrong, OD 1. Exphinwrty free anima’ cannot tale in ab the substance: they seed fron outzide the body ‘through their san 2 in humans oxygen enter the bodyand carbon diowide leaves i through the lungs The lags af nade of thousands oft iy'air sacs sumounded by bod vessel. How does the helpthe nragacer ‘to diffuse quickly into and out of the blood? ater cole Water in living organisms ‘War the medium in which al the reactoms tale place in living celle, Without if substmes: could not move around the body, Water is ome of the reactants in the provss of photyynthesis, on which all life depends, “Ard yater & a majer habitat - it supports mone lite ‘than any other part of the planet, Undertanding the ‘properties of water wil help you understand mary ley Syste in living organisms, inelaing transport systams, p14 Batwa Ena 70% your beds wate. Undine tts sucid hunwctl shom yeu hy inking planet tee hah ofuigear bay aera The chemistry of water ‘The importance of water 10 Diological systems is due tp the baie chemitry of its moleruks, The simp: chamival formula of water & H,O, whith tlk 15 that ‘60 atom of iydiozen aze joined to ome ator of engin te mals up each water molecule 22 fig, 1.1.8). if ut Tae Fie 11.5 Amodel of water rede Each water mokewl it lightly polaised. The meare it has a very slightly negative part = the cscygen atom. ~ and very slightly positive parts the hydrocen, aiome, This separation af charge is called a dipole. and the tiny charges are represented as 6+ am &- ‘One of the most important mus of this charge sepamtion is that water molbcules form hydrogen onde, The dighly negative omycen atom of one ‘water mocale will attact the slightly peritive Iochogen atorns of other water mplerules in a weak alectrostatic attraction calld a hydrogen bond. ‘This means that the molerubs of water Stblt together rom thn you might othersise expect, because althongh each individ! hydrogen bond is weal, there are a great many of them (a3 shown in fig. 11.6) Water hus mbtivey hich melting and bailing points compared with other substances that hare molorules cf a siilar ine ~ it tales more enexey to overcame fhe attmetire forces of al the hydimgen bons. le s te le we é at ay fg 1/16 Water locale ry byt ogen bende ich har sopeher Why is water important? ‘The properties of water mule i very important in Dingle gstums. sor savatal mesore, 1 Water is an unurual and excellant sdvent, ‘Many other substances wil dissolve in it. The fact that the water mokcule hz a dipole mean: ‘et many ionic substan ces lle sodium chloride (eal), which are made up of postive and negative ons, wil dsolve in it The positive and negative dons wepamite and bercme oumvunded by water molecu: which Inep them in solution, Polar substmees (compounds with covalemt bonds ‘but with mall charges on different parts of he mol:cuk) will not wually dissolve in crganic ‘solvents such a ethanol, but they will désolve in water, However, waar can ako camy many non-polr substances ~ chemiba. that do rot form ions, They may form colloids, with solute particle: kuger than the solvent parties. Tho ‘sole parts are spread through the water but do not separate cut. Became the chemital reactors ‘within celb occur in water (in ayueous solution) ‘the ably of water to act a a volvent is vitally important for the processes af hi. Some subsimas: that do not dissolve in water ave important in the body. Insoluble particles form emulsions (tiny droplet of ons lqust ‘suspended in another quid) or suspensions (a solid micd with aliquid, m which the partie: ‘wil separate out if the minture is not ccmstaruly moved or stined). Blod isa suspension of cls and phtkt i plema Fan may te tampered, in the bbod as emulsbre of tiny fat dipplet: (os form ermbions in a simdar way ~ see fig. 11), “Adornatively they may be brolman down (ge in digestion) into smaller, soluble mpkcues 10 be tmmported around the body. Then they are built ‘back imo insolitle molecules wher these am sneeded, for example in the cell membrane or to form exergy storage molecules 2 Water has ona ofthe highert known surface Tansions, Suifae tension & a property of liquits, when they behave a if the curso: & coved ‘by a thin elztis clin. Water bas a high surface ‘tension because water molecules form hydrogen, ‘pends which tend to pull them down and together, ‘There is mo such attaction between the difert ie 117 Ii date ate tsan eget bard ha nil deplete fxr an emuion The brgh urd inthe al ofthe all ines lokernily wht Ute ts becureofalthe sry Bt eplets ern gestion ernatied inthe bench mokeuls: where water and air mest, So the water Jhyer hells together forming a thin sin of surface tension. Surface tension & of ereat importance in pl trareport tysteme, and ake affier: Be at the surface of poms, Inses and other water masses, 3. The water mleculeis amphoteric, This mears ‘hat itcan act both as an acid ft forme Ht iore and is a proton corer) and & a base (it forms OFF iors and bs a proton axcepton ‘This abilty of water molecules to both donate and rageive protore mins it an ideal medium for the biochemical reactions occurting in ces, It acts as aulfer, helping to prevent reactions in progres from changing the pH inside the cell Any excess Ht or OH om am mopped up. OED 1) Hove are hydrogen boris formed between water tnokecule and what affect dothay have on the properties of water? 