Principles of Communications

BSECE IV - 2

PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIONS
Communication it is the process of sending and receiving messages
or information
from one location to another via some
communication link.
Components of a Communication System
1. Transmitter it is the source of information. It processes the
information so as to make it suitable for transmission and subsequent
reception. It
performs encoding and modulation.
2. Transmission Channel provides a means of transporting
signal between transmitter and receiver.

It

3. Receiver a device that accepts the transmitted signals from the

transmission medium and then converts back to their original form.
performs decoding and demodulation.

Brief Historical Background

1820 Danish physicist H. C. Oersted showed that an electric
current produces magnetic field.
1831 British physicist Michael Faraday discovered that the magnet
in motion can
generate electricity.
1837 Samuel Morse invented the Telegraph.
1864
James Clark Maxwell predicted the Theory of
Electromagnetism which
became the theoretical basis of radio.
1876 Alexander Graham Bell invented the Telephone.
1887 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz demonstrated the effect of radio in
space. He showed
that radio waves can be reflected, refracted,
diffracted, etc.
1893 Nicola Tesla outlined the basic principle of radio transmission
and
reception. He saw the possible use of radio waves in long
distance wireless communication.
1894 Guigliermo Marconi invented the Marconi Antenna. He
provided the f irst complete system of wireless communication.

 1906
Lee de Forest invented the triode vacuum tubes which provide the
first tonn
of practical electronic amplification and really opened door for
wireless communication.
1920
Commercial radio broadcasting began in Pennsylvania.
1931
Edwin Howard Armstrong patented FM.
1935
Monophonic FM commercial broadcasting began.
1941
1945 Popular use of TV Broadcasting.
1948
Bell lab scientists Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen invented the
Transistor.
1951
TV Broadcasting reached Philippines shore.
1953
Color TV system was adopted.
1957
Russia launches the first world satellite called Sputnik.
1958
Kilbey and Noyce develop the first IC. NASA launches their first
satellite.
1961
Stereo Broadcasting in FM band was adopted.

Communication
REASONS FOR MODULATION

To maintain the frequency of the signal

To prevent any unwanted energy to interfere with the signal information
To reduce the required antenna length
For multiplexing
To maintain equipment limitation

METHODS OF ANALOG MODULATION

Amplitude modulation
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation
Phase modulation

Communication
LIMITATION OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Noise (If noise level becomes too high, information is lost)

Bandwidth of frequency allocated for the transmitted signal

BASIC CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION

Modulation
process of putting low-frequency information (audio signal) onto high
frequency carrier (radio signal) for transmission. Transmission takes place at
the high frequency which has been modulated to carry low frequency
information.

Demodulation
process of separating the low-frequency information signal and high
frequency carrier.

Radio Spectrum

Frequency

Wavelength

ELF(Extremely Low Frequency)

30 Hz to 300 Hz

Megametric Waves

VF(Voice Frequency)

300 Hz to 3 KHz

Hectokilometric Waves

VLF(Very Low Frequency)

3 KHz to 30 KHz

Myriametric Waves

LF(Low Frequency)

30 KHz to 300 KHz

Kilometric Waves

MF(Medium Frequency)

300 KHz to 3 MHz

Hectometric Waves

HF(High Frequency)

3 MHz to 30 MHz

Decametric Waves

VHF(Very High Frequency)

30 MHz to 300 MHz

Metric Waves

UHF(Ultra High Frequency)

300 MHz to 3 GHz

Decimetric Waves

SHF(Super High Frequency)

3 GHz to 30 GHz

Millimetric Waves

EHF(Extremely High
Frequency)
Infrared Light

30 GHz to 300 GHz

Centimetric Waves

300 GHz to 3 THz

Decimillimetric Waves

Infrared Light

3 THz to 30 THz

Centimillimetric Waves

Infrared Light

30 THz to 300 THz

Micrometric Waves

Visible Light

300THz to 3 PHz

Decimicrometric Waves

Ultraviolet Light

3 PHz to 30 PHz

X-rays

30 PHz to 300 PHz

Gamma Rays

300 PHz to 3 EHz

Cosmic Rays

3 EHz to 30 EHz

DECIBELS

Decibels and the Logarithmic Scale

The range of powers, voltages and currents encountered
in radio engineering is too wide to be expressed on
linear scale. Consequently, logarithmic scale based on
the decibel (dB, one tenth if a Bel ) is used. The decibel
does not specify a magnitude of a power, voltage or
current but in ratio between two values of them. Gains
and losses in circuits or radio paths are expressed in
decibels.

Decibels
It is a unit that describes a ratio. It is not an absolute unit
but rather indicates the relation between two powers.
Symbol used to indicate the gain of the loss in the
system.

Formulas

Gain = 10 log (output / input) = 10 log (P2 /P1)

Loss = 10 log (input / output) = 10 log (P1/P2)
Note: Doubling the power means 3 dB gains; likewise,
halving the power means a 3 dB loss

Absolute Level
it is a logarithmic value that shows the difference
between the measured value and the laid down standard
value.

Standard Values (At the Zero Relative Level Point)

Resistance: R= 600 (average value if a VF telephone signal line)
Power: P= 1 mW (power produced in a mic, if a A is strongly spoken)
Voltage: V= 0.775 V
Current: I= 1.29 mA

Standard Values (At the Zero Relative Level Point)

With the standard resistance @ 600
Absolute Power Level = 10 log Pm/1 mW

Absolute Voltage Level =20 log Vm/0.775 V

Absolute Current Level=20 log Im/1.29 mA
Note: Across a resistance of 600, the absolute levels of voltage,
current, and power have the same value, if the laid down standard
values are used. In the field, the absolute power level and absolute
voltage level are used for telecom path measurements

Calculation of absolute voltage level with different resistance

Absolute Voltage Level=10 log (Pm/1mW) + 10 log (600/Rm)

Calculation of absolute current level with different resistance

Absolute Current Level=10 log (Pm/1 mW) + 10 log (Rm/600)

Conversion from the power level to the

voltage level and vice versa
10 log (Pm/1mW) = 10 log (Vm/0.775 V) + 10 log (600/Rm)

Conversion from the power level to the

current level and vice versa
10 log (Pm/1mW) = 10 log (Vm/0.775 V) + 10 log (Rm/ 600)

dBm
dBm absolute power level referred to 1mW. The term
dbm was originally used for telephone and audio work
and, when used in that context, implies an impedance of
600 , the nominal impedance of a telephone line. When
it is desired to define a relative transmission level in a
circuit, dBT is preferred.

Equations:
dBm = 10 log ( Pm / 1mW)
dBm dB = dBm
dBm1 dB = 10dB1/10 10dbm2/10
Note: 0 dBm = 1 mW

dBv
dBv absolute voltage level, referred to 0.775 V. dBv is
used in audio work when the impedance is not 600
and no specific impedance is implied.
dBv = 10 log (Vm / 0.775 V)

dBi
dBi absolute current level, referred to 1.29 mA
at 600 .
dBi = 10 log (Im / 1.29 mA)

dBv s and dBvps

dBv s absolute voltage level in the sound channel,
referred to 0.775 V
dBvps absolute noise voltage level in the sound
channel, referred to 0.775 V and CCIT weighted

dBv
decibels relative to 1 volt.
dBv = 20 log (Vm 1V)

dBrn
a weighted circuit noise power unit in dB referenced to
1pW (-90 dBm, 1000 Hz)which is 0 dBrn. This is the noise
unit of 144 weighting network where the old 144 telephone
handset was the devise used.
dBrn = 10 log (Nm 1x10 -12W)

dBrnc
is weighted noise power in dBrn, measured by a noise
measuring set C- message weighting.
Pure 1kHz test tone : dBrnc=dBm+ 90
F1A weigthted noise: dBrnc= dBa+ 6
601A/F1A weighted: dBrnc= dBa+ 6
- The dBrn 30kHz flat noise measurements are noise
readings taken with a
filter that has a flat response from
20Hz to 30kHz. It was found to be typically 1.5 dB than dBrnc
readings for equal noise power level.

dBrnC0
Is noise measure in dBrnC also referred to zero
transmission level point.
dBrnC0= dBrnC - TLPdB

pWp
picowatt of noise power, psopometrically weighted. I pWp
= 800 Hz tone at -90 dBm
This unit is used in psopometric noise weighting, which
assumes a perfect receiver thus the weighing curve
corresponds to the frequency response of the human ear
only.
dBrn = 10 log pWp
*Note: -90 dBm = 1x10-12 W = 0 dBrnC

dBmp
A unit of noise power in dBm, measured with
psophometric weighting.
dBmp = 10 log pWp / 10-3
dBmp = 10 log pWp - 90
= dBa 84
= dBm 2.5
(for flat noise 300-3400 Hz)

 dBr-means dB relative level. Used to define

transmission level at various points in a circuit or system
referred to the zero relative level point.
dBr=dBm-dBm0

 dBm0 dBm referred to or measured at, a point of zero

transmission level
dBm0=dBm-dBr
dBm0p the abbreviation for absolute noise power
referred to or measured at a point zero relative
transmission level , psophometrically weighted.
dBm0p=dBmp-dBr

dBa
Stands for dB adjusted.
It is an expression of the relative loudness of sounds in
air as perceived by the human ear.
This is a weighted circuit noise power referred to -85
dBm, which is 0 dBa or 10-11.5
It is measured with a noise meter at the receiving end.

