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Remote terminal unit

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removed. (December 2011)
A remote terminal unit (RTU) is a microprocessor-controlled electronic device that interfaces
objects in the physical world to a distributed control system or SCADA (supervisory control and data
acquisition) system by transmitting telemetry data to a master system, and by using messages from
the master supervisory system to control connected objects.[1] Another term that may be used for
RTU is remote telecontrol unit.
Contents
[hide]
1Architecture
o
1.1Power supply
1.2Digital or status inputs
1.3Analog inputs
1.4Digital (control) outputs
1.5Analog outputs
1.6Software and logic control
1.7Communications
1.7.1IED communications
1.7.2Master communications
2Comparison with other control systems
3Applications
4See also
5References
Architecture[edit]
A RTU monitors the field digital and analog parameters and transmits data to the Central Monitoring
Station. It contains setup software to connect data input streams to data output streams, define
communication protocols, and troubleshoot installation problems.
A RTU may consist of one complex circuit card consisting of various sections needed to do a custom
fitted function or may consist of many circuit cards including CPU or processing with communications
interface(s), and one or more of the following: (AI) analog input, (DI) digital input, (DO/CO) digital or
control (relay) output, or (AO) analog output card(s).
Power supply[edit]
A form of power supply will be included for operation from the AC mains for various CPU, status
wetting voltages and other interface cards. This may consist of AC to DC converters where operated
from a station battery system.
RTUs may include a battery and charger circuitry to continue operation in event of AC power failure
for critical applications where a station battery is not available.
Digital or status inputs[edit]

Most RTUs incorporate an input section or input status cards to acquire two state real world
information. This is usually accomplished by using an isolated voltage or current source to sense the
position of a remote contact (open or closed) at the RTU site. This contact position may represent
many different devices, including electrical breakers, liquid valve positions, alarm conditions, and
mechanical positions of devices.
Analog inputs[edit]
A RTU can monitor analog inputs of different types including 0-1 mA, 420 mA current loop, 010 V.,
2.5 V, 5.0 V etc. Many RTU inputs buffer larger quantities via transducers to convert and isolate
real world quantities from sensitive RTU input levels. An RTU can also receive analog data via a
communication system from a master or IED (Intelligent Electronic Device) sending data values to it.
The RTU or host system translates and scales this raw data into the appropriate units such as
gallons of water left, temperature degrees, or Megawatts, before presenting the data to the user via
the HMI.
Digital (control) outputs[edit]

RTUs may drive high current capacity relays to a digital output (or "DO") board to switch power on
and off to devices in the field. The DO board switches voltage to the coil in the relay, which closes
the high current contacts, which completes the power circuit to the device.
RTU outputs may also consist of driving a sensitive logic input on an electronic PLC, or other
electronic device using a sensitive 5 V input.
Analog outputs[edit]
While not as commonly used, analog outputs may be included to control devices that require varying
quantities, such as graphic recording instruments (strip charts). Summed or massaged data
quantities may be generated in a master SCADA system and output for display locally or remotely,
wherever needed.
Software and logic control[edit]

Modern RTUs are usually capable of executing simple programs autonomously without involving the
host computers of the DCS or SCADA system to simplify deployment and to provide redundancy for
safety reasons. An RTU in a modern water management system will typically have code to modify its
behavior when physical override switches on the RTU are toggled during maintenance by
maintenance personnel. This is done for safety reasons; a miscommunication between the system
operators and the maintenance personnel could cause system operators to mistakenly enable power
to a water pump when it is being replaced, for example.
Maintenance personnel should have any equipment they are working on
disconnected from power and locked to prevent damage and / or injury.
Communications[edit]
A RTU may be interfaced to multiple master stations and IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Device) with
different communication media (usually serial (RS232, RS485, RS422) orEthernet). An RTU may
support standard protocols (Modbus, IEC 60870-5-101/103/104, DNP3, IEC 60870-6-ICCP, IEC
61850 etc.) to interface any third party software.
Data transfer may be initiated from either end using various techniques to insure synchronization
with minimal data traffic. The master may poll its subordinate unit (Master to RTU or the RTU poll an
IED) for changes of data on a periodic basis. Analog value changes will usually only be reported only
on changes outside a set limit from the last transmitted value. Digital (status) values observe a
similar technique and only transmit groups (bytes) when one included point (bit) changes. Another
method used is where a subordinate unit initiates an update of data upon a predetermined change in
analog or digital data. Periodic complete data transmission must be used periodically, with either
method, to insure full synchronization and eliminate stale data. Most communication protocols
support both methods, programmable by the installer.
Multiple RTUs or multiple IEDs may share a communications line, in a multi-drop scheme, as units
are addressed uniquely and only respond to their own polls and commands.
IED communications[edit]
IED communications transfer data between the RTU and an IED. This can eliminate the need for
many hardware status inputs, analog inputs, and relay outputs in the RTU. Communications are
accomplished by copper or fibre optics lines. Multiple units may share communication lines.
Master communications[edit]
Master communications are usually to a larger control system in a control room or a data collection
system incorporated into a larger system. Data may be moved using a copper, fibre optic or radio
frequency communication system. Multiple units may share communication lines.
Comparison with other control systems[edit]

RTUs differ from programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in that RTUs are more suitable for wide
geographical telemetry, often using wireless communications, while PLCs are more suitable for local
area control (plants, production lines, etc.) where the system utilizes physical media for control.
The IEC 61131 programming tool is more popular for use with PLCs, while RTUs often use
proprietary programming tools.
RTUs, PLCs and DCS are increasingly beginning to overlap in responsibilities, and many vendors
sell RTUs with PLC-like features and vice versa. The industry has standardized on the IEC 611313 functional block language for creating programs to run on RTUs and PLCs, although nearly all
vendors also offer proprietary alternatives and associated development environments.
In addition, some vendors now supply RTUs with comprehensive functionality pre-defined,
sometimes with PLC extensions and/or interfaces for configuration.
Some suppliers of RTUs have created simple graphical user interfaces GUI to enable customers to
configure their RTUs easily. In some applications dataloggers are used in similar applications.
A programmable automation controller (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and
capabilities of a PC-based control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA
systems to provide RTU and PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications,
"distributed RTUs" use information processors or station computers to communicate with digital
protective relays, PACS, and other devices for I/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu
of a traditional RTU.
Applications[edit]
Remote monitoring of functions and instrumentation for:
Oil and gas (offshore platforms, onshore oil wells)
Networks of pump stations (wastewater collection, or for water

supply)
Environmental monitoring systems (pollution, air quality,

emissions monitoring)
Mine sites
Air traffic equipment such as navigation aids (DVOR, DME, ILS

and GP)
Remote monitoring and control of functions and instrumentation for:
Hydro-graphic (water supply, reservoirs, sewage systems)
Electrical power transmission networks and associated

equipment
Natural gas networks and associated equipment
Outdoor warning sirens
See also[edit]
Telemetric
Digital protective relay
IED
SCADA
References[edit]
1.
Jump up^ Gordon R. Clarke, Deon Reynders, Edwin Wright, Practical

modern SCADA protocols: DNP3, 60870.5 and related
systems Newnes, 2004 ISBN 0-7506-5799-5 pages 19-21
Categories:
Computer peripherals
Telemetry
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Modbus
Modbus is a serial communications protocol originally published by Modicon (now Schneider