2. Thema soltion,cytophsn 2 coll! and blood is a suspension. Explain how the properties cof salrtione,collode and s4zpencione adapt these biological atari: to camry out thairfunctions in the bey, aren role The role of blood In human the mass tansport system is the cardiovascular system. This i mack up of a tarier of vessel with a pump (the heart} to move bled through the vessels, The blood & the transport medhum and its passage through the vevsek & called the circulation, The syvtem delivers the materisk needed by the cell of the body, and camice away the waste prochints of their metabeliem. It so carries out other functors as well, such as: anying hormones (chernical messages} from oné part of the body to smother forming part of the defence system of the body + distributing heat Chapter L2 focuses on the human cardimascular system. Here you are going to tale ackeer lool at the transport madam - bled The components of blood ‘Your biked ica complex mixture carrying a-wide vasiaty of calls and substances 10 all areas of your borly (see fig. 11.8) Masia his srav-coloured qui the main ormpenent af the blood and const ergy of nate. Haaracontais a Hike rage felosolred substarces to be Tansported and sn fibrinogen, which & a slLbla substancovita far the cating ofthe blood Enythnocytes (edbiond als) “The cals ook le biconcave dsc. Thane re sppracrataly 5 milion par rar of Blood 5 min per rr in emer 5-6 min par mi blood tne). They| eaten beetrogbb in.3 med patent which exis aaygen and poe tam her car, The seen nave for red bled ease erytteceyter ord they are ferred in the red bontraant of thashortbon auch a thers, Mare eryhmcytes do net conten a mcr and hare 9 lnm lifeo fabout 120 dass, Taucorytes uhie Mood cal) wo ‘hee are much lerger than erytrecytes but cn sco squeams through thy Blood esd w they can charge ther shape there a round 4000-11 coopera? of Hood they all conan a nuda and hae cowiess groplarn, Thereare sever. ‘yes Host are formed nthe wh tebore tesrow ofthe long bores such as the humerusin the am and the farur thal, sthough one Ope called lyrphocytes, se forned nthe orngh glands and spleen Ther man finan & to defrd thebody spins nketen sie Handle we try Fanart of ergo all clad regakanyax yer whidh are found ‘the benemanoit Thereare about 150.000-400 000 platelets perrnn of blood They 1s irvcived tthe clotting ef he Hood ftg11.8 The nmin omnparen ef ood Cry te paris nda yheosyts hae wanepor tn, The main functions of blood ‘Your blood carries out a wide variety of functions. The plasma tuanspots digested food produces (é churose and amine acide) fiem/the small intestine to all the arts of the body where ty am needed either for immediaie use or storace ‘uansports dood meleruks from storage areas to the cel that need them ‘uansports excretory pmoducts (eg carbon dinxde and wea) ftom cell to the omans such as the Ire. or kidneys that exerete them fromm the body + tmnsports chemival messages (hommonss) trom. where they are mace 10 where they cause chance: in the beely helps to maintain a steady body temperature by caring heat amumd the system from deep-tenteal ongans (gg the gut) or very active tissues (ee les muss in someone rusmire) acts a a butter to pH changes, Ifa blood veved is taobens the fibrinogen in the prom wgsther withthe plwhts clots the Beod. The bt seals the blood vessel and so prevents excessive binod. lope, Ifthe brelven Meee vevsel ie om the euméane of the Slin the clot ako prevents the enuy of disease-causing bacteria or vinnes (pathogens) which could cause infertion, The elt drier to form a voab which protect the new slin crowing beneath it and falls off once the damuige ir fully healed, ‘The nae Bloed cells trarepet oxygen them the hme wall De cols. They am well adapted for transporting orygen The shape of the cells = a biconcave dise = meare tha thay have a large surface area to volume atin, so cucjeen can diffuse irto and out of them rapidly. Having ne nucleus leaves all the space imide the celb for the haermebbin mokeules that camy te onygen Infect, each red blood cell contains around 250 millon mulecules of haemoghbin and can cary 1 000 milion mokeubs of oxygen! Haare bin ako caries scone of the carbon dicwide produced in rispinion harlet the linge. The rect & tmamsportd in the phsma ‘The white bibod cells defend against disease int60) rain ways! + Some types mule antibodies which destmy pahogere or antitexine which meutalce the pobors (toxins) made by pathogens. moe the ‘body Iue enoumered a pathigen, thecs white cell can mals antitodies to this pathogen very quicldy iit iwrades aeain This is the basis of the bods immunity to dimases, + Some whtte blood als engulf and digest pathogens in a process Imown as phagocytosis, Substances move between the plsuma or md bed call: and the bedy cols by diffusion or active teanspert. ‘The tinkst blood vessel: have walls only one cell thick and substances pass eanily anroct these into otter cell. very call in the body is ebse 10 one of these small vessel, x= Rnowledse about the cll: ofthe blood andhaw Hood sreniperts substance: acund the body any appeared se scentts developed the refit took Miarezecpes have beceme ery powertl.so ‘deta ed Tages of the components ofthe blood snd the arallart blood vesede are nomravatale lead paque dyes m combination venh trays and nagneticrescrance in gh (MB seand) shewerdere det fed. ternal pictures ofthe heart end craulation shan ewe betera They lar dectorsand acantatsto- ‘ratkthe bicod asi ransportssubstancas acund the bod. oD 1 Why dees blood look red sthough plaer & yellow? 2 Exphin the mle of the blood tansport system in the defence against infiction. 3 Red Blood celk am unusual in not aving’3 nucle Explain hore this & an adaptation for theirrale in carrying onsen. and why they Nave hinted We aren role ‘As you have seen, the erythnocytes are adapted for ‘rangporting oaygen ‘The bhodtrampert system also cami away the cazbon diowice qrodnoed during respitation by cele, Oxygen ‘The haemighobin mokeule parked in the ma bled cells tansport oxyeen. Bach aermpebtin melecuk can pink up four molecu of oxycen The conoentmation of cougfgenin thezed bod eels when the blood erters the Ings is lthely bw. Chogen movesinto the red blnd els from the ai in the hing: by difinion. Beaune the omgen & picked wp and Dound 1p the haere in, fhe fe ouyeen concertratin in the eyieplaem af {he red Mood cole sig: law, ThE maintains a step comcentaton gradient fom the ai ithe hares 10 the red Hood eels, +o more and mom oxpgen difases in and i Icaded onto the haxmgb bin, Inthe body tistmes the copigen level ame mbtively low, The concentration of oxyem in the cyioplem of the red bloed call & highor than in the cumcunding tesue, Asa result ctygen moves outinto the body cel by diftuinn down i concemtmtion gmctiene. The asmoelobin molec wes give up some of their orygen. When you are at mst or exercising gerily, only about 29, of the coygen carted by the huermgbbin rekwed into your celb (see fig.1.15}, Ther & anther 79). reserve in the transport system for when you am ery avtive Aediopermttesd hyper pman Se, ChRR ss Siveoteche” nating m0 nate utara eeeae prsanscune fe sei dgpoidaare Sige nme ? in emai