 The meter is calibrated on a 1000 Hz tone such that

1mW (0 dBm) gives a reading of +85 dBm.
If 1mW is spread over the band 300-3400 Hz as random
white noise, the meter will read as -82 dBm or 0 dBa.
The main advantages with dBA are:
adapted to the human ear response to sound
possible to measure with low cost instruments

Pure 1 kHz test tone :

dBa=dBm+85

A 3 kHz band of random dBa=dBm+82

noise :
601A/F1A weighted :

dBa=dBm+77

dBa0
Is referred to as circuit noise power in dBa at a point of
zero relative transmission level (0 dB).
It is preferable to convert circuit noise measurement
values from dBa to dBa0 as this makes it unnecessary to
know or state the relative transmission level at the point
of measurement.
dBa0= dBa + TLPdB

dBv0
Is defined as the absolute voltage level, and also
referred to the relative level.
dBv0 = dBv + dBr

dBd used for expressing the

gain of an antenna referred to
a dipole.
dBi used for expressing the
gain of an antenna referred to
an isotropic radiator.

THE NEPER
A transmission unit used in number of Northern European
countries.
Np = loge (P2/P1) Note : 1 Np = 8.686dB

NOISE
ANALYSIS

NOISE ANALYSIS
Noise in communication system originates both in the
channel and in the communication equipment. Noise
consist of undesired signals and inhibit communications.
It cannot be avoided completely, but its effects can be
reduced by various means, such as reducing signal
bandwidth, increasing the transmitter power, and using
low noise amplifiers for weak signals.

NOISE ANALYSIS
Noise- any unwanted form of energy tending to interfere
with the easy reception and reproduction of wanted
signals.
Distortion- any deviation in the signal caused by the
imperfect response of the system to the desired signal.
Interference-is any contamination by external signals
from human sources, other transmitter, power lines,
switching circuits and others.

EFFECTS OF NOISE
1. Limits the performance of every systems.
2. It affects the sensitivity of the system.
3. It limits the range of the system for a given transmitter
power.
4. It forces a reduction in the bandwidth of the system.

SOURCES OF NOISE
A. External noise- noise that is generated outside the
receiver or circuit.
1.

Atmospheric noise- noise that come from natural disturbances

occurring in the atmosphere. Often called static electricity. Ex.
Lightning charges(>20MHz not significant)

2.

Extraterrestrial/Deep space noise- noise from the outer

space(8 to 1.5GHz). This energy components are absorbed by
the earths atmosphere before they can reach the atmosphere.

3.

Solar noise- generated directly from the suns heat.

Cosmic/Black-body noise- noise created by the stars.

Man-made/Industrial noise- the most troublesome form of

noise that is usually produced by mankind. Ex. Power lines,
fluorescent lights, electric motors power generating and
switching equipments, spark producing mechanism etc.

B. Internal noise- noise introduced by the receiver itself.

1.

Thermal/Johnson/Brownian/White/Gaussian
noisenoise
generates due to the rapid and random movements of
electrons, atoms, molecules inside a resistive component due
to thermal agitation.

Pn=kTBW
Pno=kT

Where,
Pn= noise power
Pno= noise power density @ 1Hz
T= temperature, kelvin
k= Boltzmans constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/k)
So that,
Vn= 4kTBWRL
In= 4kTBWG

NOISE DUE TO SEVERAL SOURCES

Noisy resistors in series,
VnT=4kTBWRTseries InT=4kTBWGTseries
VnT=V2n1+ V2n2+.+V2nn
Noisy resistors in parallel
VnT=4kTBWRTparallel

InT=4kTBWGTparallel

InT=I2n1+I2n2+.I2nn

Shot noise/ transistor noise

Caused by random variations in the arrival of
electrons or holes at the output electrode of an
amplifying device and appearing as a randomly
varying noise current superimposed on the
output.
Shot noise is due to the corpuscular nature of
transport. In 1918, WALTER SCHOTTKY discovered
shot noise in tubes and developed Schottky's
theorem. Shot noise is always associated with
direct current flow.

Shot noise/ transistor noise

Transit time noise

Noise due to the time taken by the electrons to
travel from the emitter to the collector of the
transistor
Its greatest effect is a higher frequencies
particularly in the microwave region. It is
otherwise known as HIGH-FREQUENCY NOISE

Flicker noise
Noise appearing at frequencies below 1 kHz
Directly proportional to emitter current & junction
temperature and inversely proportional to
frequency
Negligible at about above 500 Hz
Known as LOW FREQUENCY NOISE, EXCESS
NOISE, MODULATION NOISE or PINK NOISE

Miscellaneous
noise

Harmonic distortion
Occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are
produced through non linear amplification
Harmonics are integer multiples of the original
input signal
Total harmonic distortion is hardly perceptible to
the human ear
Every component adds some level of distortion,
but most distortion is insignificant

Harmonic distortion

Intermodulation distortion
Occurs when unwanted sum and difference
frequencies are produced
Caused by non-linear behavior of the signal
processing being used
Creates additional signals at frequencies that are
the sum and difference frequencies of the original
frequencies and at multiples of those sum and
difference frequencies.

Frequency Spectrum of intermodulation distortion in a

radio-frequency signal passed through the linear broadband amplifier.

Impulse noise
Characterized by high amplitude peaks of
short duration in the total noise spectrum
Consists of sudden bursts of irregularly
shaped pulses that generally last between
a
few
microseconds
and
several
milliseconds

Partition noise
Occurs whenever current has to
divide between two or more
electrodes and results to random
fluctuations in the process

Burst noise
Low frequency noise found in transistors
It appears as a series of burst of two or more
levels of discrete voltage or current levels, as
high as several hundred microvolts, at random
and unpredictable times
Also called as POPCORN NOISE

Burst Noise

Avalanche noise
Large noise spikes present in the avalanche current due
to the oscillation that results in the avalanching action

Reactance noise
effects

Reactance noise effects

Signal to Noise
Ratio
Relative measure of the desired signal power to the output noise power.
Identifies the noise content at a specific point but not useful in relating
how much additional noise is injected to the circuit. The higher the
value, the better the system is.

