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$FCOMP $FPRESS
T
VV
4
r
q
W
2 W
k
0:764
0:899
$VH
$N 0:178 $Q0:066
$FTAPER
HTOOL 1:0032$Wairframe
m
r
k$CDmin
3
3$CDmin
Break-even analysis:
NBE
Useful load:
W u Wc Wf Wp
W0 consists of:
W0 We Wc Wf Wp
2
T
CDmin
n
W
PS
k
q
W=S
V
W
q
S
Wf
W0
W0
Wf
T
VV
q
k W
CDmin $
V
W
W=S
q S
We
W0
W0
We
997
998
Nicolai:
Wc Wp
i
W0 h
W
We
1 W
W0f
0
WW
Sailplanes:
We
0:2950 0:0386$ln W0
0:3255 0:0386$ln W0
W0
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
Powered sailplanes:
We
0:3068 0:0510$ln W0
0:3471 0:0510$ln W0
W0
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
ARHT
cos2 LHT
0:414 0:168
0:043
S0:896
HT
100$t=c
cos LHT
0:12
l0:02
HT
Nicolai:
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
WHT
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
s#0:458
"
nz WO 0:87 SHT 1:2 lHT 0:483
bHT
127
100
10
tHTmax
105
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
Agricultural:
We
1:4029 0:0995$ln W0
1:3242 0:0995$ln W0
W0
100$t=c
cos LVT
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
0:49
ARVT 0:357 0:039
$
lVT
cos2 LVT
Nicolai:
"
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
Wing Weight
WVT
s
nz WO 0:87 SVT 1:2
bVT
98:5
100
tVTmax
105
Fuselage Weight
Raymer:
Raymer:
0:0035
0:036$S0:758
W WFW
if W0 is in lbf
if W0 is in kg
GA twin turboprop:
We
0:5319 0:0066$ln W0
0:5371 0:0066$ln W0
W0
WW
Raymer:
WHT 0:016nz WO
We
1:6351 0:1402$ln W0
1:5243 0:1402$ln W0
W0
GA twin piston:
We
0:4074 0:0253$ln W0
0:4274 0:0253$ln W0
W0
We
1:5451 0:1402$ln W0
1:4343 0:1402$ln W0
W0
GA single engine:
We
0:8841 0:0333$ln W0
0:8578 0:0333$ln W0
W0
2
!0:57
nz WO 0:65
ARW
SW 0:61
4
96:948$
100
105
cos2 LC=4
3
r 0:993
1 l 0:36
VH 5
1
500
2t=c
100$t=c
cos LC=4
!0:3
ARW
cos2 LC=4
nz WO 0:49
!0:6
q0:006 l0:04
0:177 0:051
WFUS 0:052$S1:086
lHT
FUS nz WO
11:9VP DP0:271
lFS
dFS
0:072
q0:241
999
Nicolai:
0:286
WFUS 200
n z WO
lF
10
105
VH 0:338 1:1
100
0:857
wF dF
10
WCTRL 1:066WO0:626
Raymer:
Raymer:
0:933
WAV 2:117WUAV
Nicolai:
0:684
WMNLG 0:054nl Wl
Lm =12
0:933
WAV 2:117WUAV
0:601
Electrical System
Raymer:
Raymer:
0:922
WEI 2:575WENG
NENG
Raymer:
Nicolai:
0:68
0:17 0:08
WAC 0:265WO0:52 NOCC
WAV
M
0:922
WEI 2:575WENG
NENG
Nicolai:
0:68
0:17 0:08
WAC 0:265WO0:52 NOCC
WAV
M
Raymer:
WFS
2:49Q0:726
tot
Qtot
Qtot Qint
0:363
0:242
0:157
NTANK
NENG
Furnishings
Raymer:
WFURN 0:0582WO 65
Nicolai:
0:3
1:21
Qtot
0:2
0:13
WFS 2:49 Q0:6
N
N
tot
TANK ENG
Qtot Qint
Flight Control System Weight
Nicolai:
WFURN 34:5N CREW q0:25
H
Center of gravity:
Raymer:
WCTRL 0:053l1:536
FS b
0:371
nz WO 10
4 0:80
Nicolai:
WCTRL 1:08WO0:7
XCG
MX
Wtot
YCG
MY
Wtot
ZCG
MZ
Wtot
PN
i 1 Wi
PN
i 1 Wi
PN
Xi
Wtot
Yi
Wtot
i 1 Wi
Wtot
Zi
1000
CG in terms of %MGC:
XCGMGC 100
XCG XMGC
MGC
SHP
torque 2p RPM
torque RPM
33000
5252
Formulation
SI System
UK System
Kinetic energy:
1
KE mV2
2
Potential energy:
PE mgh
Joules (J)
kWh
1 kWh 3.6 106 J
BTU
Joules N$m
ft$lbf
W J/sec
N$m/s
hp ft$lbf /sec
746 W
0.746 kW
Energy
The conservation of mass-energy is one
of the fundamental conservation laws of
physics. It basically says that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, but it
changes form. The form of energy refers
to potential, kinetic, electrical, nuclear,
chemical, and other forms of energy.