fhecpinse ngs ‘Ac cxygerad Hood appt cochee eins ssa doen Paria prewute cases alage Setreanin estrone fi sieges ohoggny lowfat presae of son the condone Tne eupiong See Patel pesaseoronen e119 Oigian serointcncure fr huranhoaradtin. Transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide ‘Waste carbon dose diffuser rom the mepicing coll cf the ted tistos: into the blood. along a conoemmation gralint, The action of the carbon didi with water & cmoil. Wlhun carton dice is deeolved in the Vlood it reacts slowly with the waier to foun cartorie 20id, H,CO,. The carbonic acid tapmatis te form the iom HY ani HCO, C0, +H,0 = H,co, = HCo-+ Ht About 584 of the earbon disside is carted in solution in the plea. A further 10-20), combines with hasmeeloin mmokeuks to form earbaminohasm globin, Most of the carbon dicsite & wareported in the cyioplaam of the med bhod eels as hycimgenearbonam tore. The enzyme carbonic anhydrase comols the rate of the reaction Tbetocen carbon dioxide and water to form earbonie acid. In te body terme: there is a high concentration of carbon dine in the blood so carbonic anlydree cataljes the formation of artemis aria, In the lug: the carton dine concentration & bw so cartomic anhydiase catalyses the reverse reaction and free curtom lautite diane: out-of the Heed md ino the lanes (fig. 11.16) ‘eikanabgc pasesines plums sade Hosdeele brafiniontaomberesonh pata ‘sof arbors aad onbedty te ern ence Cian wadaarientie Oeics Ficoesnextonnte ere HaFogaartorme rere pas cut af tre H edb clleby Hatiaaaics a ti Sinn oe Citveeprete ee Iebopn cat in pies Thsizoledthe anordchanere the pH Seat woebood tom nee figls10 The tarpart of arbendionde fom te Herve ote lanes dependant rencten often deade with rate,cormalled yanenye in the redblordll The blood-dotting mecha ‘You have a limted amount of bod In teery, a rinor cut could endanger life at the torn Wood versele allow blood wo escape int, and most immediatly, your Mood vatume wall fall you bse too much bleed you wil diz Second, pathageze can get into your body through an open wound. Innormal cirunstances your body has a damage Lmiution system dn the cloting mechanism of de bod. Ths michariem tail: up damaged bloed vessels to minimise bod loss and prevent pathogens ertting in Blsma, bled cells and platdets few fom a cut vessel, Contact between the platelets and components of te thsus (ee collagen Sbmes in the in) camer the phtebts to teak open in ge numbers, They rekae sevenl substances, of which two are particulady imperunt 1 Serotonin camer the emmeth mince of the bod vessel w contact. The narrows the tlood vessels, scufting off the blood flow to the damaged are. 2 Thromboplastin & an enzyme which sets in ‘progets a cascade of event that lee to th formation of a ct (see fig. 11.19) + Thromboplastin catalyses the conversion of a large povtsin called pr othrembin found in the asia into another engyme ealkd thrombin, ‘This happens on a luge scale at the site of a wound. Calsium ion ned te be present in the ‘ood at the right coneermration for ts reaction to happen. + Thrombin acts on another plasma protein callad fibrinogen, converting it 10 a substance called fibrin, This fons a mesh of Hbres + lore phickts and bhod cell powiine fom the wound pit trapped in the Sbrin meth. THe forme diet, + Speci] proteins in the structure of the platelets contract, making the cht tighter and tougher, (Bema | taloaee ip .111 We enande afer: thet reulteins ile-sng dot Tes sole the Boca resale uncprotct the debate new atinuctraath In a cascade system such cbt formation, a relatively small event is amplified through a veriee of steps, However, sometimes the body's clotting mechanism, ib tigesred in the wrong place, and this can lead to ‘erlour probleme in the blecel versal. A clot nthe ‘vessels that supply your heart with bhbod ean cause 2 Iheart attack, a you will see in chapter 1.2 oD 1 Exphin the role of diffusion inthe tr nspon of both ovygenand cartes dioxde smund the bey. 2h the genetic condition haemophilia, part of the nonmalcaacade rackanism tor bho clotting & mizing, What problins doyou thinkthe ads to? aren role Blood circulation Circulation systems Many animal: have a simubatery system in which a hheart pumps blood amund the bedy. Insects have an open ciulatery system, with the bed ciculating in lmge open spams. However, moet larger animals ~ including the vertebrates — have a closed cireulaiony eystam with the blsed cemaineel within tubes. The ‘bod males a continuous joumey out 00 the most Gistant parts of the body and tack to the heart, Animals such = fish have a single circulation, The Iheart pumps deo:rygenatad blood to the eis, where the bibod tales in oycen and becomes onyeenated. The hed then tavek on mound the retof the bedy of the Tih, civing up oxygen to the body cells before mnumine ‘to the heart. Birds and mammal: need far more coygen than fick, Not omly do they have to mows around without the support of vider, but they abo maintain a coretont ‘bedy temperatune whish it weually higher than their sunpundings, This tle a lot of enerey, 20 their cells need plenty of caygen and food and produce a lot of waste pinducts that need to be removed quilt For this reacon birds and mammals possess the mest comple type of tarepert yystam, Imown = a double circulation because it mmoles two ciculatorysystems, ‘The systemic circulation cames oxygenated (oxygemrich} blood from the heart to the cilk of the body whew the oxygen is used, and carries the deoxygenated blood (bbod that has given up its cugen to the beds cule} tek to the heart ‘The pulm onary circulation cursies daowygenated ibod from the Test to the lings to be oryeenated, and carrie the cirggenated blood back to the heat (eee fig. 11.12). ‘These separate eixeubatory systems male sure that the comgenated ani decryeenated blood camot mix, 30 the thiues mecive x muah cuyeen ay poeeible. dnather big advantage i that the fully omjeenated bod cam be delivaed quidiy to the body tissue: at hich preure: ‘The blood going through the tiny blood. wessek in the Iungs ist relatively ow pressure so it does not damac= the yaneh and alleur ow emthangs to tale place. Ifthe, ooygenated blood at low prstum then went stright fino the big vessels that camy it around the body it ‘would