S / N = Ps /
Pn
S / N = 10 Log ( Ps / Pn )

or

S / N = 20 Log ( Vs / Vn )

Noise Figure / Noise Factor/ Noise

Ration
Usually used to specify exactly how noisy a device is. It is a figure of
merit, indicating how much a component, stage, or series of stages
degrades the signal to noise ratio of a system. The noise figure of a
totally noiseless device is 1 or 0 dB. The higher the noise figure, the
worse the signal to noise ration at the output.
NR = Input ( S / N ) / Output ( S /
N)
FdB = 10 log ( S / N )1 / ( S / N )0 = 10
log NR

Noise due to several amplifier in

cascade,
Req = R1 + ( R2 / A12 ) + ( R3 / A12
A2 2 )
Req = R1 + Req
Noise Figure in terms of equivalent noise
resistance,
F = 1 + ( Req /
Ra )
When two or more amplifiers are cascaded ( Friiss
Formula )
FTotal = F1 + ( F2 1 ) / A1 + (F3 1 ) / A1A2 + . . . + ( Fn 1 ) /
A1A2 . . . An-1
FdB = 10 Log
FTotal

NOISE
TEMPERATURE
Employed extensively for antennas and low-noise amplifier especially
with microwave receivers and their associated antenna system. It allows
easy calculation of noise power since the equivalent noise temperature (
Te ) of microwave antennas and their coupling networks are then simply
additive. It is convenient to use since microwave antenna and receiver
manufacturers usually provide Te information for their equipment.
F1 = 1 (Te / To )

or

Te = To ( F 1 )

Equivalent noise temperature referred at the

input,
Ttotal = Te1 + Te2 / A1 + Te3 / A1A2 + . . . + Teu / A1A2 + . . . +
An 1
F = Noise Power, dB
Te = Equivalent Noise
Resistance
T0 = Reference Temperature,
17^C

AMPLITUDE
MODULATION

Amplitude Modulation
A method of analog modulation in which the amplitude of
the carrier signal is made proportional with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. The
frequency of the carrier is kept constant

Amplitude Modulation
Formulas:
VAM( t ) = ( Vc + em ) Sin ( wc t )
VAM = Vc Sin ( wct ) [ ( mVc/2 ) Cos ( wc + wm ) t ] + [ (mVc/2) Cos ( wc wm ) t ]

Kinds of AM WAVE
1. Undermodulation (i.e. Em<Ec)
2. 100% Modulation (i.e. Em=Ec)
3. Over Modulation (i.e. Em>Ec)
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF THE AM
SIGNAL
4. Carrier Frequency , fc
5. Upper sideband frequency , fusb
6. Lower sideband frequency, flsb

Modulation Index- defined as the ration

of the amplitude of the modulating signal
to the amplitude of the carrier signal

POWER COMPONENT OF AN AM
SIGNAL
1. Carrier Power, Pc
2. Upper sideband power, Pusb
3. Lower sideband power, Plsb
POWER CALCULATIONS:

Modulation by Several Signals

Voltage Calculation

where:
Vt = total voltage
Vc = voltage of the carrier signal

Current Calculation
where:
It = total voltage
Ic = voltage of the carrier signal

Efficiency of Modulation

* Efficiency is 33.33% for 100% modulation

Bandwidth for Simultaneous

Modulation
Total Bandwidth = 2 x fm x n
Where :
fm = frequency of the modulating signal
n = the number of channels

Types of Devices that generate AM

AM Generator is a device that generates low power
amplitude modulation. It gives high importance to
simplicity rather than efficiency.
AM Transmitter is a device that generates high power
amplitude modulation. Contrary to AM Generator it
focuses mainly on higher efficiency requirements.

Transmitter Requirements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It must generate signal with the right type of modulation

It must have sufficient power
It must have the right carrier frequency
It must have reasonable efficiency
The output signal must be coupled to the antenna.

AM Modulator Circuits
1.) Low-level modulation used predominantly for lowpower, low capacity systems. The modulation takes
place prior to the output element of the final stage of the
transmitter. Less modulating signal is required to achieve
high percentage of modulation.

AM Modulator Circuits
2.) High-level modulation
- Modulation takes place in the final element of the final
stage where the carrier signal is at its maximum
amplitude;
- Requires much higher amplitude modulating signal
power to achieve a reasonable percentage modulation

Advantages/Disadvantages of AM
1. AM station requires narrower channel than FM.
2. Transmitting and receiving sections are much
simpler and cheaper.
3. AM area of reception is wider.
4. Limited deviation is required since it is not
possible to exceed 100% modulation without
causing severe distortion.
5. In AM, most of the transmitted power is in the
carrier, which does not contain any information.

Single Sideband Modulation (SSBSC)

The signal takes up fewer spectrums. This allow twice as
many signals to be transmitted.
Improvement in S/N ratio that can be achieved by
reducing the bandwidth.
Typical SSB transmitters are designed to handle only
average power level.
In SSB, the transmitter output is expressed in terms of
Peak Envelope Power. (PEP)
PEP=(Vp)2/2RL

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Less Bandwidth is
required.

The generation and

reception of SSB signals is
complicated.

Power conservation.
Power for the sidebands is The SSB transmitter and
increased.
receiver need to have an
excellent frequency
stability.
Reduced noise
interference due to
reduced bandwidth.
Requires accurate,
complex and expensive
Selective fading.
tuning circuits
Sidebands will not
experience transmission
impairments.

Power Saving

METHODS OF GENERATING SSBSC

Filter Method for perfect SSB signal, it is necessary to
pass one sideband completely and reject the other. This
makes the sideband filter as the most complex
component.
Types:
Crystal lattice commonly used in single sideband systems and
has high quality factor which may range up to 50, 000.

 Ceramic made from lead zirconate-titanate which exhibits the

piezoelectric effect and operates similarly to a crystal but does
not have a high Q-factor. Less expensive, smaller and more
rugged. Q-factor is up to 2000.

Mechanical a mechanically resonant transducer, which

receives electrical energy converts it to mechanical vibrations
and then back to electrical energy as output. More rugged,
larger, heavier and, therefore, impractical for mobile
communication. Q-factor ranges up to 10,000.

 Surface acoustic wave SAW use acoustic energy rather than

electromechanical energy to provide excellent performance for
precise bandpass filtering. But SAWs have extremely high
insertion loss which cannot be used to filter low-level signals.
Often used in TV and radar. Applicable to high frequencies

Balanced Modulator
Is a device used to suppress the carrier signal. It
resembles the conventional push-pull amplifier in
circuitry but not in operation.
Sometimes called balanced lattice modulator
It has two inputs : a single frequency carrier and the
modulating signal, which may be a single frequency or a
complex waveform.
For it to operate properly the amplitude of the carrier
must be greater than that of the modulating signal.

 Phase-shift Method the undesired sideband is

cancelled in the output of the modulator. Designed
specifically to avoid the serious complexity on filters and
their inherent disadvantages while still providing the
desired result. It makes use of two balanced modulators
and two phase-shifts network.
Third Method/ Weaver Method very complex method
and not often used commercially.

Applications of Single Sideband

Modulation
1. Mobile system, in which the weight and low
power consumption must be low
2. Point-to-point communications
3. Land, air and maritime mobile
communications
4. Radio Navigation and Amateur radio
5. Military communications
6. Television
7. Telemetry

Forms of Amplitude Modulation

1. A3E DSBFC, is probably the most
often used form of amplitude modulation. It
is
sometimes called conventional AM.
In AM DSBFC, all frequencies in the modula
ted signal are transmitted.
2. F3E FM, is widely used for a variety of
radio communications applications. It is a
method of angle modulation in which the
amplitude of the carrier is kept constant,
while its frequency and rate of change are
varied by the modulating signal

3. G3E PM, is a type of electronic modulation in which

the phase of a carrier wave is varied in order to transmit
the information contained in the signal.
4. H3E SSBFC, reducing the carrier by a small amount
in order to maintain some degree of compatibility with
older AM receivers.
5. R3E SSBRC, a small amount of carrier signal is
transmitted in order that receivers with the necessary
circuitry can synchronize with the transmitted signal.

6. J3E - SSBSC transmission generally attempts to

reduce the (amplitude) level of the carrier signal to as
close as possible to zero.
7. A3C AM Facsimile, amplitude modulation facsimile;
the main carrier is modulated either directly or by a
frequency modulated subcarrier;
8. F3C FM Facsimile, modulation frequency facsimile,
by direct modulation of carrier frequency;

9. A1A Telegraphy by ON-OFF Keying,

without modulation by an audio frequency.
10.C3F television, in amplitude modulation,
with vestigial sideband;
11.H8E ISB, modulation in which the radiofrequency carrier is reduced or eliminated
and two channels of information are
transmitted, one on an upper and one on a
lower sideband
12.F1B frequency modulation telegraphy with
automatic reception, without using a
modulating subcarrier;

ITU SIGNAL
CLASSIFICATION
1. First Symbol (letter) type of modulation of the main
2.
3.
4.
5.

carrier.
Second Symbol (number) number of signals
modulating the main carrier.
Third Symbol (letter) type of information to be
transmitted.
Fourth Symbol (letter) details of the signal
Fifth Symbol (letter) nature of multiplexing

ANGLE MODULATION
- Is a type of analog modulation
in
which
the
sinusoidal
reference signal is varied in
accordance with a modulating
signal.