Work
Work is dened as the product of force
applied to move an object a given
distance. Work is also the same as torque.
Power
Power is dened as the amount of work
done in a given time. It is also possible to
dene it as shown.
Work
Time
Force Distance
h
Time
h Force Speed
Power h
Torque
Time
One horsepower
TV
550
SI system (T in N, V in m/s):
THP
TV
746
s 0:117
0:883
1001
Electric Power
8
< IR
Voltage: V p
P=I
:
PR
8
< V=I
Resistance: R V2 =P
:
P=I 2
Volts
8 p
< P=R
Current: I
P=V
:
V=R
Ohms
8
< V2 =R
Power: P R I 2
:
VI
Raymer:
Amps
Brandt:
Watts
Average chord:
Cr Ct
b
Cavg
2
AR
Ct
Cr
Wing loading: w
y-location of MGCLE:
b 1 2l
yMGC
6
1l
Cr
l 1
2b
Cavg
CR CT
CR
1 l
2
2
2p$AR
r
AR$b
k
tan2 LC=2
b2
2yMGC
Ptip Proot
b
Dynamic pressure: q
1 2
rV
2
VHT
VVT
LHT $SHT
CREF $SREF
LVT $SVT
bREF $SREF
1
Induced drag onstant k: k
p$AR$e
1
Drag: D rV2 SCD Dmin Di
2
1
p$AR$r$CDmin 1=1 0:03t 2t2 u
Average chord:
Cr Ct
Wing area: S b
2
x-location of MGCLE:
xMGC yMGC tan LLE
2
p
2 AR 4 AR2 1 tan2 Ltmax
2S
b1 l
Mean geometric chord:
2
1 l l2
MGC
Cr
1l
3
Root chord: Cr
W
S
Taper ratio: l
e 4:61 1 0:045AR0:68 cos LLE 0:15 3:1
2D
2T
CDmin kC2L
rV2 S
rV2 S
Lift coefcient: CL
2L
2W
rV 2 SzrV 2 S
Span efciency:
e 1:781 0:045AR0:68 0:64
e 4:611 0:045AR0:68 cos LLE 0:15 3:1
Straight wing
Swept back
1002
Power coefcient:
P
550 PBHP
118 800 000 PBHP
CP
3
5
3
rn D
r$RPM3 $D5
r RPM
D5
60
Thrust coefcient:
CT
T
3600$T
2
4
rn D
r$RPM2 D4
Pressure ratio:
p
d P0 1 0:0000068756h5:2561 q5:2561
Density ratio:
s rr 1 0:0000068756h4:2561 q4:2561
0
Power-torque relation:
CQ
Temperature: T T0 1 0:0000068756h
Air density:
r 0:0023781 0:0000068753 HREF 4:2561
Q
3600$Q
CP
2p
rn2 D5
r$RPM2 $D5
Q
CP
2
5
2p
rn D
Density: r r0 1 0:0000068756h4:2561
Air pressure:
P 22161 0:0000068753 HREF 5:2561
Torque coefcient:
CQ
Pressure: p p0 1 0:0000068756h5:2561
Temperature ratio: q
P=rn3 D5
2p
P 2pnQ
d
q
1 0:0000068756h
0:19026
Pressure altitude: HP 145442 1 PP0
T
T0
0:234957
Density altitude: Hr 145442 1 rr
0
Propeller efciency:
TV
TV
CT
J
CP
P
550BHP