move very chy. Rarauee irefume to the heart, the cxygenated blood can be pumped hard and sent around the body at high pressure, Ths means it reaches all the tiny capillary between the body cele quisly, supplving oxygen for an artive way of life a nats vemrerenmire Dihebart pdrernnrartsyionryng ——aftsie—— Bloat 6 te ares tohed parnorane lice wremewee ctsted teow have syserae creat Sraridthe body arterylewre Betewe sire marine ‘Sieh situ Betose Eleeeperomttbed ae lyase fig V1.1 & drut araltionsendatlood a igh presaue car ne Inte oferygan 0 he ace cle ofthe boty The blood vessels ‘The bod vessels that amale up the cineulatory system ‘can be thouelt of as the biological equivalent of a spall wansport system. The arteries and veins am We the wide ‘motonvay! camying leary tatic whit. ‘he murmw town vtreet: retemble the vast branthing, and spreading capillary network, In the cxpilary aetwouk substmees canted by the bod am exchanged, ‘with cele in the came way & good: am uphaced from factories or officaded to shops and homes. The ‘fructus of the disterem type: of bined yestel elccalp sefleet their fonctions in your body. ‘We shall boltat the stmucnue and the function of the ‘types of blood essel separately. However, you should remember that the vecek do mot exist & separa structures ~ they are all interned within the whole cimeulatory system, Arteries fiers cay blood ug) trom the Inart trwards the cells of the body. The structure of an artery is shown in, fig.1.113, Almect all arteries camy engygenated bleed. ‘The only exceptions are: + the pulmonary antery, camying deoxygenated Dood from the heart to the Junge ‘during preerancy, the umbilical artery carries dlecoygenated bled from the fatus to the placenta ‘The artery ering the heart branch off i erery Gimctbn, and the diameter of the Iuman (the central space inside the blood vessel} gets small the further it & from the heart. The very sinalbst branches of ‘he arterial system, furthest from the heart, are the arteriole? he rudde ves of te areryvalansin hevehans andccth Toure arenes renest ‘he hear tavamateshane ing eae ath Ren te heanttons gare poprten ofrmede rue Smocth rag lene naertpeantte om! feleod arryurctetched by Ur atid non hae, fo.1192 estar ofan ateryeratlesit cope nth he aus ‘oh blonde the eet paige ‘Elood & pumped out from the heart in a regular hyum, about 70 times a minute. Each heartbeat ‘conde a Righ-pmscum curge ef blocd iio the arteries, ‘The major arteries close to the heart must withstand these prewsum surges, Their walk contain a lot of elsti fbres so they can stmtch to aocommodate the gfater volume of bed without being damaged (ee fg. 1H). Retucen surges the elattic sine: retumn to thelr original neth, squeezing the blood and 20 roving it aking in a continuous flaw. The pulse you can fool in an artery is the effect of the sume eae time the heart beats. The blood pressure in all arteries fe rally high, bur it fall: in ameriee sumther away from the heart (the periph eral artery) In the peripheral areties the rmsck sitnes in the verse] walls contract or relax to change the sim of the lumen, comuoling the blood fw. The smmalkr the Iumen, the harder it & for bled to low through the verse] This controls the amount af boed that flaws, fimo an organ. 30 regulating the activity of the organ, srreride asin Bun fo V1 Beeabveproprtre of trent wsusin athrenta tie Cogen gree general enength and leciitytbothartesesand wing ake rols Nee Capillaries Aisterioks feed inta networls of eapillaiee. These am runute vettele that spread throwehout the tissw of the body. The capillary networks linls the arteries and the venules, Capsllzrit branch between cele — 10 cell ie far froma capillary, so substances can didfise between cel and the Hood quiddy. Also, because the diameter of each individual eapilary is small, the bibod travels relatively slowly through them, again civing mone eppermunty for ditfscien to occur (6g_1.1.15}, The smallest capillary & no wiler than a single red Tood cell onetermteral egorten donde oi a Y opti va (Gptebd ay 1115 Treva tanwacot apilwiesalow dion of ayn, caben donde and Rocrleaes, Te lei artnet ft fedltloodedletopnee trough, Capilluies have a very simp structure well suited to their foretion, Their walls are very thin, containing, no east fibres, smooth amcle or collagen. This helps them fit between individual cel and ako allows rapid diffusion of substanats between the Hood and the call. The wall coneét of just one yery thin ell Crogan and other molecules quicldy diffuse out of the ied in the eapillmies into the nearby body calls. and carbon diode znd other waste mokcules dittwe in, Blood entering the capillary network from the arteries ie cuygemated By the thre ot leaves, t eames ee coygen and more carbon dimcde Veins Veins cary blood tack towarce the Feat, Micet veins carry Geowgfeenatad blood. The exceptions are: + the polmonary vein ‘which cams oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart for circulation amined the bey + during prgnaney, the umbilbal vein ears oygenated blood fom the placenta into the fetus ‘Tiny venules kad from the capilary network, marzing ints larger andi larger vertch leading bask to the heart (09.1.1), Dentually only two veins camy the sefumning bod to the heart - the inferior vena cara, ram the lower parts of the body and the cuperi ar vena cava fiom the upper parts af the body. reboavelyttn ayer of ‘vorrhnneck ry Ferelache Ble rebovetybage bnven pA. hire denote te wither tha igh pam fe afl gear ved tisicralectedinthar smuctre ‘Veins can DoH a luge volume of blood ~ in fact ‘more than half of the body's blood is in the veire at any cme tire, They act at a blocd meervoir. The Dibod pressure in the veins is teltively low ~ the presure surges from the heart are eliminated as the ‘hed passes tlnough the capillary beds, This blcod at low pressure must be returned to the heart to be cuygenited again and resireulted, There are tue rain ways in which thé is achieved: At drequemt intervals thioughout the venous system them me ont-way valves, Theze are ead samilunar valves because of their half-moon shape. They are éormed from infoldings of the nner wall of the vein. Bleed aan pac: through, toward the heat but if it stars to flow beclnwards ‘the valves