FREQUENCY MODULATION (F3E)

- It is a method of angle modulation in which the amplitude
of the carrier is kept constant, while its frequency and rate
of change are varied by the modulated signal. (i.e.
instantaneous frequency of the carrier is made to vary by
an amount proportional to the modulating signal amplitude).
eFM (t) = Ecsin[wct + mfsinwmt]

CARRIER SWING
- The total variation in frequency from lowest to highest. It
is also defined as the difference between the maximum
positive and negative deviation of the carrier.
C.S. = 2

FREQUENCY DEVIATION ()-amount of

oscillation frequency increase or decrease
around the carrier frequency(i.e, frequency of
the modulating signal determines the rate of
frequency deviation).

MODULATION INDEX- it is defined as the

ratio of actual frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency.

DEVIATION RATIO- worst case

modulation index, in which the
maximum permitted frequency
deviation and the maximum
permitted audio frequency are
used.

PERCENT MODULATION- it
refers of the actual frequency
deviation to the maximum
allowable frequency deviation.

FREQUENCY DEVIATION ()-amount of

oscillation frequency increase or decrease
around the carrier frequency(i.e, frequency of
the modulating signal determines the rate of
frequency deviation).

MODULATION INDEX- it is defined as the

ratio of actual frequency deviation to the
modulating frequency.

PERCENT MODULATION- it
refers of the actual frequency
deviation to the maximum
allowable frequency deviation.

DEVIATION RATIO- worst case

modulation index, in which the
maximum permitted frequency
deviation and the maximum
permitted audio frequency are
used.

Disadvantages of FM
1. Reception is limited to line-of-sight.
2. A much wider channel is required or
excessive use of spectrum space.
3. More complex and costly circuits
particularly for modulation and
demodulation.

Methods of Generating FM
1. Direct Method
a. Reactance Modulator a reactance tube
is connected to the tank circuit of an
oscillator.
b.Varactor Diode Modulator an FM
generator utilizing a voltage variable
capacitor which when reversed biased will
vary its junction capacitance thereby
producing direct FM of an oscillator.

Methods of Generating FM
1. Direct Method
c.

Transistor Reactance Modulator

d.

Linear IC Direct FM Modulator

2. Indirect Method (i.e. Armstrong Modulator) FM

is only produced as long as the place shift is being
varied. Armstrong modulator uses a crystal oscillator
for frequency stability. The modulating signal is fed to
an integrator, the output of which is also fed to a
balanced modulator (PM) together with a local
oscillator signal that is shifted 90 degrees in phase.

Phase Modulation
Phase Modulation (G3E) An angular
modulation in which the phase of the carrier
is varied in accordance with the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal.
VPM (t) = Ec Coswct + mpCoswmt

Phase Modulation
Phase Deviation Is the amount of phase
shifts that occur when it is acted on by a
modulating signal (i.e. In PM, the
instantaneous frequency deviation is directly
proportional to the first derivative or slope of
the modulating signal).

= Vm

Modulation Index the modulation index is proportional to

the amplitude of the modulating signal, independent of its
frequency.

In PM, the modulation index is proportional to the

amplitude of the modulating signal, independent of its
frequency.

In PM, phase deviation is proportional to both the

amplitude of the modulating signal and modulating

Radio Receivers
1. AM Radio Receiver device designed to receive an
AM signal between 526.5 to 1705 kHz band with a channel
assignment spaced at 9kHz.
2. FM Radio receiver device designed to received a
frequency modulation wave between 88 to 108 MHz band
with channel assignment speed to 200 kHz.
Essential Functions of a Receiver
1. Reception
2. Selection
3. Detection
4. Reproduction

END OF LECTURE

SAMPLE
PROBLEMS

Problems:
1. Covert the following thermal noise power to dBm : 0.001 W and 1 pW.
Solution
:0.001 W to dB

1 pW to dBm :

:dBm = 10 log ( 0.001 W / 1x10 -3 ) dBm = 10 log ( 1 pW / 1x10 -3 )

dBm = -60 dBm

dBm = -90dBm

Problems:
2. Covert the following thermal noise to watts: -150dBm and -174 dBm. A
network with +7 dBm and +11 dBm input has an insertion loss of 3 dB. What is
the ouput in dBm?
Solution
:-150 dB to Watts:
-174 dB to Watts:
m

-150 dBm = 10 log ( P / 1x10 -3 ) -174 dBm = 10 log ( P / 1x10 -3 )

P = 1 x 10 -18
P = 3.98 x 10 -18 Watts
Watts
Convert 7 dBm and 11 dBm to Watts:
7 dBm = 10 log ( P / 1x10 -3 ) 11 dBm = 10 log ( P / 1x10 -3 )
7 dBm = 5.01 mW

11 dBm = 12.59 mW
Pin = 17.6 mW

Pin = 5.01 mW + 12.59 mW ;

dBm = 10 log ( 17.6 mW / 1x10 -3 )
dBm = 12.46 dBm

dBm = 12.46 dBm - 3dB = 9.46 dBm

9.46 dBm = 10 log ( P / 1x10 -3 )
P = 8.83 mW

Problems:
3. At the input to the receiver of a standard telephone channel, the noise
power is 50 W and the signal power is 20mW. Calculate the Shannon limit for
the capacity of the above channel under these conditions and when the signal
power is halved.
Solution
:
S / N = ( 20 mW / 50 W )
S / N = 400
Shannon Limit: { ( 3.32 ) ( BW ) Log10 [1 + ( S / N )] }
Shannon Limit: 26.791 kbps
When Signal Power is halved; S = 10mW
S / N = 200
Shannon Limit: { ( 3.32 ) ( BW ) Log10 [1 + ( S / N )] }
Shannon Limit: 23.704 kbps

Problems:
4. A 2kHz channel has a signal-to-noise ratio of 24 dB. Calculate the
maximum capacity of this channel. Assuming constant transmitting power,
calculate the maximum capacity when the channel bandwidth is halved and
reduced to a quarter of the original value.
Solution:
Shannon Limit: { ( 3.32 ) ( BW ) Log10 [1 + ( S / N )] }
Convert 24 dB to Signal to Noise Ratio:
24 dB = 10 Log ( S / N )
S / N = 251.19
Shannon Limit: { ( 3.32 ) ( BW ) Log10 [1 + ( 251.19)] }
Shannon Limit: 15.947 kbps
When Channel Bandwidth is halved; BW = 1khz
Shannon Limit: 7.792 kbps
When Channel Bandwidth is reduced to a quarter;
BW = 500 Hz
Shannon Limit: 3.986 kbps

Problems:
5. Calculate the capacity of a standard telephone channel with a
signal-to-noise ratio of 32 dB.
Solution:
Shannon Limit: { ( 3.32 ) ( BW ) Log10 [1 + ( S / N )] }
Convert 32 dB to Signal to Noise Ratio:
32 dB = 10 Log ( S / N )
S / N = 1584.89
Shannon Limit: { ( 3.32 ) ( 3100 ) Log10 [1 + ( 1584.89)] }
Shannon Limit: 32.937 kbps

7. Calculate the thermal noise power in both watts

and dBm for the bandwidth of 100 kHz and
temperature of 100C.
Solution:
N=KTBW
N= (1.38 x 10-23)(100+ 273K)(100000)
N=5.15 x 10-16
NdBm= 10 log(5.15 x 10-16/ 1 x 10-3)
NdBm= -122.88 dB

8. Determine the bandwidth necessary to produce

8 x 10-17 watts of thermal noise power at a
temperature of 17C over a 1 MHz bandwidth.
Solution:
N= KTBW
8 x 10-17 = (1.38 x 10-23)(17 + 273K)BW
BW= 19990.05 Hz or
20 kHz

10. A diode noise generator is required to produce 10Vof

noise in a receiver with an input impedance of 75,
resistive and a noise power bandwidth of 200kHz. What
must be the current through the diode be?
Given: Vn=10V, R=75, BW=200kHz
Reqd: Id
Soln: In=
In=2qeIdBW
Id=

11. Given an AM amplifier which operates at 20C over a

10kHz bandwidth has a 220 input resistor. Find the
input noise voltage.
Given: T=20C + 273= 293K, BW= 10khz
R=220
Reqd: Vn
Soln: Vn=4kTBWR=4(k)(293K)(10kHz)(220)
Vn= 188.68nV

