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q a i ‘Applied ; Instrumentation lin the Process Industries Q Volume Ill ' Second Edition q Engineering Data and Resource Material } Applled Instrumentation in the Process Industries Volume it: Engineering Date and Resource Material Copytight © 1974, 1982 by Gulf Publishing Company. Houston, ‘Texas, All ight reserved. Printed in the United States of America, This book, or parts thereof. may not be reproduced in any form without permission ofthe publisher. ISBN 0-87201-386.7 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data (Revised) Andrew, William G ‘Applied instrumentation in the process industries. Includes indexes CONTENTS: v. 1. A survey--v. 2. Practical guidelines-v. 3. Engineering data and resource material 1. Process control. 2. Automatic control. 3, Engineering instru. ments. J. Williams, H. B.. J939- joint sutbor. 1, Tile, TS156.8.4534 1979 660.2'81 79-9818, ISBN 0-87201-3820 (v. 1) AACRI ISBN 0-87201-383-9 («. 2) ISBN 0-87201-384.7 (y. 3) — 5 a ee oe oO @& & Redd) Preface The third volume of Applied Instrumentation In The Process Industries, “Engineering Data and Resource Material,” is yet another unique addition to the instrument field. It is filled with the type of information that is a necessary part of the activities of people involved in instru- ment application, engineering, design, and operation. It begins with a thorough treatment af problems associated with fluid flow. Physical properties of fluids are discussed, and the nature of liquid and compressible fluid flows are treated clearly and concisely. This section alone makes the volume a worthy addition to a technica library ‘Also provided are charts, tables, nomagraphs, formulas and symbols that instrument people need in performing their work, This information is arranged topically and in- dexed for easy reference. There is an abundance of infor- ‘mation on the physical oroperties of Mids, low data, con- version datz, mathematical functions, piping information, and electrical data that are essential to instrument engineer ing. Other features included in Volume 3 are: (1) a listing of formulas needed for the many calculations that must be ‘made from time to time in engineering work. Many of them are used infrequently and may be forgotten. They ate listed topically for easy reference. (2) Typical installation details for many instrument devices that many people will find Usefull in the preparation of standards and in daily work. (3) Calculation examples that are extremely helpful to novices in the industry. These include fluid flow problems, orifice calculations, control valve and relief valve calculations and other problems that confront the average instrument engineer. These calculations involve the use of charts, tables, etc, given in ather sections of the volume. This volume has under one cover the infornsation that the average instrument engineer must ordinarily use many sources {0 obtain. Acknowledgments Any technical book draws material from a large number of sources. Although many of these are referenced in the text. itis ‘not feasible to include all the contributors to whom the authors. are indebted. Data and information were furnished by many industrial companies. ‘The authors were encouraged to undertake the work by A.C. Lederer, former president of S.1.P., Inc. The cooperation of W.L. Hampton, Manager of Engineering. is. gratefully ac- knowiedged in. producing the work an schedule. Appreciation is extended particularly to M.J. Sandefur for an incisive treatise on computer system projects, and 10 B.J mand and KG, Rhea for time spent in reviewing and criticizing many chapters and sections of the manuscript Others who contributed in this area include L. Ashley, W.E. DeLong, D.M. Dudney. L.C. Hoffman, T.E, Lasseter, and J.G. Royle. In addition, the authors are deeply appreciative to S.1.P.. ne. and its staff in provided the environment and materials for producing this work. (On the second edition: Mr. H.B. Williams gives his pro- found appreciation to all who have assisted in preparing this revised text—those who have contributed technical informa ‘ion; those who have typed and proofread; those who willingly provided illustrations, suggestions. and encouragement; and t0 all who have, by their