Electric) in 1979 for use with its programmable logic controllers (PLCs). Simple and robust, it has
since become a de facto standard communication protocol, and it is now a commonly available
means of connecting industrial electronic devices.[1] The main reasons for the use of Modbus in the
industrial environment are:
developed with industrial applications in mind
openly published and royalty-free
easy to deploy and maintain
moves raw bits or words without placing many restrictions on

vendors
Modbus enables communication among many devices connected to the same network, for example
a system that measures temperature and humidity and communicates the results to a computer.
Modbus is often used to connect a supervisory computer with a remote terminal unit (RTU)
in supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems. Many of the data types are named
from its use in driving relays: a single-bit physical output is called a coil, and a single-bit physical
input is called a discrete input or a contact.
The development and update of Modbus protocols has been managed by the Modbus
Organization[2] since April 2004, when Schneider Electric transferred rights to that organization. [3] The
Modbus Organization is an association of users and suppliers of Modbus compliant devices that
seeks to drive the adoption and evolution of Modbus.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1Protocol versions
2Communication and devices
3Frame format
4Supported function codes
5Format of data of requests and responses for main function codes

o
5.1Function code 1 (read coils) and function code 2 (read discrete

inputs)
5.2Function code 5 (force/write single coil)
5.3Function code 15 (force/write multiple coils)
5.4Function code 4 (read input registers) and function code 3 (read

holding registers)
5.5Function code 6 (preset/write single holding register)
5.6Function code 16 (preset/write multiple holding registers)
5.7Exception responses
5.8Main Modbus exception codes
6Coil, discrete input, input register, holding register numbers and addresses
o
6.1JBUS mapping
7Implementations
8Limitations
9Trade group
10Modbus Plus
11References
12External links
Protocol versions[edit]
Versions of the Modbus protocol exist for serial port and for Ethernet and other protocols that support
the Internet protocol suite. There are many variants of Modbus protocols:
Modbus RTU This is used in serial communication & makes use

of a compact, binary representation of the data for protocol
communication. The RTU format follows the commands/data with
a cyclic redundancy check checksum as an error check mechanism
to ensure the reliability of data. Modbus RTU is the most common
implementation available for Modbus. A Modbus RTU message
must be transmitted continuously without inter-character hesitations.
Modbus messages are framed (separated) by idle (silent) periods.
Modbus ASCII This is used in serial communication & makes use

of ASCII characters for protocol communication. The ASCII format
uses a longitudinal redundancy checkchecksum. Modbus ASCII
messages are framed by leading colon (':') and trailing newline
(CR/LF).
Modbus TCP/IP or Modbus TCP This is a Modbus variant used

for communications over TCP/IP networks, connecting over port
502.[5] It does not require a checksum calculation as lower layers
already provide checksum protection.
Modbus over TCP/IP or Modbus over TCP or Modbus RTU/IP

This is a Modbus variant that differs from Modbus TCP in that a
checksum is included in the payload as with Modbus RTU.[6]
Modbus over UDP Some have experimented with using Modbus

over UDP on IP networks, which removes the overheads required
for TCP [7]
Modbus Plus (Modbus+, MB+ or MBP) Modbus

over Fieldbus (Modbus+ or MB+), also exists, but remains
proprietary to Schneider Electric. requires a dedicated co-processor
to handle fast HDLC-like token rotation. It uses twisted pair at 1

Mbit/s and includes transformer isolation at each node, which
makes it transition/edge triggered instead of voltage/level triggered.
Special interfaces are required to connect Modbus Plus to a
computer, typically a card made for the ISA (SA85), PCI or PCMCIA
bus.
Modbus PEMEX- This variant is an extension of standard Modbus

with support for historical and flow data. It was designed for process
control and never gained widespread adoption [8]
Enron Modbus- This variant is an extension of standard Modbus

with support for 32 bit Integer and Floating Point variables, and
historical and flow data. Data types are mapped using standard
addresses.[9] The historical data is used to meet an American
Petroleum Institute (API) industry standard for how data should be
stored[10]
Data model and function calls are identical for the first 4 variants of protocols; only the encapsulation
is different. However the variants are not interoperable as the frame formats are different.
Communication and devices[edit]

Each device intended to communicate using Modbus is given a unique address. In serial and MB+
networks, only the node assigned as the Master may initiate a command. On Ethernet, any device
can send out a Modbus command, although usually only one master device does so. A Modbus
command contains the Modbus address of the device it is intended for (1 to 247). Only the intended
device will act on the command, even though other devices might receive it (an exception is specific
broadcastable commands sent to node 0 which are acted on but not acknowledged). All Modbus
commands contain checksum information, to allow the recipient to detect transmission errors. The
basic Modbus commands can instruct an RTU to change the value in one of its registers, control or
read an I/O port, and command the device to send back one or more values contained in its
registers.
There are many modems and gateways that support Modbus, as it is a very simple protocol and
often copied. Some of them were specifically designed for this protocol. Different implementations
use wireline, wireless communication, such as in the ISM band, and even short message
service (SMS) or General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). One of the more common designs of
wireless networks makes use of Mesh networking. Typical problems that designers have to
overcome include high latency and timing issues.
Frame format[edit]
A Modbus frame is composed of an Application Data Unit (ADU) which encloses a Protocol Data Unit
(PDU):[11]
ADU = Address + PDU + Error check
PDU = Function code + Data
All Modbus variants choose one of the following frame formats.[1]

Modbus RTU frame format (primarily used on 8-bit asynchronous lines like EIA-485)
Name
Length (bits)
Function
Start
28
At least 3 12 character times of silence (mark condition)
Address
Station address
Function
Indicates the function code; e.g., read coils/holding registers
Data
n8
Data + length will be filled depending on the message type
CRC
16 bits
Cyclic Redundancy Check
End
28
At least 3 12 character times of silence between frames
Note about the CRC:
Polynomial: x16 + x15 + x2 + 1 (CRC-16-ANSI also known as CRC-16IBM, normal hexadecimal algebraic polynomial being 8005 and
reversed A001 )
Initial value: 65,535
Example of frame in hexadecimal: 01 04 02 FF FF B8 80 (CRC16-ANSI calculation from 01 to FF gives 80B8 which is

transmitted least significant byte first)
Modbus ASCII frame format (primarily used on 7- or 8-bit asynchronous serial lines)
Name
Length (bytes)
Function
Start
Starts with colon : (ASCII hex value is 0x3a )
Address
Station address
Function
Indicates the function codes like read coils / inputs
Data
nx2
Data + length will be filled depending on the message type
LRC
Checksum (Longitudinal redundancy check )
End
Carriage return line feed (CR/LF) pair (ASCII values of 0x0d & 0x0a)
Address, function, data, and LRC are all capital hexadecimal readable pairs of characters
representing 8-bit values (0-255). For example, 122 (7x16+10) will be represented as 7A .
LRC is calculated as the sum of 8-bit values, negated (two's complement) and encoded as an 8-bit
value. Example: if address, function, and data encode as 247, 3, 19, 137, 0, and 10, their sum is
416. Two's complement (-416) trimmed to 8-bit is 96 (e.g. 256x2-416) which will be represented
as 60 in hexadecimal. Hence the following frame :F7031389000A60<CR><LF>
Modbus TCP frame format (primarily used on Ethernet networks)
Name
Transaction identifier
Length (bytes)
2
Function
For synchronization between messages of server & client
Protocol identifier
Zero for Modbus/TCP
Length field
Number of remaining bytes in this frame
Unit identifier
Slave address (255 if not used)
Function code
Function codes as in other variants
Data bytes
Data as response or commands
Unit identifier is used with Modbus/TCP devices that are composites of several Modbus devices, e.g.
on Modbus/TCP to Modbus RTU gateways. In such case, the unit identifier tells the Slave Address of
the device behind the gateway. Natively Modbus/TCP-capable devices usually ignore the Unit
Identifier.
The byte order for values in Modbus data frames is Big-Endian (MSB, Most Significant Byte of a
value received first).
Supported function codes[edit]