clove, preventing this (see fig. 1.1.17} Heed movingin fe diecten ofthe heart bres ‘Beale open lloning be Elondae bow Brough ervierse tae shut ruse teed AbsceLoo to doa dae the yb, neue ‘hattloodcareet fan spay fomthe hes, p19.77 Wisin te wine nar ne that bined fone in rly ne drecter tirade te heart Pe concen ofargeniedee tnecugestiond Nar ouah the wine. +) Many of the larger veins are situated between the large musck Hoch of the body, particulany in the anne and legt. When the muccks commast dusing physical activity they squeeze these veins. Wath the valves Ineping blood travelling in ome direction, this squeezing Telps 10 return the blood to the heat So, the main types of tocd vessels ~ the arteries, veins, sand capillaries ~ have very different chamcteristis. ‘These affact the way the Mood ows trough the body, and the roles they play in the body. Some of these ferences am summurked in fig. 118, ay bge salt foes copies setdes vere ig L142 Geaphete darts curace we ofeach pe at Hood veselin your bey alee with the velciny dere of the Hood earlingin tem ox: 1 Infish,the Hood canct be supplied +o the kody ‘Yesuas at high pressure Why not —and wey does ‘the not matter? 2 Why e a double cieubtion deal fran acne nial vrbch maintains ns cura body temperture inde pendenthy of the envi men? 3 Whyare vale: important in veins but unnecessary: inaneres? A lookat the graph in fig 1.1 18. Explain carefully ‘wfiat the graph shows and the kinks baton the diferent lines on the graph, Aree eect Anundastanding of the rle of the blood and the bloed vesastas bean nowcnghy mpertantin the eter to onecomre cance, ‘Conca de the unccnimclled goith of abnor valk offen eautting na large mass of calls nce as 2 sumo “The famnation of ne Blood vessel? anyrhere 1 the body & known as angiogarasis. Cancer cals seem able to stimulate angigenesis tosupply blood to the faetgeringedls of tureur The ere cle reduce sinal acthator mokculeswhich set off seres of react which stirlate the surraunding heathy ‘epithelia cals toprodice 2 nem, rich netwerk of blocd yess tig. 11 19) Understanding ot the way cancer ells cr sugested ‘tne possible ne ways of treating the dewase — cutthg ff the Hod cupply to turneur cr beck the sctrtor molecules 90 angiogenesis wil not take plane ther Way the cancer cule Wil ot be abl taro fg. 11.70 baron of your body tue keh Modan ie s pecdthing. Citing 2fthe Hed auply tos tuners re approx te moving enor Blocking the blood vessels Inthe US a group ofscintists lad by Or dei Ruch has developed 5 zynem bazed en rancpartidas heny thy partes) ‘phic they hope wll teat a variety of cancers They Mentiied & peptide molecule which binds tobrest cancer tumours 1 mice Smal blood dots are found on the erdathel ium of the blood ‘vessels of turmours,but not inal Blood vessels Gr Ruosahis ‘team showed thatthe peptide molecule bind? to there bleed dats, usng a genet arin of mice that don't produce fonnogen 20 lack these Lead dots The peptide didn hd totumours ‘the mutant mice but dil the nermral nes The team then inked ‘the peptide tonenopartides. Once these partes have bound ‘tothe blood sesrel valle, mere doting ker pee and rere nancpartides bind. The clots that fom block the tumeur Beod ‘vere, etarrng the canos cals ofcayagn and nutrents At present ‘the partides block caly about ZO of the blocd vassal, which en” fencuith 10 top the turnaur growing, but the team are woken improving thi. They azo hope te produce rancpartidas that cory ‘anticancer drugs right ho the tumour sothat they dae a two: prong attack Much of he reach uses oda! mice which have bean brad to develep cancer fe below) Blocking the receptors Inthe UK,32000men are disgnoved with prostate cancereadh WO TWE Gancar often spreads to other tesues and orgare auch ac ‘the bones. Asa result THOO0 men die of prestate cancer each yes Serna prerhisng research by sziante ledby Or leah Filla at he Un ne sin oF Texas sugmets ange wa) of stoppnerthe tumcurs spreading. They recrled-on mie infected wih a dug-retant tain of prostate caer The drug they tied wre Clive: (eo ror as Cee slready used to west lauzernia Some of the nize ware given 3 mictum of trad Rioaldrug teatrent and Cle ‘Others are gyre no treatment The mice rere gyn amature ct ‘drugs because the hurran pat ents woud gen the tradition srestrnene ae wall Ewen ihe tuniur @ drug reretant fn these smi) the old treatent ht gre same benefit. Evidanoe rom ‘the treatment of other concur suggests corn natin of Clee ‘yet other drugs gy the best renults The results are shown table 14. ‘Clnec appears to blodk receptors in the ep halla cols ofthe blood ‘cpllanes hich noerially respond togrereh signals produced by ‘the crear cole With theze meaptes blacked the Heed veal? do not grey and branch and soon the tumaur calls stp graeme ‘and stato die Resarchers ae now tying to find the best ‘combinations of dugg and wl then start harman tls Reena Pee fee colheccambration teatment | In 4eutol Te mice as nS cms ‘entol grup he mexmen) | inaliamie 134 nal ewes ‘ble 11-1 Teen rue nate putt by he ean tern nthe Joaralofhe aan Cavett Mice 28 models ~ ethical questions In 2007 the Brith scentst Se Marth Erans was one ef three peopl aeded the Nobal rigs for Medicne forhis wecrk on gene technchogy and Nmvockout mice Usng animale nrasezeh & vary expenswe are timecersumng, Knockout mice ig 7.120) are nice with speci nee Sencad or repr so that thay davolop camer or other diseases This mnie: the number of mice nasced wrezench to vwrkout what happens in adeease and t0 ry oA diferent perimental eatrents Much ofcur recent norledge of diseases are hor to teat-ther fas core fren wrk urrghnerleut mice Professor Steve Brown, head ofthe Neramalian Caretis Unitof the Medica Research Counc, said the esearch vasa \grad goundbreskng schisernent! He commented Without the toate would be consilaratty harnpered! Many scintets regs knockoutimice 35 partof the sent toolkit of matical ip 11.20 Frac ruc bre montinorizedesetehint des restarch, Many nen-scentict ae equally happy vith the use ofsuch animals 1 medical esearch, eling that potent, bene te to furman teath euwelch sues of anima, welfre Horever ther pecple nd tte idza of animals bang descrted = ‘qodits'd bemnoertng: Thes have ethical. 