confidence. inspired this effort. a ao ce mo =) Dedication c To my wife Betty, and children, Karen, Debbie, and Mark, for their patience and understanding | Applied | ‘nstrumentation in the Process Second i Industries engineering Date and Resource Material "iE mses Yeh iat ey WS & & we la ed aa ee aaa Applied Instrumentation in the Process Industries Second Edition Engineering Data and Resource Material Sam oS Oo 2S ea Oem i I a Oo a tm ca ca Le led hed os William G. Andrew David M. Dudney James L. Jackson BJ. Normand Andrew Jackson Stockton Baxter Williams Borg-Warner Corporation Marbon Division (Formerly with S.1.P., Inc.) PE, BSChE, University of Southwestern Louisiana S.LP., Inc. S.LP., Inc. PE, BSEE, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute S.LP., Inc. Contents PrOtACO ee Acknowledgments... ..---...-¥ Dedication. .......---.....Wi Contributors... ......-... vii 1 Fluid Flow. .........., Introduction, 1; Nature of Fluids, ?; The Nature of Flow in Conduits and the Friction Factor, 20; Incompressible Flow in Conduits, 21; Compressible Flow in Conduits, 30; Two- Phase Vapor-Liquid Flow, 44; Equivalent Line Lengths for Pipe, 47; Terminology, $0; Nomenclature, $2; References, 92; 2 Engineering Graphical Symbols . . 54 Iniroductién, 54; Flow Sheet Symbols, 54; Flow Sheet Codes and Line Symbols, 60; Instament Symbols and den- tiffeaion, 74; Eletical Symbols. 108; Joint Indust Councit JIC) Electcsl Symbols, 108; Typical Symbols for Industrial Electrical Standards, 112; Graphical Symbols for Pipefitings, Valves, and Piping, 127; Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Diagrams, 133; 3 . Charts. .............147 Introduction, 147; Resistance in Pipe, 157; Reynolds Num- ber, Ro, for Liquids, 158: Compressibility Factors for Gases With Reduced Pressures From 0 to 40, 164; Nelson-Obert Compressibility Chart, 165; Latent Heat of Vaporization of Low Boiling Hydrocarbons Below 10 Atmospheres, 173; Latent Heat of Veporization of Low Boiling Hydrocarbons, ‘Above 10 Atmospheres, 174; Ratio of Specific Heats, K, vs. Temperature, 178; Specific Heat of Hydrocarbon Liquids, 181; Thermal Conductivity of Normal Paraffinic Hydrocar- ‘bon Liquids, 190; Vapor Pressure Chart for Hydrocarbons, 191; Viscosity of Liquid Normal Paraffins and Petroleum Fractions, 196; Viscosity of Various Liquids, 198; Viscosity of Steam, 200; Viscosity of Water and Liquid Petroleum Products, 20(; Vapor Pressure and Heat of Vaporization of, Pure Single-Component Paraffin Hydrocarbon Liquids, 202; ‘Approximate Specific Gravity of Petroleum Fractions at High Temperatures, 203; Ethylene Density in 1Ib./Ft."Incre- ments, 204; Viscosity of Mid-Continent Oils, 205; Beta Ratio versus Pipe Lengths for Various Piping Configura- tions, 208; Psychrometric Chart, 219: Wet and Dry Bulb Temperature Data, 223; Annual Solar Radiation in kc" 234; Ooo we oo ee Waa a as Tables... 2... 2... es 2 288 Introduction, 235; Metric Conversions—Metric to English, English to Metric, 237; Temperature Conversion—Centi- ‘grade to Fahrenheit, Fahrenheit to Centigrade, 238: Thermo- couple Conversion Tables, 240; Units of Measurement From ‘One System to Another, 258; Viscosity—Equivalents of Absolute Viscosity, 265; API and Baumé Gravity Tables and ‘Weight Factors, 269; Conversion Tables, 270; Decimal Numbers vs. Digital Numbers Through 256 (equals 2"), 290; Characteristics of Commonly Used ‘Transmission Lines, 290; Cylinder Volumes, Partial and Horizontal Cylinders, 298; Ellipsoids and Spheres, Partial Volumes, 300: Properties of Saturated Steam, 314; Physical Constants of Hydrocarbons, 321; Physical Properties of Gases, 325; Physical Propenies of Water, 326; Specific Gravity of Liquids, 327; Specific Gravity and Density of Gases, 327; Viscosity of Liquids, 328; Viscosity of Gases, 329; Periodic Table ofthe Elements, 332; Properties of Gases, 333; Commercial Wrought Steel Pipe Data, 335; Friction Loss in Pipe fittings in Terms of Equivalent Feet of Straight Pipe, 340; Equivalents and Pre- fixes, 343; « wv Reduced Viscosity 1 = w/e oe » yw d a > 3 28 2 a8 6 7 OST. 15 20 25 4 7 8 9K Reduced Temperature T= T/T. Figure 1.1. Generalized reduced viscosities. From Hougen and Watson, Chemical Process Principles, Part il, John Wilt. Sons, Joe, reprinted by permission. ao & & GN ee mms wel oe s&s 050) | ae 048 + — 046 PRESSURE, PSIG 044 3191, we 42 + 250 Stan 080 0" 038 136 800 SArunares 034 7 0 292 a" 030 028 a a a 0 8 a g q A a k = Absol, 026 2a 022 020 La) tld 018 016 T 1 | 4 t ! T | L 014 i Le ee fe 200 300 400 «Det. Piants, Philip J. Potter, copyright © 1949). 