The various reading, writing and other operations are categorised as follows. [12] The most primitive
reads and writes are shown in bold. A number of sources use alternative terminology, for
example Force Single Coil where the standard uses Write Single Coil.[13]
Prominent entities within a Modbus slave are:
Coils: readable and writable, 1 bit (off/on)
Discrete Inputs: readable, 1 bit (off/on)
Input Registers: readable, 16 bits (0 to 65,535), essentially

measurements and statuses
Holding Registers: readable and writable, 16 bits (0 to 65,535),

essentially configuration values
Modbus function codes
Function type
Data
Access
Bit access
Function
code
Function name
Physical Discrete Inputs
Read Discrete Inputs
Internal Bits or Physical Coils
Read Coils
Write Single Coil
Write Multiple Coils
15
Physical Input Registers
16-bit
access
Internal Registers or Physical

Output Registers
Read Input Registers
Read Multiple Holding

Registers
Write Single Holding

Register
Write Multiple Holding

Registers
16
Read/Write Multiple
Registers
23
Mask Write Register
22
Read FIFO Queue
24
Read File Record
20
Write File Record
21
Read Exception Status
Diagnostic
Get Com Event Counter
11
Get Com Event Log
12
Report Slave ID
17
Read Device Identification
43
Encapsulated Interface
Transport
43
File Record Access
Diagnostics
Other
Format of data of requests and responses for main function

codes[edit]
Requests and responses follow frame formats described above. This section gives details of data
formats of most used function codes.
Function code 1 (read coils) and function code 2 (read discrete inputs) [edit]
Request:
Address of first coil/discrete input to read (16-bit)
Number of coils/discrete inputs to read (16-bit)
Number of bytes of coil/discrete input values to follow (8-bit)
Coil/discrete input values (8 coils/discrete inputs per byte)
Normal response:
Value of each coil/discrete input is binary (0 for off, 1 for on). First requested coil/discrete input is
stored as least significant bit of first byte in reply.
If number of coils/discrete inputs is not a multiple of 8, most significant bit(s) of last byte will be
stuffed with zeros.
For example, if eleven coils are requested, two bytes of values are needed. Suppose states of those
successive coils are on, off, on, off, off, on, on, on, off, on, on, then data part of the response will
be 02E506 in hexadecimal.
Function code 5 (force/write single coil)[edit]

Request:
Address of coil (16-bit)
Value to force/write: 0 for off and 65,280 (FF00 in hexadecimal) for

on
Normal response: same as request.
Function code 15 (force/write multiple coils)[edit]

Request:
Address of first coil to force/write (16-bit)
Number of coils to force/write (16-bit)
Number of bytes of coil values to follow (8-bit)
Coil values (8 coil values per byte)
Value of each coil is binary (0 for off, 1 for on). First requested coil is stored as least significant bit of
first byte in request.
If number of coils is not a multiple of 8, most significant bit(s) of last byte should be stuffed with
zeros. See example for function codes 1 and 2.
Normal response:
Address of first coil (16-bit)
number of coils (16-bit)
Function code 4 (read input registers) and function code 3 (read holding
registers)[edit]
Request:
Address of first register to read (16-bit)
Number of registers to read (16-bit)
Number of bytes of register values to follow (8-bit)
Register values (16 bits per register)
Normal response:
Because the number of bytes for register values is 8-bit wide, only 128 registers can be read at once.
Function code 6 (preset/write single holding register) [edit]

Request:
Address of holding register to preset/write (16-bit)
New value of the holding register (16-bit)
Normal response: same as request.
Function code 16 (preset/write multiple holding registers) [edit]

Request:
Address of first holding register to preset/write (16-bit)
Number of holding registers to preset/write (16-bit)
Number of bytes of register values to follow (8-bit)
New values of holding registers (16 bits per register)
Because the number of bytes for register values is 8-bit wide, only 128 holding registers can be
preset/written at once.
Normal response:
Address of first preset/written holding register (16-bit)
number of preset/written holding registers (16-bit)
Exception responses[edit]
For a normal response, slave repeats the function code. Should a slave want to report an error, it will
reply with the requested function code plus 128 (3 becomes 131 or 83 in hexadecimal), and will only
include one byte of data, known as the exception code.
Main Modbus exception codes[edit]

Cod
e
Text
Details
Illegal Function
Function code received in the query is not recognized or allowed by slave
Illegal Data Address
Data address of some or all the required entities are not allowed or do not exist
in slave
Illegal Data Value
Value is not accepted by slave
Slave Device
Failure
Unrecoverable error occurred while slave was attempting to perform requested

action
Acknowledge
Slave has accepted request and is processing it, but a long duration of time is
required. This response is returned to prevent a timeout error from occurring
in the master. Master can next issue a Poll Program Complete message to
determine if processing is completed
Slave Device Busy
Slave is engaged in processing a long-duration command. Master should retry

later
Negative
Acknowledge
Slave cannot perform the programming functions. Master should request

diagnostic or error information from slave
Memory Parity
Error
Slave detected a parity error in memory. Master can retry the request, but
service may be required on the slave device
10
Gateway Path
Unavailable
Specialized for Modbus gateways. Indicates a misconfigured gateway
11
Gateway Target
Device Failed to
Respond
Specialized for Modbus gateways. Sent when slave fails to respond
Coil, discrete input, input register, holding register numbers and

addresses[edit]
Some conventions govern how access to Modbus entities (coils, discrete inputs, input registers,
holding registers) are referenced.
It is important to make a distinction between entity number and entity address:
Entity numbers combine entity type and entity location within their
description table
Entity address is the starting address, a 16-bit value in the data part
of the Modbus frame. As such its range goes from 0 to 65,535
In the traditional standard, numbers for those entities start with a digit, followed by a number of four
digits in range 1 - 9,999:
coils numbers start with a zero and then span from 00001 to 09999
discrete input numbers start with a one and then span from 10001
to 19999
input register numbers start with a three and then span from 30001
to 39999
holding register numbers start with a four and then span

from 40001 to 49999
This translates into addresses between 0 and 9,998 in data frames.