12. Calculate the noise voltage for a 1k resistor at 17C

tuned by an LC circuit with a bandwidth of 1MHz.
Given: R=1k, T=17C + 273= 290K,
BW=1Mhz
Reqd: Vn
Soln: Vn=4kTBWR=4(k)(290K)(1MHz)(1k)
Vn= 4V

13. Calculate the noise voltage at the input of a TV rf

amplifier using a device that has 200 equivalent noise
resistance and a 300 input resistance. The bandwidth
of the amplifier is 6MHz and the temperature is 17C.
Given: R1=300, R2=200, BW=6MHz,
T= 17C + 273= 290K
Reqd: V1
Soln: V2=4kTBWR2=4(k)(290K)(6MHz)(200)
V2=4.383V
V1 =

14 . Calculate the noise voltage at the input of a RF

simplifier using a device that has a 200 equivalent noise
resistance and a 300 input resistance. The bandwidth of
the amplifier is 6 MHz and the temperature is 27 C.
Given:
Rn = 200
Ri = 300
BW = 6 MHz
T = 27 C

Required:
Vi

16. A noise source has two resistors in series at two

different temperature: R1 = 100 at 300 K and R2 = 200
at 400 K. Find the total noise voltage and noise power
produced at the load RL = 300 , over a bandwidth of 100
kHz.
Given:
Required:
R1 = 100 at 300 K
VT, VL
R2 = 200 at 400 K
RL = 300
BW = 100 kHz

18. A parallel tuned circuit having Q of 20 is resonated to a

200 MHz with a 10 pF capacitor. If this circuit is maintained
at 17oC, what noise voltage will a wideband voltmeter
measure when placed across it?

19. An amplifier has a noise voltage of 4.0V and is

operating over a frequency range having a maximum
frequency of 460kHz. What is the lowest frequency of
operation does the amplifier have if the input resistor is
200k and the ambient temperature is 17oC.

20. A diode noise generator is required to produce 10V of

noise in a receiver with an input impedance of 75,
resistive, and a noise power bandwidth of 200kHz. What
must the current through the diode be?

Number 22
Calculate the S/N ratio in dB for a receiver output of 4
volts signal and 0.48 noise voltage.

Solution and Answer for No.22

Number 23
Determine the equivalent noise temperature for a noise
figure of 10 dB.

Solution and Answer for No.23

Number 24
Determine the overall noise factor and noise figure for
the three cascaded amplifiers with the ff. parameters:
A1=3 dB; A2=13 dB; A3=10 dB; NF1=10 dB; NF2=6 dB;
NF3=10 dB.

Solution and Answer for No.24

Number 25
Determine the noise figure for an amplifier with an input
signal to noise ratio of 30 dB and output signal to noise
ratio of 24 dB.

Solution and Answer for No.25

28. The noise produced by a resistor is to be amplified by a

noiseless amplifier having a voltage gain of 75 and a
bandwidth of 100kHz. A sensitive meter at the output reads
240V. Assuming operation at 37oC, calculate the resistors
resistance if the bandwidth is cut to 25kHz, determine also
the expected output meter reading.

29. A voice transmission occupies a channel 30 kHz wide.

Suppose a spread spectrum system is used to increase its
bandwidth to 10 MHz If the signal has a total signal power
of -110 dBm at the receiver input and the system noise
temperature referred to the same point is 300K. Calculate
the signal-to-noise ratio for both system.

30. Determine the noise current for a vacuum tube diode with a
forward bias of 1mA over a 100kHz bandwidth. Determine also the
equivalent noise voltage of the diode.
Given: Ib = 1mA ; BW = 100kHz
Reqd: In = ? ; Vn= ?
Soln:
In

31. A transistor amplifier has a measured signal to noise power of

10 at its input and 5 at its output. Calculate the transistors noise
figure in decibel.
Given:

32. Suppose the noise power at the input to a receiver is 1nW in the
bandwidth of interest. What would be the required signal power for a
signal to noise ratio of 25dB?

33. For a three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figure of
3dB and power gains of 10dB, determine the total noise figure in
decibel.

34. For a three cascaded amplifier stages, each with noise figure of 3dB and power
gains of 10dB, determine the total noise figure in decibel.
Given:

A1 = A2 = A3 = 10dB = 10

Reqd: NFT

NF1 = NF2 = NF3 = 3dB

F1 = F2 = F3 = 2
Soln:

NFT = 10log FT; FT = F1 + (F2-1)/A1 + (F3-1)/A1A2

NFT = 10 log [2+ (2-1)/10 + (2-1)/100]

NFT = 3.24 dB

35. A microwave antenna (Teq=25K) is coupled through a network (Teq=30K) to a

microwave receiver with Teq=60K referred to its input. Calculate the noise power at its
input for a 2 MHz bandwidth. Determine the receivers noise figure.
Given:

Teq1 = 25K, Teq2 = 30K, Teq3 = 60K, BW = 2MHz

Reqd:
Soln:

N, NF
TeqT = Teq1 + Teq2 + Teq3 = 25K + 30K + 60K

N = kTB = (1.38x10-23J/K)(2x106Hz)(115K)
N = 3.17 x 10-15 W
F = 1 + Teqreceiver/To = 1 + 60K/290K = 1.2069
NF = 10 log F = 10 log 1.2069
NF = 0.82 dB

36. A satellite receiving system includes a dish antenna T eq=35K connected via coupling network
Teq=40K to a microwave receiver Teq=52K referred to its input. Determine the receivers noise figure.
Given: Teq = 52K (receiver)
Reqd: NF (receiver)
Soln: F = 1 + Teq/To = 1 + 52K/290K = 1.18
NF = 10 log F = 10 log 1.18 NF = 0.72 dB
37. Calculate the noise power at the input of a microwave receiver with an equivalent noise
temperature of 45K. It is fed from an antenna with a 35K equivalent noise temperature and operates
over a 5MHz bandwidth.
Given: Teq(input) = 45K, Teq(antenna) = 35K, B = 5MHz Reqd:
Soln: Teq = Teq(input) + Teq(antenna) = 45+35 Teq= 80K
N= kTB = (1.38x10-23J/K)(5x106Hz)(80K)
N= 5.52 x 10-15 W

38. An amplifier consists of two stages. Stage one has a gain of 12 dB and a noise
figure of 2 dB. Stage two has a gain of 20 dB and a noise figure of 5 dB. Calculate the
noise figure in decibel, and the equivalent noise temperature, in Kelvin, for the
amplifier.
Given:

NF1 = 2 dB, F1 = 1.58; NF2 = 5 dB, F2 = 3.16

A1 = 12 dB = 15. 85, A2 = 20 dB = 100, To = 290 K

Reqd:

NFT, Te

Soln:

FT = F1 + (F2 1)/ A1 = 1.58 + (3.16 1)/15.85

NFT = 10 log FT = 10 log 1.72

Te = To (FT 1) = 290K (1.72 - 1)
Te = 208.8 K

FT = 1.72

NFT = 2.36 dB

Problem 39
The first stage of a two stage amplifier has a voltage
gain of 10, a 600 resistor, a 1,600 equivalent noise
resistance and a 27 k output resistance. For the 2nd
stage the values are 25, 81 k, 10 k and 1 M
respectively. Calculate the equivalent input noise
resistance of this two stage amplifier.

Given: Av1 = 10, R1 = 600, NR1 = 1,600, Ro1 = 27 k

Av2 = 25, R2 = 81 k, NR2 = 10 k, Ro2 = 1 M
Required: NRi = ?
Solution:
R1T = R1 + NR1
R1T = 600 + 1,600
R1T = 2,200
R2 = (Ro1*R2)/ (Ro1+R2) + NR2
R2 = (27 * 81)/(27 + 81) + 10
R2 = 30.2 k
R3 = 1 M
NRi = R1 + (R2/A12) + R3/(A12A22)
NRi = 2.2 k + (30.2 k/ 102 ) + ( 1 M/ 102*252)

NRi = 2,518

Problem 40
The RF amplifier of a receiver has an input resistance of
1,000 and an equivalent shot-noise resistance of 200
, a gain of 25 and a load resistance of 125 k, given
that the bandwidth is 1 MHz and the temperature is 20
0
C. Calculate the equivalent noise voltage at the input of
this amplifier with an impedance of 75 , calculate the
noise figure.