70 800 900 1000 4 ~ Temperature, in Degrees Fahrenheit 1100 1200 Fluid Flow 5 Example: Viscosity of 600 psig, 850 F steam is 0.029 cextipoise ure 1.2. Viscosity of steam. Courtesy Crane Co. (T.P. No, 410) and the Ronald Press Co. (adapted trom Steam Power 6 Applied instrumentation 4000- 200 hone (Ch) Propane (CMs) Btane (Cid $ Notwral Gasoline = Q — — — 5 : 48 beg. AP Crude, 10, 40 beg. API Crude 11, 35.6 Deg. APt Cru 32.6 Deg. API Civ 13, Som Crook 6 ora i 16, SAE 10 Lube (100 vA} 1 ~ Viscosity, in Centi 17, SAB 30 babe (100 vA) 0 a Q G 18, Foal 5 Man) of Foal 6 On) 19. SAE 70 Ube (100 VL) t 20, bunker Fue! (Max) ond MRE Residue 2). Aap | Example: The viscosity of water at 125 F is 0.52 centipoise (Curve No. 6) 0 2 30 40 60 80 109 200 300 400 600 800 1000 t — Temperature, in Degrees Fahrenheit Figure 1.3. Viscosity of water and liquid petroleum products. Courtesy Crane Co. (T.P, No. 410) and by permission of t, 11 and Gas Journal — eS woe Cam Oo eo & &e hs kd BS as ta Fluid Flow 7 x lee a 7 AS ane | BL ut [a rs 20}— or | \ 1s ‘a 1.0) 5 B 2 x 2 6 & 4 =) 10, kopropyt Aes z 18 Soi rt hd 20% M804 3 12. beeher © 3 15: boots 1 20% Sods Myon. 20% Neon % 1 10% Soin Cade tne 208 Ha 1 19, 20% Sates once tree 38 10 Sarin Ouvate tO oh 19, 20% Callen Que he 20% Cech 1 0.3} + | ‘a : +t = 05] + —t oi 4 —+—-+ “ATO 80 a6 tA Rate MONA AE 4 FS Os ceneipe ‘Temperature, in Degrees Fahrenheit Figure 1.4. Viscosity of various liquids. Courtesy Crane Co, (T.P. No. 410). 8 Applied instrumentation ‘TEMPERATURI viscosity c oF CENTIPOISES 2097 200 "ee paee 37 0 So 10 [340 VISCOSITIES OF LIQUIDS E a 338 wo {320 5 wo tee Pr F- 20 8 SEEEETERE f-400 + 100 wots v0 wotuo F130 sot a0 1 oe . wot np? F 7” * wy so | ot A ~0 3 Te Figure 1.5. Viscosi Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company. known viscosity. This can be done for both liquids and gases by using Figure {1 and the relation HF Hy He aay It is best if the known viscosity is selected at conditions close to those for which the estimated viscosity is to be obtained, HE no viscosity data are available, approximations can be made by employing Figure 1.1 and estimating ue with the E fos CTRIe Ser ee KN EDN wT we OR * bes of liquids. From Perry's Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, «th od, copyright © 1969 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Licht and Stechert equation (ony? (PPP We = 1.416x 10" 7 Cs) Density as commonly defined in fluid flow is ameas) of the mass at a temperature and pressure that can be place vessel of uni volume 0 R E E C E & C [ ' E b fi F [ [ ew a lk a Ga Ca ee Fluid Flow Table 1.5, Viscosities of Liquids (Coordinates tor Use with Figure 1.8) Liquid x | y¥ Liguid cee ay) ‘Acetaldehyde | 152 | 48 Freon-22 wa | 47 ‘Acetic acid, 100% 121 | 142 Freon-113 4 ‘Acetic acid, 70% 95 | 170 Freon-114 83 ‘Acetic anhydride 127 | 128 Glycerol, 100% 30.0 Acetone, 100% a5) 72 Glycerol, 30% 19S Acetone, 35% 79 | 150 Heptane . Allyl alcohol 103 | 143 Hexane ‘Ammonia, 100% 126 | 20 Hydrochloric acid, 31.5% Ammonia, 26% rar | 139 Teabutyl aleabol Amyl acetate ug | 125 Tsobutyric acid ‘Assy aeobol 75 | 184 Isopropyl alechol i gi | 187 Kerosene Anisole 123 | 135 Linseed oi, raw ‘Arsenic trichloride 139 ) 143 Mercury Benzene 125 | 109 ‘Methanol, 100%, Brine, CaCh, 25% 66 | 159 Methanol, 90% Brine, NaCl, 25% 102 | 166 ‘Methanol, 40%, Bromine, 442 | 332 Methyl aceate Bromotoluene 200 | 159 Methyl chloride Butyl acetate 123 | 110 Methyl ethyl Ketone Butyl alcobol 36 | 172 Naphthalene Butyric acid aad | 153 Nitric acid, 95% ‘Carbon dioxide 1.6 03 Nitric acid, 60% Carbon disulfide 11 | 75 Nitrobenzeve Carbon tetrachloride 127 | 33a Nitrotoluene Chlorobenzene 123 | 124 Octane Chloroform 3h | 102 ‘Setyh aca Chloroselfonic acid 2 | 184 entachloroethane Chlorotoluene, ortho 130 | 133 Pentane Ghlorotoluene, meta 125 Phenol Chlorotaluene, para 125 Phosphorus tribromide Gresol, meta 208 Phosphorus trichloride Cycloberanal m3 Propionic acid Dibromoethane 158 Propyl alcobol Dichloroethane 122 Propyl bromide Dichloromethane 85 Propyl chloride Diethyl oxalate 164 Prop ioe Dimethyl oralate 158 Dipheny! 