For example, in order to read holding registers starting at number 40001, corresponding address in
the data frame will be 0 with a function code of 3 (as seen above). For holding registers starting
at number 40100, address will be 99. Etc.
This limits the number of addresses to 9,999 for each entity. A de facto referencing extends this to
the maximum of 65,536.[14]
It simply consists of adding one digit to the previous list:
coil numbers span from 000001 to 065536
discrete input numbers span from 100001 to 165536
input register numbers span from 300001 to 365536
holding register numbers span from 400001 to 465536
When using the extended referencing, all number references must be exactly six digits. This avoids
confusion between coils and other entities. For example, to know the difference between holding
register #40001 and coil #40001, if coil #40001 is the target, it must appear as #040001.
JBUS mapping[edit]
Another de facto protocol tightly related with Modbus[15] appeared after it and was defined by PLC
brand April Automates, resulting of a collaborative effort of French companiesRenault Automation
and Merlin Gerin et Cie in 1985:[16] JBUS. Differences between Modbus and JBUS at that time
(number of entities, slave stations) are now irrelevant as this protocol almost disappeared with April
PLC series which AEG Schneider Automation bought in 1994 and then made them obsolete.
However the name JBUS survived to some extent.
JBUS supports function codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 15, and 16 and thus all the entities described above.
However numbering is different with JBUS:[17]
Number and address coincide: entity #x has address x in the data

frame
Consequently, entity number does not include the entity type. For
example, holding register #40010 in Modbus will be holding register
#9, located at address 9 in JBUS
Number 0 (and thus address 0) is not supported. Slave should not

implement any real data at this number and address and it can
return a null value or throw an error when requested
Implementations[edit]
Almost all implementations have variations from the official standard. Different varieties might not
communicate correctly between equipment of different suppliers. Some of the most common
variations are:
Data types
Floating point IEEE
32-bit integer
8-bit data
Mixed data types
Bit fields in integers
Multipliers to change data to/from integer. 10, 100, 1000, 256 ...
Protocol extensions
16-bit slave addresses
32-bit data size (1 address = 32 bits of data returned)
Word swapped data
Limitations[edit]
Since Modbus was designed in the late 1970s to communicate

to programmable logic controllers, the number of data types is
limited to those understood by PLCs at the time. Large binary
objects are not supported.
No standard way exists for a node to find the description of a data

object, for example, to determine if a register value represents a
temperature between 30 and 175 degrees.
Since Modbus is a master/slave protocol, there is no way for a field

device to "report by exception" (except over Ethernet TCP/IP, called
open-mbus)- the master node must routinely poll each field device,
and look for changes in the data. This consumes bandwidth and
network time in applications where bandwidth may be expensive,
such as over a low-bit-rate radio link.
Modbus is restricted to addressing 254 devices on one data link,

which limits the number of field devices that may be connected to a
master station (once again Ethernet TCP/IP being an exception).
Modbus transmissions must be contiguous which limits the types of

remote communications devices to those that can buffer data to
avoid gaps in the transmission.
Modbus protocol itself provides no security against unauthorized

commands or interception of data.[18]
Trade group[edit]
Modbus Organization, Inc. is a trade association for the promotion and development of Modbus
protocol.[2]
Modbus Plus[edit]
Despite the name, Modbus Plus[19] is not a variant of Modbus. It is a different protocol, involving token
passing.
It is a proprietary specification of Schneider Electric, though it is unpublished rather than patented. It
is normally implemented using a custom chipset available only to partners of Schneider.
References[edit]
1.
^ Jump up to:a b Drury, Bill (2009). Control Techniques Drives and

Controls Handbook (PDF) (2nd ed.). Institution of Engineering and
Technology. pp. 508. (subscription required (help)).
2.
^ Jump up to:a b "Modbus home page". Modbus. Modbus Organization,

Inc. Retrieved 2 August2013.
3.
Jump up^ "Modbus FAQ". Modbus. Modbus Organization, Inc.

Retrieved 1 November 2012.
4.
Jump up^ "About Modbus Organization". Modbus. Modbus

Organization, Inc. Retrieved8 November 2012.
5.
Jump up^ Modbus Messaging on TCP/IP Implementation Guide

V1.0b, s3.1.3
6.
Jump up^ Remote Modbus Network Monitoring
7.
Jump up^ Java implementation
8.
Jump up^ http://www.rtaautomation.com/modbus/
9.
Jump up^ http://www.simplymodbus.ca/Enron.htm
10. Jump up^ http://www.calscan.net/pdf/ModBus%20Driver

%20Development%20Guide%201v13.pdf
11. Jump up^ "Modbus Messaging On TCP/IP Implementation
Guide" (PDF). Modbus Organization. Modbus-IDA.
12. Jump up^ "Modbus Application Protocol V1.1b3" (PDF). Modbus.
Modbus Organization, Inc. Retrieved 2 August 2013.
13. Jump up^ Clarke, Gordon; Reynders, Deon (2004). Practical Modern
Scada Protocols: Dnp3, 60870.5 and Related Systems. Newnes.
pp. 4751. ISBN 0-7506-5799-5.
14. Jump up^ "Modbus 101 - Introduction to Modbus". Control Solutions,
Inc.
15. Jump up^ "Differences between JBUS and MODBUS protocols".
Schneider Electric.
16. Jump up^ "RENAULT AUTOMATION MERLIN GERIN ET CIE".
French Corporate.
17. Jump up^ "900 Series JBUS and MODBUS Digital Communications
Handbook". Eurotherm Control.
18. Jump up^ Palmer; Shenoi, Sujeet, eds. (2325 March 2009). Critical
Infrastructure Protection III. Third IFIP WG 11. 10 International
Conference. Hanover, New Hampshire: Springer. p. 87.ISBN 3-64204797-1.
19. Jump up^ "Modbus Plus - Modbus Plus Network - Products overview
- Schneider Electric United States". Schneider-electric.com.
Retrieved 2014-01-03.
External links[edit]
Official
Modbus Organization with protocol specifications
Modbus Protocol; Modicon; 74 pages; 2000.
Free Modbus Guide for Field Technician
Cost free Modbus RTU Device Testing Software
Free Modbus RTU source code on Protocessor website (requires

signing up)
Perl module for Modbus/TCP
Android based Modbus TCP Master
Pymodbus: Full Modbus protocol implementation in Python, free

software
MinimalModbus: Light RTU only Modbus implementation in Python
modbus-tk: Fast Modbus Implementation in Python
Interesting Performance comparison of the 3 above mentioned

python modules
Tcl based Modbus RTU driver
Open Source C library of Modbus protocol for Linux, Mac OS X,

FreeBSD, QNX and Win32
Freeware Modbus Slave Simulator Application
Free PeakHMI RTU, TCP/IP and ACSII slave simulators
Jamod - Java library of Modbus protocol
ModSlave - Modbus TCP Slave Device written in Python, Free

Software
Other
digitalpetri Modbus - A modern, asynchronous Modbus

implementation for Java
[show]
Automation protocols
[show]
Technical and de facto standards for wired compu