Given: Ri = 1,000 Rn = 200, RL = 125 k

A1 = 25, BW = 1 MHz, T = 20 oC, Ra = 75
Required: Vn = ?
NF = ?
Solution:
Req = R1 + Rn + (RL/A12)
Req = 1,000 + 200 + (125,000 / 252)
Req = 1,400
Vn = (4RKTB)1/2
Vn = (4 x 1,400 x 293 x 1,000,000)1/2
Vn = 4.758 x 10-6 V
Req = Req R1
Req =1,400 -1,000
Req = 400
NF = 10 log ( 1 + Req/ Ra )
NF = 10 log ( 1 + 400/75 )

NF = 8.02 dB

Problem 41
A 3 stage amplifier is to have an overall noise
temperature no greater than 70K. The overall gain of the
amplifier is to be at least 45 dB. The amplifier is to be
built by adding a low noise first stage to an existing two
stage amplifier that has the gains and noise figure of 20
dB and 15 dB and 3 dB and 6 dB respectively. What is
the minimum gain that the 1st stage have? Using the gain
calculated, what is the noise figure that the first stage
have?

Given: AT = 45, AL = 2, A3 =3.98

Required: A1 = ? , NF1 = ?
Solution:
NF1 = 3 dB = 2
NF2 = 6 dB = 3.98
AT = A1 AL A3
A1 = 10 log [ (10AT/10/10A3/10
x10AL/10)]
A1 = 10 log [ 104.5/(102x101.5)]

A1 = 10 dB

Teq = To ( F 1 )
70 = 290 ( F 1 )
F = 1.241
F1 = 1.1261
NF1 = 10 log ( F1 )
NF1 = 10 log ( 1.1261 )

NF1 = 0.515 dB

42. A three stage amplifier is to have than overall noise temperature no greater than
70K. The overall gain of the amplifier is to be at least 45 dB. The amplifier is to be
built by adding a low noise first stage to an existing two-stage amplifier that has the
gains and noise figures of 20 dB & 15 dB and 3 dB & 6 dB respectively. What is the
minimum gain that the first stage has?
Given: Teq = 70 K, At = 45 dB, A2 = 20 dB, A3 = 15 dB
NF2 = 3 dB, NF3 = 6 dB
Reqd: A1, NF1
Soln:

At = A1 + A2 + A3

A1 = At A2 A3 = 45 20 15 A1 = 10 dB
NF2 = 3 dB, F2 = 2
FT = F1 + (F2-1)/(A1)+(F3-1)/(A1A2)
NF3 = 6 dB, F3 = 4
36/19 = F1 + (2-1)/(10)+(4-1)/(10)(20)
FT = 1 + (70/290) = (36/29) F1 = 1.126, NF1 = 0.515

43. A three stage amplifier system has a 3 dB bandwidth of 200 kHz determined by an
LC circuit at its input, and operates at 22C. The first stage has a power gain of 14 dB
and a noise figure of 3 dB. The 2nd and 3rd stages are identical with power gain of 20
dB and noise figure of 8 dB. The output load is 300 ohms. The input noise is generated
by a 10k resistor. Calculate a). the noise voltage and power at the input and the
output of the system assuming ideal noise loss amplifier; b).the overall noise figure for
the system; c). the actual output noise voltage and power of a TV receiver having a
bandwidth of 7 MHz and operating temperature of 27 C consists of an amplifier.
Given: At = 3 dB, A1 = 14 dB, A2 = A3 = 20 dB, BW = 200 kHz
NF1 = 3 dB, NF2 = NF3 = 8 dB, Ri = 10000 ohms, Ro = 300 ohms
T = 22 + 273 = 293 K
Reqd: Vni, Vno, NF, Vnt, Pnt

Soln:
Vni = [(4)(Ri)(k)(T)(BW)]
Vni = [(4)(10000)(1.3810-23)(293)(200000)]
Vni = 5.710-6 V
Vno = [(4)(Ro)(k)(T)(BW)]
Vno = [(4)(300)(1.3810-23)(293)(200000)]
Vno = 0.9910-6 V

44. A three stage amplifier has the stages with the following specifications: Stage 1
has a power gain of 10 and a noise figure of 2. For stages 2 and 3, the values are 25 &
4 and 30 & 5 respectively. Calculate the power gain, noise figure and noise
temperature for the entire amplifier assuming matched condition.
Given:

Stage 1: A1 = 10, F1 =2 Reqd:

AT, NFT, Teq

Stage 2: A2 = 25, F2 = 4
Stage 3: A3 = 30, F3 = 5
Soln:

AT = A1 A2 A3 = (10)(25)(30)

AT = 7500

FT = F1 + (F2-1)/A1 + (F3-1)/A1A2
FT = 2 + (4-1)/10 + (5-1)/25 = 2.316
NFT = 10log FT = 10log 2.316

FT = 3.65dB

Teq = To (FT-1) = 290K (2.316-1) Teq = 381.64K

45. The four stages of an amplifier have gains and noise figures of 12 dB, 15 dB, 20 dB & 17 db
and 2 dB, 4 dB, 6 dB & 7dB respectively. Calculate the overall noise figure in decibel.
Given: Stage 1: A1 = 12 dB = 15.85 NF1 = 2 dB, F1 = 1.58
Stage 2: A2 = 15 dB = 31.62 NF2 = 4 dB, F2 = 2.51
Stage 3: A3 = 20 dB = 100 NF3 = 6 dB, F3 = 3.98
Stage 4: A4 = 17 dB = 50.12 NF4 = 7 dB, F4 = 5.01
Reqd: NFT
Soln: FT = F1 + (F2-1)/A1 + (F3-1)/A1A2 + (F4-1)/A1A2A3
FT = 1.58 + (2.51-1)/15.85 + (3.98-1)/(15.85)(31.62)
+ (5.01-1)/(15.85)(31.62)(100)
FT = 1.68
NFT = 10 log FT = 10 log 1.68
NFT = 2.25 dB

46. The front end of a TV receiver having a bandwidth of 7MHz and operating at a temperature
of 27 degrees Celsius consists of an amplifier having a gain of 15 followed by a mixer whose
gain is 20. The amplifier has a 300 input resistance and noise equivalent resistance of 500 .
For the mixer, the values are 2.2k and 13.5k respectively. And the load resistance is 470k.
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the cascaded amplifier for the TV receiver.
Given: A1 = 15, Ri1 = 300 , Req1 = 500
BW = 7MHz, RL = 470k
A2 = 20, Ri2 = 2.2k, Req2 = 13.5k
T = 27 C = 300K
Reqd: ReqT
Soln: R1 = Ri1 + Req1 = 300 + 500 = 800
R2 = Ri2 + Req2 = 2.2k + 13.5k = 15.7k
R3 = RL = 470k
ReqT = R1 + R2/A12 + R3/A12A22
ReqT = 800 + 15.7k/(15)2 + 470k/(15)2(20)2
ReqT = 875

PROBLEMS
PART 2

1. In order to modulate a signal of 98% given that the peak

amplitude of the unmodulated carrier voltage is 37V, what
must be the value of the modulated carrier voltage?
Given: M = 98% Vc = 37V
Required: Vm
Solution:
m = ; m = ; m = 0.98
= mVc= (0.98)(37V) = 36.26V

2. The carrier maximum value is 600mV and the carrier

minimum value is 247mV. Calculate the percentage
modulation, modulation index.
Given: Vmax= 600mVVmin= 247mV
Required: m, M and Vm
Solution:
m == m = 0.4168
M = x 100% =X 100%
M = 41.6765%

3. The total AM signal power is 2800W. The carrier power is

2000W, what is the power in each sideband and the
percentage modulation.
Given:
PT= 2800W
PC=2000W
Required:
a.) Pusb
b.) Plsb
c.) M

Solution:
PT = PC ( 1+ m2/2);
2800W = 2000W (1+ m2/2)
m = 0.8944 x 100%
M = 89.44%
Pusb = Plsb = m2Pc / 4
=
Pusb = Plsb = 40W

4. An AM broadcast station has an unmodulated transmitter

power of 50kW and uses an antenna with a 10 effective
resistance. Calculate the transmitter carrier amplitude.
Given: PT= 50kW andR= 10
Required: VC
Solution:
P = ; 50kW = ; V = 707.1068 Vrms
Vp = Vrms ;

Vp = 1kV

5. The antenna current produced by an unmodulated

carrier is 2.4A into an antenna with 75 resistance. When
we apply amplitude modulation the antenna current rises to
2.7A. Compute for M and m. Also determine the power of
the carrier.
Given: IC = 2.4A IT = 2.7A R = 75
Required: M, m and Pc

Solution:
(2.7A)
m = 0.7289 M = 72.89%
Pc = Ic2R
= (2.4A)2(75)
Pc = 432 W

Current Calculation
where:
It = total voltage
Ic = voltage of the carrier signal

6. For an AM DSBFC modulator with a carrier frequency of

100kHz and a maximum modulating signal of 5kHz,
determine:
a) Frequency limits for the upper and lower sidebands
b) Bandwidth
c) Upper and lower frequencies produced by a
modulating signal of 3kHz.