183 Sorium byoxite, 30% Dipropyl onalate 77 Stannic chloride Ethyl acetate 7 | 94 Sulfur dioxide Ethyl alcohol, 100% 105 | 138 Sulfuric aid, 110% Ethyl alcohol, 95% 98 | 143 Sulfuric acid, 980% Ethyl aleohol, 40% 5 Sulfunie aid, 60%, Ethyl benzene Sulfurylebloride Ethyl bromide ‘Tetrachloroethane Ethyl chioride Tetrachloroethylene Ethyl ether Titanium tetrachloride ‘Ethyl! formate ‘Toluene Ethyl iodide Trichlorocthylene Ethylene glycol Turpentine Formic acid Vinyl acetate Beeon-1t Water Freon-12 Xylene, ortho Freon-21 Xylene, meta Xylene, para ‘Source: Ports Chonical Engineers” Handbook, Wh ed, 1983 by MeGraw-Fl, Te Used with petmission of McGraw-Hill Book Company. 9 10 Appiied Instrumentation ‘TEMPERATURE Miscosnty fi c oF CENTIPOISES : 100: os [ c F GASES ; VISCOSTIIES ©} c ° E W0 G too 0 c 300 é 200 400 C 500 300-4 — e00 & 700 400 200 , soo 0 1000 E e001 1100 1200 ‘0.008 1300 £ 1400 800—F 1500 THe eT ee CC eSKE OTS 1800 "0 [ 1ooo—F= 1800 ‘0005 Figure 1.6. Viscosities of gases at atmospheric pressure. From Perry's Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed. copyright «1963 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company. Liquid Density Specitic Volume f Since liquid density data is avilable from a myrisd of Specific volume is the reciprocal of density and is defined! sources, this section includes litte liquid density data. Two as volume per unit mass or weight. common problems ia utilizing liquid density data are conver- sion of units and extrapolation to desired temperature and/or density = 1.0/(specifi volume) as] pressure. Table 1.7 permits conversions between various : it commonly used density units, Densities can be indicated by a “/auid Specific Gravity (SG) variety of methods. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a liquid f fe Ge WM ES fe & ew cea oa 93 oo ee Le ast Table 1.6. Viscosity of Gases at Atmospheric Pressure {Coordinates for Use with Figure 1.6) 7 8 9 50 31 2 3B 54 35 56 Gas) ‘Acetic acid ‘Acetone Acetylene Cyanogen ‘Cycloherane Ethyl acerate Ethyl alcohol Ethyl chloride a Ereon-11 ie ie 4 fais ‘Helium ae Hydrogen BS + viNy FH lydrogen {drogen bromide ies fone ee gu pase cae era | Methane Methyl aleobol Netonde Nitrosyl chloride Nirwurone ren Benne Propane Propyl aleobol Propylene ur dioxide ‘Toluene 2, 3, 3-Trimethylbutane Water Xenon 86 12 12 aa 88 98 90 86 90 53 99 85 109 106 80 88 110 70 or Ba 90 96 86 95 80 93 ‘Source: Perry's Chemical Engineers Handbook, sth eds © 1963 by McGraw-Hill, Ine Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company, 43) 130 149 20.0 160 24 132 192 B37 130 187 160 200 184 157 152 120 45 132 142 156 30 15.1 238 15.1 160 153, 170 140 205 18 124 172 187 149 23 180 184 2.9 155 6 205 200 176 190 23 128 129 134 138 170 124 105 160 23.0 Fluid Flow " ze 12 Applied Instrumentation Table 1.7 Density Conversions To convert the oumericl valve of a expressed in ove of the uals in the leftband columa of the ible to the ssumeical valve expresied ih tne of he uni Ms Oe top Tow of the abi, mullply te former valve by te faclor inthe slack fommoa to Both tals. zi 7 = ] ~ i a = ats 1 | 1.000028 0.036128, 62.428 \ & | cssver a [__ eos6ia6 ar | a ee 1 10 {ase 2 | coos | ooteors s7ex1o~ | 4 | ons368 7S wis | ome | onion wasoxie | tau [a pexssry 8 1m 9m, 2 3 3 ae Dens ot higher pressure ri nsy 08-05 05 07 08 Density at BOM ond atm, g/m Figure 1.7. Approximate etfect of pressure on liquid density From Perry's Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed., ‘copyright © 1963 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Used with permission ‘of McGraw-Hill Book Company. as temperature T, to the density of water at some reference Temperature Tp, written as SGT,/T3. Reference temperatures, of 60°F, 20°C and 4°C are frequently used for water and at these temperatures, its densities at saturation pressure are 6234, 6230 and 6242 pounds mass per cubic foot, respectively POT, = (SGTyITs)(p of water @ 73) an Specitic Weight (7) Specific weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Where travity is equal to that of the earth (g = 32.17 flsec® with minor geographical variations) specific weight ia Ib is ‘numerically equal to density in Ib, f°. 