2 What am the main advantages of uring "Inechout! mice in near concer shout dal berstely charging the research? Jd wat, n your opinion are the ethiatargume nts forand aghinct the use ofzuch onfanieme in sckntificatd nad ical esearch? 11 How did the woe of mutant mice enable Dr Eris Rue abt and he team to denny the binding rhe of the newehewieal hey. hope wil ead toa novel caicer test nent? genetic code ofan animal to ensure it gets ‘adeeare Theos are questions that skim, amet snever Scents con present their 3 Bxphain why cancer call need a greater Hood supply than evince bur socety has todacide what ronnakce i scomptable h research and wat & not 1.2 The heart and health The human heart In moet animal wareport systems the heart is the exgan that moves the blood. around the body. In mammals its a complex, fourchamberd muscular bag, Whish sit: in the chest protiemed by the sibs and stem, [nan aversgt Ligstime your heart wil beat about 3 000 0001 000 ¢ % 109} times and wall pump over 200 milion limes of Blood! In this chapter you wil look at how a healtly heart works and how 2 ean go wrong. as well a: some other diseases of the canliovasculer system, The structure of the heart ‘The human heart (fig, 12.1) is cota single pump bur two, joined together and wording in penfeet eymtimony. The gt side of the heart receives bibed from the tody.and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart receives bleed from the lung: and pumps it to the body. The bod in each side of the heart does nat rmiwith the blood fromthe other side. The heart is made of a nie type of mmsck Inown & cardiac muscle which has specill properties = itean samy on contrasting reguladly without msting or getting fatigued, spew Soreck shed ay Se torot angerated blood > two dhonygerated Hood figntpunerary stery latipes ein fiemepulnenary vin Lemay anilarsriabe satire ab structure of the piotein and therefore Ieow lL it eumies ont ie mle, Th top expline how canes crmutotiors) in the nucleic or code can result in changes in the amino arid sequenoe, which affects the shape of the protein and therefome its edfectiveress (Membsane: control what crceses them as a result of their structure, which inches proteins that form channels through the mambmnes. Inheriting a fy alld for the CFTR chanel protein vom both parents rerubs in the syanptoms cof eystic Shxente, You willeam how gine thempy mice: the oper of'a cue for this dense, and how genatic counseling can be ted to help people with imaky alld male decisis about their future What Is the evidence? ‘This topie immense the Geteetlve storie of how the genetic ance war eratled and bow membne siucture wx dtcovered through the werk of mary scents ‘You wil also kam how Mendel began the interpretation of inheritance that we now Iowa: the study of genoties nd you wall have the opportunity to erry out pmctical works on membres and om eruymes tb piovide evidence for the importames of their stmctire and how they worl, What are the implications? ‘The undervtmiing of the goeth code, are] the potertial for wing gene thempy 10 cme genetic diseases mises mony questions, Ror example, shoold we manipube coher organisms to help us study the effectiveness of potentisl treatments? Although gone thempy + only corsidarad for a few debilitating disesses at the moment, it could be used to change other inhesited chameterisics (auch as height of ieligence) within an indicia, or in their offspring, Woul this be ethicaP Genutic eeeoning produces infcomation that couldafivet « pera fans, Whe should hve sevess to tha informatio and what lire of decisions dows someone ‘with that infomation need to tale? ‘The map opposite how: you all the Imowlkeke amd else you nied to have by the end of ths topic. The oalbur in each box stows which chapter they are = covered in and the ruanbers refer to the Bdewcel specification, tan hore notte decibe-te ucoreof are codes etc (1 nieroneotdesandhan tes Se bmoncrd uate inna gate the alfactoFannge. checcbe a genain tame of bases eccibebom Oh replicates ‘oF acters on ergy acon (8) CHDK niclecik ard he fel he avidin that cupport= seus afsninosedeing SBP the taary(11) Papen that thay od Be 12) t , | con tow rare siitoy ae apie ofp Stotcnenes apace eet smuctre {2} “ omnes he explain how mutations as, taing ste thro asen eerie (15) ' 7 ckeaitan ai xid sn arangoftame nde srs nd earcein ‘unsere monte Snroin atict es soar (1) Sucre of he grten toga te fico fy edie pepe) ‘sieeve ats on hab) 7, sagtan ten mmdichapus imectgse membrane crac. eccibe gare therapy ae ‘vk out the smuenre of procticaycs) Astrquich betveen sinaticand ‘nrutrnns(2) ine tary (10) ssqtsin ditsicrnd fated sdihwiones passe proceses, ardacwe merspa tas require “So sssey (4) erga the ues of genetic sxreeningend sae af its impucstons 13) esebe and exgtan ose 2) eeabe popes of rar Ian yard ees soca. ceclange systems and hor the ard eid kanes of get Ieroatsniunge lapted kx sereeing (ath rapid dituton (6 2.1 Nucleic acids — the molecules of life Nucleic acids Reproduction icone of seven dy processes in living omankms, If the individual in a species dortt repreduct, than the species wild out, Alubieeniar mantis also need to grow and mplice worn-out cells. Within evary cells aset of iretructions for the assambling of nev cells, both 10 form offspring andl to produre identical cells for erowth Over the last SO year: or to ceiemtot: have mack enormote strides towards understanding the foun of these instructors, the genetic code, In the unmivelling of the secmts of the genatie code, people have come closer than ever before to understanding the mystery of ie itself Nucleic aids are the information rmokeules of the cel Thay camy allthe information needed to form new cells. The information ie stored in the chromosomes in. the macleus of the call Tt tales the form of a eode in the molarules of DNA - deoxpribonucieic anid (/ 9). Parts of the code are copied into ome form of RNA —ribonuelaic cid, then to another form, and finally used t0 mule proveins that build the cell ard contol its actions, (ip 211 The DMA able Heiss of he met criinginages of ance torn the ne 10D pars Nucleotides - the building blocks of nucleic acids Both DMA ad RMA am polymers, The cherisa] structure of the simple monomer units malin up these two molecules is very similar. The single ‘unlit