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Electricity generation
(Redirected from Power generation)
Turbo generator
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from other sources of primary
energy. The fundamental principles of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and
early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is still used today: electricity is
generated by the movement of a loop of wire, or disc of copper between thepoles of a magnet.
[1]
For electric utilities, it is the first process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. The other
processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery
using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. Electricity is
most often generated at a power station by electromechanicalgenerators, primarily driven by heat
engines fueled by chemical combustion or nuclear fission but also by other means such as
the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include
solar photovoltaics and geothermal power and electrochemical batteries.
Contents
[hide]
1History
2Methods of generating electricity

o
2.1Turbines
2.2Reciprocating engines
2.3Photovoltaic panels
2.4Electrochemical
2.5Other generation methods
3Economics of generation and production of electricity
4Production
o
4.1Historical results of production of electricity
4.2Production by country
4.2.1List of countries with source of electricity 2008
5Cogeneration
6Environmental concerns
7Water consumption
8See also
9References
10External links
History[edit]
Main article: Electrification
Diagram of an electric power system, generation system in red
Central power stations became economically practical with the development of alternating
current power transmission, using power transformers to transmit power at high voltage and with low
loss. Electricity has been generated at central stations since 1882. The first power plants were run on
water power[2] or coal,[3] and today, rely mainly on coal, nuclear, natural gas,hydroelectric, wind
generators, and petroleum, with a small amount from solar energy, tidal power,
and geothermal sources. The use of power-lines and power-poles have been significantly important
in the distribution of electricity.
Methods of generating electricity[edit]
U.S. 2014 Electricity Generation By Type.[4]
Sources of electricity in France in 2006; [5] nuclear power was the main source.
There are seven fundamental methods of directly transforming other forms of energy into electrical
energy:
Static electricity, from the physical separation and transport of

charge (examples: triboelectric effect and lightning)
Electromagnetic induction, where an electrical

generator, dynamo or alternator transforms kinetic energy (energy of
motion) into electricity. This is the most used form for generating
electricity and is based on Faraday's law. It can be experimented by
simply rotating a magnet within closed loops of a conducting
material (e.g. copper wire)
Electrochemistry, the direct transformation of chemical energy into

electricity, as in a battery, fuel cell or nerve impulse
Photovoltaic effect, the transformation of light into electrical energy,

as in solar cells
Thermoelectric effect, the direct conversion of temperature

differences to electricity, as in thermocouples, thermopiles,
and thermionic converters.
Piezoelectric effect, from the mechanical strain of

electrically anisotropic molecules or crystals. Researchers at the US
Department of Energy's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
(Berkeley Lab) have developed a piezoelectric generator sufficient
to operate a liquid crystal display using thin films of M13
bacteriophage.[6]
Nuclear transformation, the creation and acceleration of charged

particles (examples: betavoltaics or alpha particleemission)
Static electricity was the first form discovered and investigated, and the electrostatic generator is still
used even in modern devices such as the Van de Graaff generator and MHD generators. Charge
carriers are separated and physically transported to a position of increased electric potential. Almost
all commercial electrical generation is done using electromagnetic induction, in which mechanical
energy forces an electrical generator to rotate. There are many different methods of developing the
mechanical energy, including heat engines, hydro, wind and tidal power. The direct conversion
of nuclear potential energy to electricity by beta decay is used only on a small scale. In a full-size
nuclear power plant, the heat of a nuclear reaction is used to run a heat engine. This drives a
generator, which converts mechanical energy into electricity by magnetic induction. Most electric
generation is driven by heat engines. The combustion of fossil fuels supplies most of the heat to
these engines, with a significant fraction from nuclear fission and some from renewable sources. The
modern steam turbine (invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884) currently generates about 80% of
the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources.
Turbines[edit]
Large dams such as Three Gorges Dam in China can provide large amounts of hydroelectric power; it has a
22.5 GW capability.
Almost all electrical power on Earth is generated with a turbine of some type. Turbines are commonly
driven by wind, water, steam or burning gas. The turbine drives an electric generator. Power sources
include:
Steam
Water is boiled by coal burned in a thermal power plant, about

40% of all electricity is generated this way.[7]
Nuclear fission heat created in a nuclear reactor creates steam.

Less than 15% of electricity is generated this way.
Renewables. The steam is generated by:
Biomass
Solar thermal energy (the sun as the heat source): solar

parabolic troughs and solar power towers concentrate
sunlight to heat a heat transfer fluid, which is then used to
produce steam.
Geothermal power. Either steam under pressure emerges

from the ground and drives a turbine or hot water
evaporates a low boiling liquid to create vapor to drive a
turbine.
Large dams such as Hoover Damcan provide large amounts ofhydroelectric power; it has 2.07 GWcapability.
Gas Natural gas is burned in a gas turbine, turbines are driven

directly by gases produced by combustion. Combined cycle are
driven by both steam and natural gas. They generate power by
burning natural gas in a gas turbine and use residual heat to
generate steam. At least 20% of the worlds electricity is generated

by natural gas.
Water Energy is captured from the movement of water. From falling

water (dam), the rise and fall of tides or ocean thermal currents.
Each driving a water turbine to produce approximately 16% of the
worlds electricity.
Wind The windmill was a very early wind turbine. In a solar updraft
tower wind is artificially produced. Before 2010 less than 2% of the
worlds electricity was produced from wind.
Reciprocating engines[edit]
Small electricity generators are often powered by reciprocating engines burning diesel, biogas or
natural gas. Diesel engines are often used for back up generation, usually at low voltages. However
most large power grids also use diesel generators, originally provided as emergency back up for a
specific facility such as a hospital, to feed power into the grid during certain circumstances. Biogas is
often combusted where it is produced, such as a landfill or wastewater treatment plant, with a
reciprocating engine or a microturbine, which is a small gas turbine.
A coal-fired power plant in Laughlin, Nevada U.S.A. Owners of this plant ceased operations after declining to
invest in pollution control equipment to comply with pollution regulations. [8]
Photovoltaic panels[edit]
Unlike the solar heat concentrators mentioned above, photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly to
electricity. Although sunlight is free and abundant, solar electricity is still usually more expensive to
produce than large-scale mechanically generated power due to the cost of the panels. Low-efficiency
silicon solar cells have been decreasing in cost and multijunction cells with close to 30% conversion
efficiency are now commercially available. Over 40% efficiency has been demonstrated in
experimental systems.[9] Until recently, photovoltaics were most commonly used in remote sites
where there is no access to a commercial power grid, or as a supplemental electricity source for
individual homes and businesses. Recent advances in manufacturing efficiency and photovoltaic
technology, combined with subsidies driven by environmental concerns, have dramatically
accelerated the deployment of solar panels. Installed capacity is growing by 40% per year led by
increases in Germany, Japan, and the United States.
Electrochemical[edit]
Electrochemical electricity generation is important in portable and mobile applications. Currently,
most electrochemical power comes from closed electrochemical cells ("batteries").[10]
Primary cells, such as the common zinc-carbon batteries, act as power sources directly, but many
types of cells are used as storage systems rather than primary generation systems.
Open electrochemical systems, known as fuel cells, have been undergoing a great deal of research
and development in the last few years. Fuel cells can be used to extract power either from natural
fuels or from synthesized fuels (mainly electrolytic hydrogen) and so can be viewed as either
generation systems or storage systems depending on their use.
Other generation methods[edit]
Wind turbines usually provide electrical generation in conjunction with other methods of producing power.
Various other technologies have been studied and developed for power generation.
Solid-state generation (without moving parts) is of particular interest in portable applications. This
area is largely dominated by thermoelectric (TE) devices, though thermionic (TI)
and thermophotovoltaic (TPV) systems have been developed as well. Typically, TE devices are used
at lower temperatures than TI and TPV systems.
Piezoelectric devices are used for power generation from mechanical strain, particularly in power
harvesting.
Betavoltaics are another type of solid-state power generator which produces electricity from
radioactive decay. Fluid-basedmagnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power generation has been studied as
a method for extracting electrical power from nuclear reactors and also from more conventional fuel
combustion systems. Osmotic power finally is another possibility at places where salt and fresh
water merges (e.g. deltas, ...)
Economics of generation and production of electricity [edit]