19 (alte) 8) aa 78a ase Figure 1.8 Liquid molec volume chart. From Perry's Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th ed., copyright « 1963 by McGraw- Hill, Inc. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Company Hydrometer Scales ‘A umber of types of hydrometer scales are used for indicating liquid densities. The three most common are APL for oils and two Baumé scales. The relsvionship beeween the scales and liquid specific gravities are as follows: 14.5 1B15+° APL roo oo A Pee a ole aa on | Lt te ld ed Mid Wl ead Om a a we Fluid Flow 13 GENERAL DENSITY NOMOGRAPH tbs. per US. Gallon 2g aap t Grams per mi. = 75-09 Temperature 79 100 X AND Y VALUES FOR DENSITY NOMOGRAPH Lr ————r—S i Bee lig 8 Mo GS | gi at 2 HOB BORE a OB BG ib og i i id # 7 eB ot Gis te i Be So Re. | et ie ws ate BS oss Bropsl siconat ne SB io Bi el Gee Ge Be dt ep uf TEs ig ad iti ia oh 4 Lure 1.9. General liquid density nomograph. Reprinted by permission of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association EMA). 14 Applied Instrumentation l <4 I : Poo Hy : Seb fe io S = D : 7 Ts32 = = ~. 9 i ~ts i, cry OD = Ns“ ee fe K SM i 2 N Bou MS E fe \ jal \ 2 Oy eprenrtentensrines || shh c “ 0 ‘Temperatine, in Degrees Fatrenheit Tp find the weight density of a a 70 oo ‘0 — i000 Briroleum ail ac its lowing temperature ity Wher the specific gravity at 60 F/60 F is known, multiply the specific Beet OOS O TR, — gravity of the oil at flowing temperature (see chart above) by 62.4, the Spectte gravity at 100F = 08), density of water at bo F. i: Figure 1.10. Specitic gravity/temperature relationship tor petroleum oils. Courtesy Crane Co. (T.P. No, 410). For liquids more dense than water : 14s 5g 606° Fs 145 — "Baume (1.19) For liquids les dense than water oo 140 sg 60° °° p= — 130+ °Baume aay The weak influence of pressure on liquid density is ap- proximately shown by Figure 1,7. Lu's generalized liquid molar volume chart (Figure 2.8) may be used in two methods for estimating variation of liquid density with both tempers ture and pressure if 2.20.24, One method is if Tp, Pe and Ve { + Z, is known for a given fluid, a value of K’ from Figure 1.8f" may be obtained st the T, and P, of interest and density calculated as P@T P= pe KZ" aaa where { be = MIF. 13) : and the relationship between the critical properties are Lk Pp 7c =R2,Te tat Lo lad aid a ea) j Fluld Flow 15 FFable 1.8. Weight Density and Specific Gravity of Various Liquide ] Tigaid [Temps Weigh Specific] Liquid —[Femnp] Werehe] Spec Deni Craviey Bens Cee) aud a 60 F eer tie | s cf |S | “eotwoter actor Px, Mik bass 2 weight den = My of 663 to bees 2 1100 Visconty Ince o Cy bn Diulphie fuctite 53 % 8 o & o & en & MC Residum | 60 | 5852 $ [source:Couieny Cane Co (EP. No 40. [A second method is ifa value ofp is known fora given 7 and aHM) then Figure 1.8 can be used to obtain values of p at other oR a7 -aditions by obtaining K,', at the known density py, and Ka" al the desired conditions and using the relationship. a= 01 (Kr'IKa) qs) Best results are obtained by the second method, and greatest deviations are in the critical region. Densities of ideal liquid mixtures can be estimated by: Ponte = Ey 1 60) (1.16) Equation 1.16 applies only if there is no interaction between, any of the mixture components, but it often works satis- Factorily in cases of mild interaction. Gas Density Gas density data are often presented as lines of constant specific volume on Mollier diagrams or as tabular data for specific conditions, such as “‘standard temperature and pres- sure” or saturation pressure at varying temperatures. Since a ‘variety of “standard” conditions are in common use, one should always determine what “standard” conditions are when using such data, Gas densities may be calculated by means of the gas ation Care must be taken to use absolute temperature and pressure units as shown below for the units in this section, (, psia) (MW) (R= 10.73)(7,°R) Z, dim) ml? = (18) For many problems the conditions are often such that the compressibility factor, Z, can be taken as 1.0 with negligible ‘error. An ideal gas is by definition one for which Z = 1.0. High temperature and low pressute favor ideal gas behavior. A common industrial practice is to assume Z = 1.0 forall gases at standard conditions. This is especially true