am ailed nucleatides or monemucleatidas. Fach mononucleotide has thie parts ~ 2 S-carbon. orpantore sugar, amitogen-comtaining bate ard phocphoris acid. The pentose sugar in RMA ie ritena, and in DIVA it is dengyritose, Decogribse, ae its name suggests, comiaire one oxygen atom fewer than above oe 2. ‘Ther are two types of nitrogen containing bases found in mcbit acics, The putine bases have t60 nitmgen- comtaining rings, while the pyrimidines have only ore ‘These rings Tve the chemical property of being bases ‘because of the nitmgen alome they comain (eee fp 4), DIVA commire combinations of sour different tases with equal mmbers of pyrimidines and purines ‘Ths puning me adenine (A) and guanine (G) and the pyrimidines are cytosine (C) and thymine (T). In RNA Ge pute bares are the same but the pyrimidines are cytosine and uracil «CD. prin nae im ae ban NemCHAard RNAconsin to poem tanita, invetaa) ~ Vv oH O \ Hea 4 ok 4h w+ dl ‘A phosphate grup (PO,5) & de third comporert of a nuckotile. Inorganic phosphate itms are present ene = ‘The sugar, the bare and the phorphate cmup ae Seeeeee elimination of two water melecules) ta doom the muckotide (e284) 2 1 3. Building the polynuclee tides ‘Monormebotides are themselves Linlwd together by condensation reactions ta tou polmurkotile stranis (nucleic acice) which can be aniliore of units lang. The ‘sugar of one muckotide bonds to the phosphate group of the next mckotié vo polmulentite: always have alyemuyl group atom: end anda phosphate croup at ‘the other To foun DIA, meleotides conisining the bases ¢.G, fi ard T join together, RMA f made up of lene chair of mckotides containing C.G, 4 and U. Knowledes of hhow these units join togeder, and the thre:-dimensional strictures that are pinduced in DMA in parioular, the basis of our understanding of molecular genetics. pebnudeorce a (ip 219 Apabrurlectch erondlie themes upthebuac erucore cftoth Kare RN RNA mekeule form ting poljmurlectite vtrand: ‘which may be fotied into complex shapes or remain, as bng thread-lle mokeuls. 4 DNA molecu & made up of two polyrucketide stands twisted amund each other. The susarsand phosphates fon the backbone of the mokeule, Pointing inward from this ‘spine’ am the bates, which pair up in specific ways A purine alvays pairs with a pyrimidine ~ in DIA adenine pais with thymine and cytosine with guanine, ‘This results in the mow DIA double helix, a manive melaruk that resemble: a spi staircase ‘The two strands of the double helix are held together ‘by Iycimgen bond: between the comaplam entary base pairs (iy £19. Them are ten of these pairs for each, complete twist of the helix, Ths two trade are Imewn as the 9 (5 prime) and ¥ (3 prime) strand, mamed according to the number of the carbon atom in the pentoes suger to which the phophate sroup & attached in te first meotide of the chain As you will see, these Rates of the stmetur of DNA md RNA are usial to the way the molecules work within oelb. Nort et are arareedin ae en ssephorhe fede ef are Biiketord The acted are antpalel~ ne tare ere drachen are ‘he oterin te oppente drecton, (ig 214 Te detnieddoubtebatxeructe of ONA depenon the hysrceunbendetich fn atweun the ba pte QED 1 Desenbethe structum of s moneneleotde, 2 Exphin howr complementary bace pairing and Iydmogen tond ing are respons ible for the double. hates structure of DMA, Ine structure of DNA & coredered corencn rede, yet the tery of have itr weed cut In ¥ery recent h story reads Like 3 ccrb nation of debate ty and tril, The molacuezot inherbanes ‘Gragge Mandel (122-24) reduced the concept of indie nhared "partes 'arcund 165 eth out ncrring hat these might be (These! paride! ‘were later cle gene) When scents ewrhew ‘the cdromcscres duplicsted and moved during call diveicn, chramercenes were quicly sceptad asthe ‘means of rarsfer ng nherted nforreten, Janay owed that chramoeamee conta both DNA and prctens but fermny yes thera vere arguments betogan bogs about which cared the genetic infermatien By WOO the base smuctue of DNA vas ocr, ncucng the fect that three rly fur vatatione the bares. Many cient te fat thi wasnt senaugh tm protuce the 20diffeent amino acts found inhursan protens. rnens were thelial cand dates fer nes bacaim of her gestarvaration Inde fate OAC and ext TBE Orval rey San Macleod and Macy Mecarty destroyed diferent ppes ‘af edeculs to see if thi aflected an nherted change (veretermaten) mbar [tthe DNA war dz mayed, no transformation tockplace Nocrher molecules not ‘pen proteins ~had any ellcton transformation, The slepnt epermente cavtned ther scentew tht DNA asthe mater of rherdance. But tounderstand ‘the gneti-code, the sructure of DNA nel tobe understood. Evick nce about DNA 4 iy pice of formation ras discovered 11851 by Ervin Chargaff (05-2000), bio raed BNA Fer wide rang of species He found that n every case the proportions of cytosine and guanine were the seme h the-sime way he faund that the propertion of adenine ‘yee aWvay the same x that cf hymne BYt here wae no rdatinship betes other combina tons oft es, Linus Pauling (1904-94), Nobel prine- ernie, biochern et, shaved that polypeptide hate ae often held the shape of anc-helo by hydrcaen bends that ‘sould be broken by moderate heatng, He suasested a sinfar helical stucure might explan charges that had been seen in Dia enhestng, At King’s Cdllege London Maurie Wilkins (1916-2004) and Reed Frnidn (1020-59 vane werkngon the X-ray ‘titration (s0 inow a Koray cystallegpaphy see craptr 13) ‘of DNA, Rar ery hard toget pure nial of DNA to wart seh — DNA down testa ef —ard he pices wera ccmplcated that mespretng them prosed very dif Wikns and Fenn ware suppocad tobe veri tagethar bus ker numberof rascrs this dint happen and an ntereerhly developed. Franklin developed methods of chtaining the h ghest quality Xray diectcn pcre cf the DNA melon (pee) |) what loved her to make accurate measurements. Fem hese he sould ork out he poskins ofthe grupen the DNA molenle retha teach oer and ta détances between ther, THE ‘um alowed ter tobuld up a tre-stendPeticd model rhe sfructie of DNA.A suramary of he fnd hig — bat nok the anc stale —ware shared th other scents, mld ng Wetcn and ede at arcane nomad mest, lg 21 ested Farkn took ths cruplexictue and noited ata node af the luge tee