See also: Cost of electricity by source
The selection of electricity production modes and their economic viability varies in accordance with
demand and region. The economics vary considerably around the world, resulting in widespread
selling prices, e.g. the price in Venezuela is 3 cents per kWh while in Denmark it is 40 cents per kWh.
Hydroelectric plants, nuclear power plants, thermal power plants and renewable sources have their
own pros and cons, and selection is based upon the local power requirement and the fluctuations in
demand. All power grids have varying loads on them but the daily minimum is the base load,
supplied by plants which run continuously. Nuclear, coal, oil and gas plants can supply base load.
Thermal energy is economical in areas of high industrial density, as the high demand cannot be met
by renewable sources. The effect of localized pollution is also minimized as industries are usually
located away from residential areas. These plants can also withstand variation in load and
consumption by adding more units or temporarily decreasing the production of some units. Nuclear
power plants can produce a huge amount of power from a single unit. However, recent disasters in
Japan have raised concerns over the safety of nuclear power, and the capital cost of nuclear plants
is very high. Hydroelectric power plants are located in areas where the potential energy from falling
water can be harnessed for moving turbines and the generation of power. It is not an economically
viable source of production where the load varies too much during the annual production cycle and
the ability to store the flow of water is limited.
Due to advancements in technology, and with mass production, renewable sources other than
hydroelectricity (solar power, wind energy, tidal power, etc.) experienced decreases in cost of
production, and the energy is now in many cases cost-comparative with fossil fuels. Many
governments around the world provide subsidies to offset the higher cost of any new power
production, and to make the installation of renewable energy systems economically feasible.
However, their use is frequently limited by theirintermittent nature. If natural gas prices are below $3
per million British thermal units, generating electricity from natural gas is cheaper than generating
power by burning coal.[11]
Production[edit]
This section is outdated. Please update this article to reflect recent events or newly avail
information. (March 2015)
The production of electricity in 2009 was 20,053TWh. Sources of electricity were fossil fuels 67%,
renewable energy 16% (mainly hydroelectric, wind, solar and biomass), and nuclear power 13%, and
other sources were 3%. The majority of fossil fuel usage for the generation of electricity was coal and
gas. Oil was 5.5%, as it is the most expensive common commodity used to produce electrical
energy. Ninety-two percent of renewable energy was hydroelectric followed by wind at 6% and
geothermal at 1.8%. Solar photovoltaic was 0.06%, and solar thermal was 0.004%. Data are from
OECD 2011-12 Factbook (2009 data).[12]
Source of Electricity (World total year 2008)
Coal
Oil
Natural
Gas
Nuclear
Renewables
other
Total
Average electric power (TWh/year)
8,263
1,111
4,301
2,731
3,288
568
20,261
Average electric power (GW)
942.6
126.7
490.7
311.6
375.1
64.8
2311.4
Proportion
41%
5%
21%
13%
16%
3%
100%
data source IEA/OECD
Energy Flow of Power Plant
Total energy consumed at all power plants for the generation of

electricity was 4,398,768 ktoe (kilo ton of oil equivalent) which was
36% of the total for primary energy sources (TPES) of 2008.
Electricity output (gross) was 1,735,579 ktoe (20,185 TWh),
efficiency was 39%, and the balance of 61% was generated heat. A
small part (145,141 ktoe, which was 3% of the input total) of the
heat was utilized at co-generation heat and power plants. The inhouse consumption of electricity and power transmission losses
were 289,681 ktoe. The amount supplied to the final consumer was
1,445,285 ktoe (16,430 TWh) which was 33% of the total energy
consumed at power plants and heat and power co-generation (CHP)
plants.[13]
Historical results of production of electricity[edit]
Production by country[edit]
Main article: World energy resources and consumption
See also: Electricity consumption
The United States has long been the largest producer and
consumer of electricity, with a global share in 2005 of at least 25%,
followed by China, Japan, Russia, and India. As of Jan-2010, total
electricity generation for the 2 largest generators was as follows:
USA: 3992 billion kWh (3992 TWh) and China: 3715 billion kWh
(3715 TWh).
List of countries with source of electricity 2008[edit]
Data source of values (electric power generated) is IEA/OECD.
[14]
Listed countries are top 20 by population or top 20 by GDP (PPP)
and Saudi Arabia based on CIA World Factbook 2009.[15]
Composition of Electricity by Resource (TWh per year 2008)
Fossil Fuel
Country
's
electricit
y sector
Renewable
Nuc
lear
ra
n
k
Ge
o
Sol
ar
Bio
oth
er*
tot
al
ra
nk
The
rma
l
P
V
*
Sola
r
The
rma
l
Wi
nd
Ti
de
su
b
tot
al
ra
n
k
3,2
88
65
12
0.9
21
9
0.5
3,5
84
27
1
20,
26
1
16
%
0.3
%
0.0
6%
0.00
4%
1.1
%
0.0
03
%
18
%
1.3
%
10
0%
68
58
5
0.
2
13
59
8
2.4
3,4
57
15
1
2
114
0.
02
14
12
8.0
2
2.0
83
0
3,1
01
838
28
2
17
1.
6
0.8
8
56
35
7
73
4,3
69
25
13
0
1
9
12
8.3
20
1
7
14
9
2
0
18
29
59
2
3
14
1
3
37
0
0.6
37
0
20
46
3
32
30
62
2
2
1.6
1
6
28
28
1
4
92
2
4
G
as
su
b
tot
al
ra
n
k
1,
11
1
4,
30
1
13,
67
5
2,7
31
41
%
5.
5
%
21
%
67
%
13
%
Chi
na
2,
73
3
23
31
2,7
88
Indi
a
56
9
34
82
68
5
US
A
2,
13
3
58
10
11
Ind
onesia
61
43
Bra
zil
13
Pak
istan
0.
1
C
oa
l
Oi
l
World
total
8,
26
3
Proporti
on
Hy
dro
Ban
gladesh
0.
6
1.
7
31
33
2
7
1.5
1.5
2
9
35
2
7
Nig
eria
3.
1
12
15
2
8
5.7
5.7
2
5
21
2
8
Rus
sia
19
7
16
49
5
70
8
163
16
7
0.5
0.0
1
16
7
2.5
1,0
40
Jap
an
28
8
13
9
28
3
711
258
83
2.8
2.
3
2.6
91
22
1,0
82
Mex
ico
21
49
13
1
20
2
1
3
9.8
1
4
39
7.1
0.
01
0.3
47
1
2
0.8
25
9
1
4
Phil
ippines
16
4.
9
20
40
2
6
9.8
11
0.
00
1
0.1
21
1
6
61
2
6
Viet
nam
15
1.
6
30
47
2
5
26
26
1
5
73
2
5
Ethi
opia
0.
5
0.5
2
9
3.3
0.0
1
3.3
2
8
3.8
3
0
Egy
pt
26
90
115
2
0
15
0.9
16
2
0
13
1
2
2
Ger
many
29
1
9.
2
88
38
8
148
27
0.0
2
4.
4
41
72
29
63
7
Tur
key
58
7.
5
99
16
4
1
6
33
0.1
6
0.8
5
34
1
3
0.2
2
19
8
1
9
0.
02
0.
03
0.0
5
3
0
7.5
7.5
2
2
7.5
2
9
0.
4
36
17
3
20
9
1
1
5.0
0.2
0
5.2
2
6
21
5
1
7
DR
Congo
Iran
Tha
iland
32
1.
7
10
2
13
5
1
8
7.1
0.0
02
0.
00
3
7.1
2
3
4.8
14
7
2
1
Fra
nce
27
5.
8
22
55
2
4
439
68
0.
04
5.7
0.5
1
75
5.9
57
5
UK
12
7
6.
1
17
7
31
0
52
1
0
9.3
0.
02
7.1
16
1
8
11
38
9
11
Ital
y
49
31
17
3
25
3
47
5.5
0.
2
4.9
58
1
1
8.6
31
9
1
2
Sou
th Korea
19
2
15
81
28
8
151
5.6
0.
3
0.4
6.3
2
4
0.7
44
6
1
0
Spai
n
50
18
12
2
19
0
1
4
59
26
2.
6
0.0
2
32
61
1
0
4.3
31
4
1
3
Can
ada
11
2
9.
8
41
16
2
1
7
94
38
3
0.
03
3.8
0.0
3
38
6
8.5
65
1
Sau
di
Arabia
11
6
88
20
4
1
2
20
4
1
8
Tai
wan
12
5
14
46
18
6
1
5
41
1
1
7.8
0.
00
4
0.6
8.4
2
1
3.5
23
8
1
6
Aus
tralia
19
8
2.
8
39
23
9
1
0
12
0.
2
0.0
04
3.9
16
1
9
2.2
25
7
1
5
Net
herlands
27
2.
1
63
92
2
1
4.2
1
5
0.1
0.
04
4.3
4.4
2
7
6.8
10
8
2
3
Country
C
oa
l
G
as
su
b
tot
al
ra
n
k
Nuc
lear
ra
n
k
Ge
o
Sol
ar
Sola
r
The
rma
l
Wi
nd
Ti
de
su
b
tot
al
ra
n
k
Oi
l
Hy
dro
The
rma
l
P
V
Bi
o
oth
er
Tot ra
al nk
Solar PV* is Photovoltaics Bio other* = 198TWh (Biomass) +