for material balance calculations; then alt standard gas volumes are additive and the standard molar volumes of all gases are the same. Thace are many eortelations for esticnating values of Z. Figure 1.11 shows one that expresses Z as a function of reduced temperature and reduced pressure, It may be used for both pure and mixed comportent gases. Gas mixture densities are calculated by determining mix. ture molecular weight, reduced temperature and reduced pressure and then using these properties as if for a pure gas. ‘The basic equations for doing so ate as follows: ¥4= mole fraction of component / (sy 16 Applied Instrumentation PY/AT Ze *ar ry 4 os as 10 20 ~~ 0 0 10 280 copyright : 1963 by Figure 1.11. Generalized compressibility charts. Fram Perry's Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 4th a McGraw-Hil, inc. Used with permission af McGraw-Hill Book Company. a B a 0 c o a & G [ p E [ l £ [ | wl i TE Go Gl Ge Be Ci tH ca Ga Gow Luka 7 3 Fluid Flow Table 1.8. International Atomic Weights Based on Carbon-12 Serleume| gaaie Sor Fea [Ae] 8 fears [| Mesy | He] 0 Afiminim | AF] 13 |PShocis || Maieboum | ME] o2 Smmerctum | Am] 95 lisesi’ |] Neotvanuar’ | NP] & ation Nec Se] 3 ‘Sea | 93 Bete NP] 3 ‘Aitatine bl a Barua wie Berka Ne | 108 ryan o | 8 Bameth S| Boos Bal a Bromine ef Geena Rl Eaten Bal ot Galforaiom a) abo # | i Seria &| B® Sess Pal ot Be ot Rl Ry) fe | Ry) # pron Eheim Be | i Eom sa| @ aropium c Ferman Se | Floonne | i 5 a | # | i Pla B | i B| 8 ® |B B/S BIS RIS B | Ba] a | & #| 2 | ule ¥|3 ¥e| % FA ae | 8 nn xoCrimeatal usertaaty: Be, e002: CY, 0.01: Cr. 20.00. sg, Nilo agy ib Sat" or otbeseiesears te tt ig gies ft oe i ier ‘Wis Pettis ws nas bce renewed the ante Yor Seneee Nos 108, ute tam Sonus Bo ‘Source: errs Chemical Engineer Handbook, the, copyright «1963 by McGraw-Hill ne. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Compans 7 18 Applied instrumentation (MW enix = EDM) ; (1.20) (Tommix BOTH «2p (Celix = (22) Example Problem 1.1 Viscosity of Liquid Mixtures Estimate the viscosity @ 180°P of a liquid mixture that is 30 weight per cent glycerol (MW = 92) and 70% ethylene alycol (MW = 62). Use Equation 1.2 Any Bente = (Eee aa which requires conversion of weight % to mole fraction (x). A Bo C=B/A Compound = MW Wi% == Moles/100 Ibs, Fract. Glycerol 2 30 033 0.23 Ethylene 62 70 113 0.77 slycol 100 B=146 1.00 From Table 1.5 obtain coordinates (X,Y) for use in estimating viscosities of each compound at J80°F with Figure 1.5. Viscosity i BB gl Coordinates Vis, CP Compound =X Y @180°F * Glycerol 20 300 3 321 074 Ethylene 6.0 236 11s slycol E=1.89 Hosic = (Bxuy!!?)? = (1.89)? = 6.75 ep @ 180°! Example Problem 1.2 Viscosity of a Gas Mixture Estimate the viscosity at 100°F and 3.0 psig of a gas mixture that is composed of 79 mole % nitrogen (MW = 28) and 21% oxygen (MW = 32). Procedure will be to estimate viscosity of each compound, ‘using Figure 1,6 and then combine the individual viscosities into a mixture viscosity using Zi Oran (MW) E, Oy OOH) Henie o> Although Figure 1.6 is for viscosities at atmospheric pressure, itis also valid at low pressures in general. Viscosity coordinates, for use with Figure 1.6 are obtained from Table 1.6. Item Nr o, Sum MW =mole wt. 2B 32 y= mole fact. 0.79 021 (MW), 22.12 6.72 288 Viscosity Coordinates x 106 110 % 200 213 he viscosity,cP 0.0182. 0.0211 @100°F » MW 0.403 0.142 0.545 F Bp QMWe, _ 0545 Hmix Exch s . os = 0.0189 iy, (MW), 28.8 Example Problem 1.3 Seausry vos coon et Estimate the viscosity of nitrogen at 200°F and 3,000 psig, knowing its viscosity is 0.0282 cp. at 100°F and one atmos- phere pressure. The critical temperature of nitrogen is ~232.6°F and critical pressure is 492 psia Sree T _100+460__S60°R [i on ON n= 2.462 T. = 7326+ 460" 227.0°R 147 P= PP, = = 0.0299 492 y= 1.02 2. Obtain up at known conditions using Figure I.1. ( 3. Calculate ue using Equation 1.4 [ #00182 0.0178 th oo | 4. Calculate reduced temperature and pressure at the © tions for which the viscosity is desired, { Lo ld a Ma Cae =e ma Ts 3000+ 14.7 = PIP. = —— P, = Pit 92 5. Obtain 4, at above condition using Figure 1.1. = 613 42139) 6. Estimate the desired viscosity using Equation 1.6 1H Hytte = 1.39 (0.0178) = 0.0247 cp. Example Problem 1.4 Estimating Viscosities Knowing MW, T., Pe Estimate the viscosity of nitrogen at 200°F and 3000 psig, knowing MW = 28, T, = 227.4°R, P. = 492 psia, 1. Estimate viscosity at critica! point using Equation 1.5 4 (MWD (Pe)?! He = 1.416 x 10 7K = 0.0189 ep. (Compare with He = 0.0178 for nitrogen as estimated in ‘example problem 1.3), = Calculate reduced temperature and pressure at the condi- tions for which the viscosity is to be estimated. 