hp
B.10 AIRSPEEDS
Propeller thrust:
Calibrated airspeed:
T
hp P
hp 550 PBHP
Equivalent airspeed
sv
u qc
0:286
1
Pu
P 1
u
KEAS KCAS
0:286
t
P0
qc
1
P0 1
True airspeed:
Ideal efciency:
hi
KEAS
KCAS
KCAS
KTAS pzp p
s
r=rSL
r=rSL
1
2
p
1 w=V0
1 1 CT
Mach number:
TSTATIC 0:85P
2rA2
1=3
Aspinner
1
A2
V
V
V
p
p
a0
gRT
1116 1 0:0000068756H
Speed of sound:
a0
p
p
gRT z49:01 OAT R
1003
B.11 TAKE-OFF
Transition height:
Acceleration on a at runway:
VV h
dV
g
T D mW L
dt
W
Propellers in climb:
VV h
dV
g
T D mW cos g L W sin g
dt
W
Lift-off speed:
VLOF 1:1 VS1
s
s
2W
W
1:1
z1:556
rSCLmax
rSCLmax
2 W
VLOF
2gT D mW Lat VLOF =p2
TO
CD
TO 64:35mW
Rotation distance:
TD
T
1
W
W L=D
Transition distance:
2
STR R sin qclimb z0:2156 VS1
T
1
W L=D
Climb angle:
sin qclimb
T
1
W L=D
s
2W
VS
rSCLmax
2 W
VLOF
2 SmC
16:09rVLOF
L
Stalling speed:
Rate-of-climb:
PAV PREQ
TV DV
60
ROC h 60
W
W
Min/max airspeed:
s
p
T T 2 4CDmin kW 2
V
rSCDmin
Ground run:
SG
hp $PENG PREQ
PAV PREQ
V sin q
W
W
sin q
Time to lift-off:
r
2SG
1 for small aircraft
t
3 for large aircraft
a
SG
TV DV
V sin q
W
v
u s
u2 W
k
VTRmin t
r S
CDmin
1004
Max L/D:
LDmax
CL
CD
max
1
p
4$CDmin $k
Carsons airspeed:
VCAR 30:25 VLDmax z1:32VLDmax
g
j_ max
Power required:
PREQ
s
2W 3 C2D
rSC3L
Bank angle:
f cos
1
1
n
Load factor:
n
cos f
T
W
L
D
p
n2max 1
Vmaxj_
p
where: nRmin 2 1=n2max load factor and
q
W=S
VRmin 2 T=W rk airspeed for minimum turning
radius
Maximum level bank angle:
Turn radius:
Rturn
V2
V2
p
n$g$sin f
g n2 1
Rturn p
j
180
V
fmax cos
1
nmax
PEX
TV DV
dh V dV
W
W
dt g dt
and HE h
V2
2g
Etotal
W
1005
Range prole 2:
p p
1 CL 2 2 p q
p
R
Wini Wfin
ct CD rS
s
1
8CL p q
Wini Wfin
rS
ct CD
Endurance prole 3:
1 CL
Wini
E
ln
Wfin
ct CD
TSFC for a jet:
Range prole 3:
V CL
Wini
ln
R
Wfin
ct CD
Endurance prole 1:
!
"
p
1
2
k
p Wini
E p tan1
rV 2 S CD0
ct kCD0
!#
p
2 k
1
p Wfin
tan
rV 2 S CD0
Endurance prole 2:
E
1 CL
Wini
ln
Wfin
ct CD
+
*
c lb =sec
jet
f
ct
lbf
3600
cbhp V
1
1980000hp sec
Distance
R
VTAS
w_ fuel
Quantity of Fuel
Wf
True Airspeed
Fuel Weight Flow