69TWh (Waste) + 4TWh (other)
Cogeneration[edit]
Main article: Cogeneration
See also: Electrification
Co-generation is the practice of using exhaust or extracted steam
from a turbine for heating purposes, such as drying paper, distilling
petroleum in a refinery or for building heat. Before central power
stations were widely introduced it was common for industries, large
hotels and commercial buildings to generate their own power and
use low pressure exhaust steam for heating.[16] This practice carried
on for many years after central stations became common and is still
in use in many industries.
Environmental concerns[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of electricity generation
See also: Global warming and Coal phase out
Variations between countries generating electrical power affect
concerns about the environment. In France only 10% of electricity is
generated from fossil fuels, the US is higher at 70% and China is at
80%.[14] The cleanliness of electricity depends on its source. Most
scientists agree that emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases
from fossil fuel-based electricity generation account for a significant
portion of world greenhouse gas emissions; in the United States,
electricity generation accounts for nearly 40% of emissions, the
largest of any source. Transportation emissions are close behind,
contributing about one-third of U.S. production of carbon dioxide.
[17]
In the United States, fossil fuel combustion for electric power
generation is responsible for 65% of all emissions of sulfur dioxide,
the main component of acid rain.[18] Electricity generation is the
fourth highest combined source of NOx, carbon monoxide,
and particulate matter in the US.[19] In July 2011, the UK parliament
tabled a motion that "levels of (carbon) emissions from nuclear
power were approximately three times lower per kilowatt hour than
those of solar, four times lower than clean coal and 36 times lower
than conventional coal".[20]
Main article: Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy
sources
Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source. [21]
Technology
50th percentile
(g CO2/kWhe)
Description
Hydroelectric
reservoir
Wind
onshore
12
Lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions by electricity source. [21]
Technology
Description
50th percentile
(g CO2/kWhe)
Nuclear
various generation II reactor types
16
Biomass
various
18
Solar thermal
parabolic trough
22
Geothermal
hot dry rock
45
Solar PV
Polycrystalline silicon
46
Natural gas
various combined cycle turbines without scrubbing
469
Coal
various generator types without scrubbing
1001
Water consumption[edit]
Most large scale thermoelectric power stations consume
considerable amounts of water for cooling purposes and boiler
water make up - 1 L/kWh for once through (e.g. river cooling), and
1.7 L/kWh for cooling tower cooling.[22] Water abstraction for cooling
water accounts for about 40% of European total water abstraction,
although most of this water is returned to its source, albeit slightly
warmer. Different cooling systems have different consumption vs.
abstraction characteristics. Cooling towers withdraw a small amount
of water from the environment and evaporate most of it. Oncethrough systems withdraw a large amount but return it to the
environment immediately, at a higher temperature.
See also[edit]
Energy portal
Renewable energy portal
Infrastructure portal
Cost of electricity by source
Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy

Sources
Distributed generation
Electrification
Emissions & Generation Resource Integrated Database
Droop speed control
Electric power transmission
Electric utility
Eurelectric
Electric power distribution
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Energy development
Environmental concerns with electricity generation
Eugene Green Energy Standard
Generating Availability Data System
Load profile
List of countries by electricity production
List of countries by electricity production from renewable

sources
Mains electricity
Parallel generation
Power quality
Virtual power plant
Voltage drop
World energy consumption
References[edit]
1.
Jump up^ "Page not found". Retrieved 15 May 2015.
2.
Jump up^ In 1881, under the leadership of Jacob Schoellkopf,

the first hydroelectric generating station was built on Niagara
Falls.
3.
Jump up^ "Pearl Street Station". Retrieved 15 May 2015.
4.
Jump
up^ http://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm
?t=epmt_1_01
5.
Jump up^ DGEMP / Observatoire de l'nergie (April

2007). "LElectricit en France en 2006 : une analyse
statistique." (PDF) (in French). Retrieved 2007-05-23.
6.
Jump up^ "piezoelectric generator". The Times Of India.

7.
Jump up^ http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coalelectricity/
8.
Jump up^ Reuters News Service (2005-12-30). "Mohave Power

Plant in Nevada to Close as Expected". Planet Ark.
9.
Jump up^ New World Record Achieved in Solar Cell

Technology (press release, 2006-12-05), U.S. Department of
Energy.
10. Jump up^ World's Largest Utility Battery System Installed in

Alaska (press release, 2003-09-24), U.S. Department of
Energy. "13,670 nickel-cadmium battery cells to generate up to 40
megawatts of power for about 7 minutes, or 27 megawatts of
power for 15 minutes."
11. Jump up^ Smith, Karl (22 March 2013). "Will Natural Gas Stay
Cheap Enough To Replace Coal And Lower Us Carbon
Emissions". Forbes. Retrieved 20 June 2015.
12. Jump up^ [1] OECD 2011-12 Factbook
13. Jump up^ International Energy Agency, "2008 Energy Balance for
World", 2011.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b IEA Statistics and Balances retrieved 2011-5-8
15. Jump up^ CIA World Factbook 2009 retrieved 2011-5-8
16. Jump up^ Hunter & Bryant 1991
17. Jump up^ Borenstein, Seth (2007-06-03). "Carbon-emissions
culprit? Coal". The Seattle Times.
18. Jump up^ "Sulfur Dioxide". US Environmental Protection Agency.
19. Jump up^ "AirData". US Environmental Protection Agency.
20. Jump up^ "Early day motion 2061". UK Parliament. Retrieved 15
May 2015.
21. Jump up^ http://srren.ipccwg3.de/report/IPCC_SRREN_Annex_II.pdf see page 10 Moomaw,
W., P. Burgherr, G. Heath, M. Lenzen, J. Nyboer, A. Verbruggen,
2011: Annex II: Methodology. In IPCC Special Report on
Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation.
22. Jump up^ AAAS Annual Meeting 17 - 21 Feb 2011, Washington