Given: fc= 100kHz ; fm(max)= 5kHz

Required: a.) LSB & USB
b.) B
c.) fusf & flsf
Solution:
a.) LSB = [fc - fm(max)] to fc
= [100kHz 5kHz] to 100kHz
LSB = 95kHz to 100kHz
a.) USB = fc to [fc + fm(max)]
= 100kHz to [100kHz + 5kHz]
USB = 100kHz to 105kHz

b.) B = 2fm(max)
= 2(5kHz )
B = 10kHZ
c.) given that fm=3kHz
fusf = fc + fm
= 100kHz + 3kHz
fusf = 103kHz
flsf = fc fm
= 100kHz - 3kHz
flsf = 97kHz

7. For an AM waveform with a maximum peak voltage of

18Vp and a minimum peak voltage of 2Vp, compute for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Upper and lower peak amplitude side frequencies

Peak amplitude of the unmodulated carrier
Peak change in the amplitude of the envelope
Modulation index
Percent modulation

Given:
Vmax= 18Vp
Vmin= 2Vp
Required:
a.) Eusf & Elsf
b.) Ec
c.) Em
d.) m
e.) M

Solution:
a.) Eusf = Elsf =
=
Eusf = Elsf = 4V
b.) Ec =
=
Ec = 10V

Solution:
c.) Em = =
=
Ec = 8V
d.) m =

= m = 0.8

e.) M = x 100% = x 100% M = 80%

8. For an AM DSBFC transmitter with an

unmodulated carrier power Pc = 100W that
is modulated simultaneously by three
modulating signals with coefficients of
modulation: 0.2, 0.4, 0.5. Determine:
a) Total coefficient of modulation
b) Upper and lower sideband power
c) Transmitted power

Given: Pc = 100W m1 = 0.2 m2 = 0.4

m3 = 0.5
Required :
b.) Psbt
c.) Pt
Solution:
a.) mt=
=
mt = 0.67

a.) mt

b.) Psbt =
Psbt

=
=

c.) Pt = Pc ( 1
= 100W ( 1 + )
Pt = 122.45W

9. For the maximum positive envelope voltage of 12V and a

minimum positive envelope amplitude of 4V. Determine the
modulation coefficient and percent modulation.
Given: Vmax = 12V
Required:

m&M

Vmin = 4V

Solution:
m=
=
m = 0.5
M = x 100%
= X 100%
M = 50%

10. What is the maximum modulating signal frequency that

can be used with AM DSBFC system with a 20kHz
bandwidth?
Given: B = 20kHz
Required: fm(max)
Solution:
B = 2fm(max)
fm(max) = B/2
= 20kHz / 2
fm(max) = 10kHz

11. For an AM DSBFC wave with an unmodulated carrier

voltage of 18Vp and load resistance of 72 and a
modulation coefficient of 0.6 Determine:
a)
Unmodulated carrier power
b) Total sideband power
c) Upper and lower sideband power
d) Total transmitted power.

Given: Vc = 18Vp
RL= 72
Required:
a)
Pc
b) Psb
c) Pusb & Plsb
d) Pt
Solution:
a.) Pc = Vc2 / 2R ;
= (18V)2 / 2(72)
Pc = 2.25W

b.) Psb = m2Pc / 2

= (0.6)2(2.25W) / 2
Psb = 0.405 W
c.) Pusb = Plsb = m2Pc / 4
= (0.6)2(2.25W) / 4
Pusb = Plsb = 0.2025 W
d.) Pt = Pc ( 1+ m2/2)
= Pc ( 1+ m2/2)
= (2.25W) (1+ 0.62/2)
Pt = 2.655W

12. An antenna has an impedance of 40. An unmodulated AM signal produces a

current of 6.2A. The modulation is 85 percent. Determine:
a) the Current Power
b) the Total Power
c) the Sideband Power
Given: R=40 ; I=6.2A ; m=0.85 since M=85%
Reqd: Pc , PT , PSB
Soln:

13. An AM signal has a 12W carrier and 1.5W in each sideband. What is the
percent
modulation of this AM signal?
Given:
Reqd : M = ?
Soln:

14. How much power appears in one sideband of an AM signal of 5kW transmitter
modulated by 80%?
Given:
Reqd:
Soln:

15. An AM signal with 100 percent modulation has an upper sideband power of
32W.
What is the carrier power?
Given: since 100% modulation, m=1 ;
Reqd:
Soln:

then, at m=1,
substituting at the first equation,

16. An AM wave displayed on an oscillator has values of Vmax = 4.8. If it has a

modulation coefficient of 0.4, determine Vmin.
Given: Vmax = 4.8 ; m=0.4
Reqd: Vmin
Soln:

Amplitude Modulation Problems

17. Suppose that an AM signal, the Vmaxp-p is 7.8 and Vminp-p is 2.8.
Determine the Percent Modulation.
Given
:Vmax =
p-p
7.8
Vmin = 2.8

Required
:Percent Modulation,
(M)

p-p

Working
Solution:
M = [ (Vmax - Vmin) / (Vmax + Vmin) ] x
100
*Since given values are peak to peak, and we only need the peak
values, let Vmax = 3.9 and Vmin be equal to 1.4
M = [ (3.9 1.4) / (3.9 + 1.4) ] x 100
M = 47.17 %

Amplitude Modulation Problems

18. An AM DSBFC has a peak modulated carrier voltage of 18 Volts
and a load resistance of 27, and a modulation index of 1. Solve
for the Power Carrier.
Given
:Vc = 18 V m = 1

Required
:Power Carrier, (Pc)

RL = 27
Working Solution:
Pc = [ (Vc)2 / (2)(RL) ]
Pc = [ (18)2 / (2)(27) ]
Pc = 6 watts

Amplitude Modulation Problems

19. A 500 kW carrier is to be modulated to 78%. Determine total transmitted
power.
Given
:Pc = 500 kW

Required
:Transmitted Power, (Pt)

M = 78%
Working Solution:
Pt = [Pc][ 1 + ((m)2 / (2)) ]
*Since given is M = 78%, derive the modulation index from M, which is 0.78
Pt = [500kW][ 1 + ((0.78)2 / (2)) ]
Pt = 652.1kW

Amplitude Modulation Problems

20. An AM DSBFC transmitter with an unmodulated carrier power of
100W that is simultaneously modulated by three modulating
signals with coefficients of modulation m = 0.80, m = 0.65, and m =
0.12. Determine the total coefficient of modulation.
Given
Required
:m = 0.80 m = 0.12 :Total coefficient of modulation, (m )
1
3
t
m2= 0.65
Working Solution:
mt = (m1 + m2 + m3)1/2
mt = (0.80 + 0.65 + 0.12)1/2
mt = 1.08

PROBLEMS
PART 3

1. Determine the percent modulation of an FM wave with

a frequency deviation of 15 kHz for (a.) FM broadcast,
(b.) for TV broadcast.
Solution:
a.) M=x100
(15kHz/75kHz)*100= 20%
b.) M=x100
(15kHz/25kHz)*100= 60%

2. A given FM transmitter is modulated with a single sinusoid.

The output for no modulation is 100 watts into a 50-ohm
resistive load. The peak frequency deviation of the
transmitter is carefully increased from zero until the first
sideband amplitude in he output is 0. under these conditions
determine (a.) the average power at the carrier frequency,
(b.) the average power in all the remaining sidebands, (c.)
the average power in the second-order sidebands.
Given: J1=0, J0=-0.4 @=3.8
R=50 ohms, Pt=100 watts
Reqd: Pc(ave), PSB(ave),PSB @2nd-order SB
Soln: Pc=(Jo2 (3.8)/ Jo2 (0))(100W)=16W
PSB= Pt- Pc=100W-16W=84W
Pc=2(Jo2 (3.8)/ Jo2 (0))(100W)=34W