dnereicmlrvcleule ortpr oda edit Deducing the structure Meanie atCambridge James Watscn (1926-1 sand Francis Cri (1016-2008) ware myngs sitferert approach. Thay gathered al the avatable infornation about DNA and kept ryng tobuld a modal that fied with a the fs, They werk veth spacellng odes and also rath simpler reprezentation: of the known components of DNA. iny cde they produced had toxsplan all the avalible data about the structure of the rmelecule sndhev m behared, Gy press of assmiatig niormaticn fern other researchers, longdzausstne and hours of manipulating the modes, Hea emerged which seemed ta vert: ‘Wrhout her knoe eo permission, Maurice ‘Willie patzed them detatad meseuremants wich hesalnd Frankin had chraned. The gate ther the finaleviance they needed to confirm ther ideas ‘without eeracusly camyng cut sn expermentt ‘What (ily tockshape war the now Frou ‘double hele The pattams fam the ray crystallography suggested a elicmeasuring 34 nm fer euery eooplite tum The des ofa daubla or Daal helix emerged ~ but ho was the sucture maintahed? Watson nati that Fin every cane ceyleeine wor pared wh granina,and thymine wth adenine, hydrogen bends weodd hold them together “The we set of base pai (gpenelguanine and ‘tyminetadenine) are roughly the some se and. ‘they fitwithin the measured dimeneions of he rmelecule, Two pure: wouldbe tcolarge to ftsnd “the pyrimidines too smal 0 be held together by bychogpn hence ‘The realization that the bases ae alrays pared ‘he vay wae a maj bmalohreaih mundane ding: 1 sTUCUTe ofthe DMA molec ae ‘Willne yee serced» Hoel pie fa hicrmetedy pcs sf meleadar Se Uae OO Dv get os oc rare eccten.) Remlind frit iadcic babes the pruned ‘occupied 24 nm, meaning that ten of them ‘would neatly rake up one corrplote twit cf the hele nmr) as measured by Rankin at King’s allege lenden, This odel explaned Changs: 1 Hovedid Champers data nd Pauling! Hess support reall 12a and best ofa, the two complementary ‘chame of DNA cou ‘open up hang the tne of ‘Watsen and Cricks deductions on the structure of DNA? byshogpn bends between the base pare Thay could 2 Biplain hevr the communication of scenes i tn pormant ‘then replicate to produce two entice deuble ‘to developing new theories, in relation to the belies. thus eplainig the vital ce of BNA fy ientiication of thet micture of DNA, reproduction The double helix and how it works How DNA makes copies of itself ‘The med] ef DMA you am probably meet tamiiar ‘with something We the imies ini) 2 | |. Bur it inaft emy to understand from this how DNA woul as the meant of inberitance. Locking at simple mock males it clearer how the DHA mokcule works (see tip 1). One of the meat important features of the DNA. mickecuk - and the ore tha allows it to pass on genetic information from one cell or generation te another ~ ‘that it ean replicate, or copy ital, exactly. The double hale = Te chanect raadesmdes ft Igeherpertcty— Selene sf eyoana ardginrne, denne aed ognne alngaceebet tegen Uncovering the mechanism of replication Atthough we mow now tow DMA is replicated, i ole ‘some years for this mechanism to be established. Several year: after Watson and Crick ad produced their double Telix model for the stuctur of the D14 molecule, there ‘were two mun ideas about how replication happens, One ‘war Imown a comeervative mplistion fee8 (0) 2 | 9) ‘When the DNA pict the ynevandcet the ONA ile rap alan be ihpshogen bende ned Urn is iebrougt about by feenane DNA Tec Te cours a tempt fr te raw DNA coarce Tre emparedbuedatinect ee OW rudectdeesre emtpstagen bnew Ermedbcowcennathing ae pate tre erste OMA pabrpeteseard ONAL Ee Finite rnlentdetogter fe bar ry OMA erate Tre neadnie woremsinndkof Dhinanteal ith he evra pce, The rmvirelacee Dror sey culuprtto the Bells bets wone tye ogee tence ermurtunthe orusnrs In this the original double Telit semnained intact and in some way inetnucted the formation of a new, Hlendical ouble helic al made up of new material, The other was Imownas semicemermative replication. Th aeaumed that the DMA Sunsippe?’ and new nucleotides aligned along each strand, so each new double elie comisined one strand of the original DMA and one eirard made up of mew material (is the result of a vary ekgant set of experiments by Matthew Mesekon aud Franliin Stall, vamincmervative mplication became he arcepted moi, Conextnne nplcaen phere thedoublehacrinare trier andra oan Fah nth ue id pa g Tew tie cr § § TaRGNA ew OHA Reicsieinmedeamcentaring —Hilfofthe DNA molec aivigenocen be Zightevares wba hae Zheseravardk Seracerearate rephcaten,phee tacts hic urape ard ‘ndhevandrplin tee prdun a setnd nenisrare ym ave sats oes, gears bee ONA oe nome aaa ae Tewey A es ee cows Hewes § § oreo Ttnacnik yee aleaoucate ery TEL] ING peantentane tgpceand pote ai moe ae allot ihe BNA ededes toe ihe sandals Rpend ith on ght na fenerstand. ip 218 After Meseeon and Si preduced tet ender, agpert br ‘fe idan ofconcetntre apletenroaled 003, Pe ee eer] The Waten and Crk hypothesis was thatthe DNA deutle hex rould una. allow sem iconsersative replication t tle place In the ate 10a0e Matthew Meselen (1B30-j and Fann Stahl (829) atthe Galtemia stitute of Technolgy nthe US performed a darsicsaries ofexparmants which confirmed thi: hypothesis 11 They sew seed generations ofthe aitbacer cali ra medium where thet only source of irogen wes theralicacthe cotcpe FN fem YENH(CL Acre of "IN are denser than these of the eetope usualy fund, "IN. Thebacters grou cn this medium tock up therdicactte isotgpe 12 make the oAl chemicals, nchdirgprotene and DHA After sword. ganerations al the bactartd DNA was lebetled wath 1 2 The bacteria ware then maved to armedium containing normal MFC as ther only naroaen soures,and the density of ther DNA was tested 2c they repretuced, 3 Nesoon and Stahl predicted that DNA repratuces by conservative replication, sme of the DNA would have the density spared ift contaned nothingbut "= (the crigal strands), and some & rould have the densty eppacted if Remraned rothingbut TH the nevstrandd Howees. if DMA repruoes by sernimnserratie ripliatin then al ofthe DNA vould have the sare dere alway between that of Hand Wikecntan ng DNA. The DNA was al found 10 have the same density

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