200 + 460 D4 T= 11Te= 3. Obtain u, at above condition using Figure 1.1 m= 1.39 4. Estimate viscosity using Equation 1.4 (H™ Ulle = 1.3%0.0189) = 0.0263 ep. Example Problem 1.5 Estimating Liquid Densities Knowing Pe, Te, and V. oF Ze Estimate the density of norma butane (MW = 58.12) at 150°F and its vapor pressure at that temperature. The eritical properties of n-butane are T, = 765.6°R, and Ve 4.08 cu.hfib-mele. Fluid Fiow 19 1, Caleulate Z, using Equation 1.14 Lae RT. (550.744.08)_ (10.734765.6) 0274 2. Caleulate p¢ using Equation 1.13 be = (MW)/V. = 58.12/4.08 = 14.25 Ib.Jeusft. 3. Caloulate ceduced temperature 150+ 460_ = TIT. = T,* TIT. 7656 0.797 4. Read K" from Figure 1.8 for 7; = 0.797 using saturated liquid tine, K = 0.833 5. Calculate desired density using Equation 1.12 p= peK'/Z_°77 = 32.2 Ibjeu.tt Example Problem 1.6 Density of a Nonideal Gas Mixture Estimate the density at 110°F and 200 psig of a gas mixture composed as follows: x mw Te Pe mole mole critical «critical Compound —_fract. wt temp. pressure °R sia methane 0s 16.0 344 on ethane 0.28 30.1 550 710 propane 0.67 44.1 666 617 HW) nie = ELAMW)); (1.20) 0.05(16.0) + 0.28(30.1) + 0.67(44.1) = 38.8 (mix = EMT) Gay = 0.05(344) + 0.28(550) + 0,67(666)= 617°R Comix = PAP: oo 0.05(673) + 0.28(710) + 0.67(617) = 646 psia 110+ 460 17. * +0924 617, 200+ 14,7 Pr=PIPe = 0,332 20 Applied Instrumentation From Figure 1.11, Z= 0.830 at T, = 0.924, P, = 0.332 x psiayanyy 10.73 TZ = 1.64 Ib /ft? (214.7938.8) —— (as) 10.73(570(0.830) ‘The Nature of Fiow in Conduits and The Friction Factor Two flow patterns are exhibited by Newtonian fluids flowing in closed ducts running full: laminar and turbulent. A third term, transitional flow, is used when flow occurs near the critical Reynolds umber and flow pattern is difficult to predict. For pipes of circular cross section, laminar flow normally exists for Reynolds numbers between zero and the critical Reynolds number of approximately 2.000 to 3,000, where transition {0 turbulent flow occurs. Knowing the distinguishing characteristics of the two flow pattems is important for understanding how mixing, heat transfer and other transport phenomena are influenced by the two flow patterns, Laminar Flow ‘The most important characteristic of laminar flow is the absence of cross mixing of fluid across the cross section of the duct, ie., flow streamlines cemain distinct and are parallel for uniform flow. Thus it is sometimes refersed to as streamline flow. It is also called viscous flow because itis often associated with viscous fluids in practical applications, Since there is no cross mixing, @ stream of dye injected into a laminar flow pattern does not blend into the other fluid except by the slow process of diffusion. Thus, it is relatively easy for solids to settle and fluids to stratify. Also, in laminar flow heat transfer is relatively much slower than turbulent flow heat transfer. Turbulent Flow Turbulent flow is characterized by a flow pattern that involves intermixing of fluid as it flows. The greater the Reynelds number above the critical, the more turbulent the flow and the more rapid the mixing, The Friction Factor ‘The fiction factor (f) is an empirically determined dimen sionless value used in estimating pressure drops or head losses occurring for fluid flow in ducts. Experimentally it is determined by flowing at 2 known velocity a fluid of known density and viscosity through a pipe of known roughness, diameter or hydraulic radius, and length; measuring the head loss that occurs and then calculating /with the equation ee 0 By conducting a large number of these exzeriments tf Fkiton fatt ee Rayesds number fr pardd relative pipe wall roughness shown in Figure 1 developed. Iti generally considered to be acourate 10% and may be used for estimating iretion fact values of Reynolds number (Re) and relative roughness It should be noted that there are two types of