3. Determine the frequency deviation and carrier swing

required to provide 80% modulation in the FM broadcast
band. Repeat this for an FM signal serving as the audio
portion of a TV broadcast.
Solution:
a.) FM broadcast band:
M=
80= x 100
actual freq. deviation= (80/100)*75=60 kHz
CS=2xfreq.deviation=2x60kHz=120 kHz
b.) Sound in TV broadcast:
80=
Freq.deviation= (80/100)*25=20kHz
CS= 2xfreq.deviation=40 kHz

4. Determine the permissible range in modulation index for

commercial FM that has a 50 to 20kHz modulating
frequency.
Given: fm1=50Hz; fm2=20kHz;
max=75kHz (for commercial FM)
Required: range of modulation index (m)
Solution:
mf=
mf1= to mf2=
3.75 Hz to 1.5kHz

4. If an 18MHz band were to be considered

for use with the same standards that apply to
the 88-108MHz FM broadcast band. How
many FM stations could be accommodated?
Given:

6. An FM signal has a deviation of 10kHz

and is modulated by a sine wave with a
frequency of 5kHz. The carrier frequency is
150MHz and the signal has a total power of
12.5W, operating into an impedance of 50.
Calculate: modulation index and the
bandwidth.
Given: fm=5kHz; =10kHz; fc=150MHz;
PT=12.5W; RL=50

Required: a. m
b. B
Solution:
a. mf = ;
= mf = 2
b. F

There are 4 significant

sidebands according to
Bessels function for this
signal

B = 2 x fm x number of sig. sidebands

= 2 (5kHz)(4)
B = 40kHz

7. For the FM modulator with a modulation

index
of
1,
a
modulating
signal
vm(t)=8sin(21000t) and an unmodulated
carrier vm(t)=15sin(2540t) and the load
resistance is 85. Determine :
a) the unmodulated carrier power
b) the power in the angle modulated wave
Given: from vm(t)=8sin(21000t); Vm=8V and fm=1kHz
from vm(t)=15sin(2540t) ; VC=15V and fC=540Hz
RL=85;
Required:

a. PC

Solution:
a.PC = = PC = 1.32W
b. PT = (J02 + 2J12 + 2J22 + 2J32 + 2J42 + 2J52 ) PC
= [0.222 + 2(0.58)2 + 2(0.35)2 + 2(0.13)2 +
2(0.03)2] (1.32W)
PT = 1.3224 W

ADDITIONAL
PROBLEMS!

SampleProblems:

1. What is the bandwidth required for an FM

signal in which the modulating frequency is 10
kHz and the maximum deviation is 50 kHz?
Approximate BW Formula = 2 ( + fm )
Approximate BW Formula = 2 ( 50kHz + 10kHz )
Approximate BW Formula =
120kHz
Narrowband FM =
Wideband FM =
2fm
2
FM = 2 (50 kHz)
Narrowband
FM = 2 (10 Wideband
kHz)
Narrowband FM = 20
Wideband FM = 100
kHz
kHz

Sample
Problems:
2.

Determine the frequency deviation and the

carrier swing of an FM signal which is the
audio portion of a TV signal and has a percent
modulation of 85%?
C.S. = 2
Percent Modulation = [ (actual) / (max) ] x 100
Percent Modulation = [ (actual) / (75kHz) ] x
100
Frequency Deviation () =
63.750kHz
C.S. = 2(63.750kHz)
C.S. = 127.500kHz

Sample Problems:

3. Determine the relative total power of the

carrier and side frequency when the
modulation index is 0.25 for a 10kW FM
For a modulation index of 0.25:
transmitter.
Modulation Index

Carrier

J0

J1

0.25

0.98

0.12

Pt = (J02 + 2J12)(P)
Pt = [(0.98)2 + 2(0.12)2][10kW]
Pt =
9.892kW

Sample
Problems:
4.

Determine the permissible range in

modulation index for commercial FM that has a
50 to 20kHz modulating frequency.
mf1 = ( / fm)
mf1 = (75kHz /
mf150Hz)
= 1500

mf2 = ( / fm)
mf2 = (75kHz / 20kHz)
mf2 = 3.75

mf2 X mf1
Permissible range in modulation index = 3.75
X 1500

Sample
Problems:

5. If an 18MHz band were to be considered for

use with the same standards that apply to a 88
108MHz FM broadcast band, how many FM
stations could be accommodated?
For a standard 88 108MHz FM broadcast:
108MHz 88MHz = 20MHz
Number of stations = 20MHz / 200kHz
Number of stations = 100 Stations
For the given condition:
Number of stations = 18MHz / 200kHz
Number of stations = 90 Stations

PROBLEMS
PART 4

Phase Modulation Problems

1. A phase modulator has a sensitivity of 2 rad/V. Calculate the phase
deviation produced with a sine wave input of 5 volts peaks.
Given
:K = 2 rad/V

Required
:Phase deviation, ( )

Vm = 5 Volts
Working Solution:
= (K)(Vm)
= (2 rad/V)(5 Volts)
= 10 rad

Phase Modulation Problems

2. A phase modulator has a phase deviation of 24 rad. If it has a
sensitivity of 5 rad/Volts, What is the peak voltage of the phase
modulator?
Given
Required
: = 24 rad
:Peak Voltage,
K = 5 rad/Volts

(Vm)

Working Solution:
= (K)(Vm)
Vm = / K
Vm = ( 24 rad ) / ( 5 rad/ Volts )
Vm = 4.8

Phase Modulation Problems

3. A PM modulator has a phase deviation sensitivity of 2.5 radian / V
and a modulating signal of Vm(t) = 2Cos(4000)t. Calculate the
peak phase deviation.
Given
:K = 2.5 radian/ V

Required
:Peak Phase Deviation, ( )

Vm(t) = 2Cos(4000)t
Working Solution:
= (K)(Vm)
= (2.5 radian/V) (2)
= 5 rad

LAST PROBLEMS

1. A broadband radio transmitter radiates 10kW of carrier

power when the percentage modulation is 75%. How much
is the transmitted power in DSBFC and in SSBSC?
Given:

Pc=10kW;
M=75%

Required: PT in DSBFC and SSBSC

Solution:
For DBSFC :
PT=PC () ; PC = 10kW()
PT= 12.81kW
For SSBSC:
PT=PC() ; PC =10kW()
PC = 1.41kW

The carrier power of a signal that undergone the process of

modulation by suppressing the carrier wave is 9kW. The
modulated wave is vm(t)=8sin(21000t) and the unmodulated
wave is vm(t)=10sin(2200t). What is the modulating index,
carrier power and the bandwidth of the signal if the maximum
modulating frequency is 5kHz?
Given: from vm(t)=8sin(2850t); Vm=8V &fm=1kHz
from vm(t)=10sin(2200t); Vc=10V & fc=200Hz
PT=9kW
Required: m, PCand B if fm=5kHz

Solution:
a. m=; m=;m=0.8
b. PT=PC();

9kW=PC() PC=56.25kW

c. B=2fm; B=2(5kHz);

B=10kHz

3. A DSBFC AM transmission of 3kW is fully modulated.

Calculate the power transmitted, if it is transmitted as a
single sideband signal.
Given: PT=3kW;
m=1 (problem indicates that the signal is
modulated)
Required: PC

fully

Solution:
a. For DBSFC :
PT=PC () ; 3kW= PC ()
Pc= 2kW
If it is transmitted as a single sideband:
PT=PC();PT=2kW();PT=500W

BS-ECE IV-2

Submitted by:

LIBUNAO, Ralph Thomas

MAGALLON, Mark Joseph
MAGLALANG, Jess Brian
MARIO, Alvin
MENDOZA, Malvin
MORAL, Vincent Miller
ROCAVERTE, Dacely
ROYO, Kristel
SALCEDA, Jane Marielle
SALUD, Kenneth Karl
SORREDA, Neil Adrian

Submitted to:
Dr. Carlos Sison