sc commonly found in the literature: Fanning and Moo| Moody friction factor is the one used in this section. are interchangeable except that Moody friction factor are four times larger than Fanning values obtained for i conditions. Reynolds number is given by: ev R, = 1488? (general) i # Ww = 0.5263 —— (round pipe only) a pipe only) [ Relative roaghness is the ratio of absolute pipe wall rou to pipe diameter, Relative Roughness = ¢/D For noniule ducts fur tines the hydatid substituted for diameter. MARn) C ‘The inSiwence of several flow variables on the friction, { Relative Roughnes is apparent from Figure 1.42. For laminar flow the fu factor is a function of Reynolds number: Jf, Laminar Flow = 64/Re { Combining Equations 1.2% and 1.27 yields a f, Laminar Flow = 0.0430—*— (general £L iw Srp eee) 1216 wD c Wr round pipe only) which shows how the friction factor variables, For turbulent flow, fis function of both Re an for fully developed turbulent flow (large values 01 3 4 influenced by al { l moe ww ow oe ee oo CG ee ee sd Fable 1.10 Values of Absolute Roughness For Various Materials of Construction Materi «Feet Riveted Steel 0.003 - 0.03 Concrete 0.001 - 0.01, Wood Stave 10.0006 - 0.003 Cast Iron 0.00085, Galvanized Iron 0.0005 Asphalied Cast tron 0.0004 Commercial Steel or 0.00015 ‘Wrought Iron Drawe Tubing 0.000005 function of /D only. The turbulent region of Figure 1.12 is accurately represented by the Colebrook equation: (1.29) Table 1.10 has values of absolute pipe roughness for a variety of materials of construction. Bernoulli's Equation 3ernoulli’s equation expresses the law of conservation of energy 8 it applies in fluid flow. The following equations do not Tigorously express conservation of energy because they assume negligible heat effects due to friction and no extrane- fous energy effects, such as chemical reactions. Also, flow is assumed to be steady and one dimensional to permit direct, application in the most commen fluid flow problems of the chemical processing industries, the low of incompressible Thuids of moderate ar low viscosities in conduits. The two equations differ only in the units of the additive terms. For term units of feet of flowing fluid v2 114s ve + te + Dr 7 | 1n4P Seth, Fe 39) Foe term units of pounds per square inch the above equation is multiplied by 7/144 we, fm, Toi 288g 4a 144 we E V2 p+ As rap 131 288g 144 ae Fluid Flow 21 Note that my sap = 2D 144 a3 Each of the terms in the Bernoulli equations have been given names, The term ¥2/2g is called the velocity head, 144 Pir is the static pressure head, E is the potentias or elevation head, 7DH is the total differential head across @ pump (7DH is, positive) or hydraulic turbine (DH is negative) and hy, isthe sum of all the head losses due to flow through pipt, Sittings, equipment, control valves, orifices, etc. Estimation of losses due to flow through pipe and fittings will be discussed in detail later in this section. The terms “totad head” of “total pressure” are often used to indicate the sum of the heads for velocity, pressure and elevation. Incompressible Flow in Conduits By definition, the density of an incompressible fluid does not vary with pressure, No real fluids are incompressible, but for many cases the assumption of incompressible Cow results in only negligible error in estimating head or pressure losses. Density changes of only a few percent over the length of the flow path may be ignored in most cases. Where density changes cannot be ignored, the flow path may be broken into segments and each treated separately, or the more accurate Procedures for compressible low described later in this section may be used. Eorms of the socalled Darcy equation are used for estimating head losses (ty, ft. uid) or pressure losses (AP, si) for incompressible flow in conduits. 2A a "De * asad ed A fe a D 288 D 9.265 Common engineering practice isto calculate a head gradient (100 fi/L, ft. uid per 100 ft. pipe) or pressure gradient (100 AP/L, psi per 100 ft. pipe) and then obtain hy or OP by ‘multiplying the appropriate gradient by equivalent length of the flow path expressed as L/100. Gradients are estimated by using rearrangements ofthe above equations. 2 rooky, = LSS (135) D 7 rooary, = 2 036 92.65D

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