DC. Sustainable or Not? Impacts and Uncertainties of LowCarbon Energy Technologies on Water.Evangelos Tzimas ,
European Commission, JRC Institute for Energy, Petten,
Netherlands
Electricity - A Visual Primer
Power Technologies Energy Data Book
NOW on PBS: Power Struggle
This Week in Energy (TWiEpodcast)
Electricity: From Table-top to Powerplant
The Power Sector in Lebanon via Carboun

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SCADA
This article is about the industrial control computer system. For the genus of butterflies, see Scada.
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged an
removed. (January 2008)
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) is a system for remote monitoring and
control that operates with coded signals over communication channels (using typically one
communication channel per remote station). The control system may be combined with a data
acquisition system by adding the use of coded signals over communication channels to acquire
information about the status of the remote equipment for display or for recording functions. [1] It is a
type of industrial control system (ICS). Industrial control systems are computer-based systems that
monitor and control industrial processes that exist in the physical world. SCADA systems historically
distinguish themselves from other ICS systems by being large-scale processes that can include
multiple sites, and large distances.[2] These processes include industrial, infrastructure, and facilitybased processes, as described below:
Industrial processes include those of manufacturing,

production, power generation, fabrication, and refining, and may run
in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.
Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water

treatment and distribution, wastewater collection and treatment, oil
and gas pipelines, electrical power
transmission and distribution, wind farms, civil defense
siren systems, and large communication systems.
Facility processes occur both in public facilities and private ones,

including buildings, airports, ships, and space stations. They monitor
and control heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems
(HVAC), access, and energy consumption.
Contents
[hide]
1Common system components
2Systems concepts
3Humanmachine interface
4Hardware solutions
o
4.1Supervisory station
4.1.1Operational philosophy
4.2Communication infrastructure and methods
5SCADA architectures
o
5.1First generation: "Monolithic"
5.2Second generation: "Distributed"
5.3Third generation: "Networked"
5.4Fourth generation: "Internet of Things"
6Security issues
7SCADA In the workplace
8See also
9References
10External links
Common system components[edit]

A SCADA system usually consists of the following subsystems:
Remote terminal units (RTUs) connect to sensors in the process

and convert sensor signals to digital data. They have telemetry
hardware capable of sending digital data to the supervisory system,
as well as receiving digital commands from the supervisory system.
RTUs often have embedded control capabilities such as ladder
logic in order to accomplish boolean logic operations.
Programmable logic controller (PLCs) connect to sensors in the

process and convert sensor signals to digital data. PLCs have more
sophisticated embedded control capabilities (typically one or
more IEC 61131-3 programming languages) than RTUs. PLCs do
not have telemetry hardware, although this functionality is typically
installed alongside them. PLCs are sometimes used in place of
RTUs as field devices because they are more economical, versatile,
flexible, and configurable.
A telemetry system is typically used to connect PLCs and RTUs with

control centers, data warehouses, and the enterprise. Examples of
wired telemetry media used in SCADA systems include leased
telephone lines and WAN circuits. Examples of wireless telemetry
media used in SCADA systems include satellite (VSAT), licensed
and unlicensed radio, cellular and microwave.
A data acquisition server is a software service which uses industrial

protocols to connect software services, via telemetry, with field
devices such as RTUs and PLCs. It allows clients to access data
from these field devices using standard protocols.
A humanmachine interface or HMI is the apparatus or device

which presents processed data to a human operator, and through
this, the human operator monitors and interacts with the process.
The HMI is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server
or in most installations the HMI is the graphical user interface for the
operator, collects all data from external devices, creates reports,
performs alarming, sends notifications, etc.
A Historian is a software service which accumulates time-stamped

data, boolean events, and boolean alarms in a database which can
be queried or used to populate graphic trends in the HMI. The
historian is a client that requests data from a data acquisition server.
A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the

process and sending commands (control) to the SCADA system.
Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to

the remote terminal units.
Various processes and analytical instrumentation.
Systems concepts[edit]
The term SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) usually refers to centralized systems
which monitor and control entire sites, or complexes of systems spread out over large areas
(anything from an industrial plant to a nation). Most control actions are performed automatically by
RTUs or by PLCs. Host control functions are usually restricted to basic overriding
or supervisory level intervention. For example, a PLC may control the flow of cooling water through
part of an industrial process, but the SCADA system may allow operators to change the set points for
the flow, and enable alarm conditions, such as loss of flow and high temperature, to be displayed
and recorded. The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or PLC, while the SCADA system
monitors the overall performance of the loop.
SCADA's schematic overview
Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level and includes meter readings and equipment status
reports that are communicated to SCADA as required. Data is then compiled and formatted in such a
way that a control room operator using the HMI can make supervisory decisions to adjust or override
normal RTU (PLC) controls. Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built on a
commodity Database Management System, to allow trending and other analytical auditing.
SCADA systems typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag
database, which contains data elements calledtags or points. A point represents a single input or
output value monitored or controlled by the system. Points can be either "hard" or "soft". A hard point
represents an actual input or output within the system, while a soft point results from logic and math
operations applied to other points. (Most implementations conceptually remove the distinction by
making every property a "soft" point expression, which may, in the simplest case, equal a single hard
point.) Points are normally stored as value-timestamp pairs: a value, and the timestamp when it was
recorded or calculated. A series of value-timestamp pairs gives the history of that point. It is also
common to store additional metadata with tags, such as the path to a field device or PLC register,
design time comments, and alarm information.
SCADA systems are significantly important systems used in national infrastructures such as electric
grids, water supplies and pipelines. However, SCADA systems may have security vulnerabilities, so
the systems should be evaluated to identify risks and solutions implemented to mitigate those risks. [3]
Humanmachine interface[edit]
Typical basic SCADA animations
More complex SCADA animation
A humanmachine interface (HMI) is the input-output device through which the human operator
controls the process, and which presents process data to a human operator.
HMI(Human Machine interface) is usually linked to the SCADA system's databases and software
programs, to provide trending, diagnostic data, and management information such as scheduled
maintenance procedures, logistic information, detailed schematics for a particular sensor or machine,
and expert-system troubleshooting guides.
The HMI system usually presents the information to the operating personnel graphically, in the form
of a mimic diagram. This means that the operator can see a schematic representation of the plant
being controlled. For example, a picture of a pump connected to a pipe can show the operator that
the pump is running and how much fluid it is pumping through the pipe at the moment. The operator
can then switch the pump off. The HMI software will show the flow rate of the fluid in the pipe
decrease in real time. Mimic diagrams may consist of line graphics and schematic symbols to
represent process elements, or may consist of digital photographs of the process equipment overlain
with animated symbols.
The HMI package for the SCADA system typically includes a drawing program that the operators or
system maintenance personnel use to change the way these points are represented in the interface.
These representations can be as simple as an on-screen traffic light, which represents the state of
an actual traffic light in the field, or as complex as a multi-projector display representing the position
of all of the elevators in a skyscraper or all of the trains on a railway.
An important part of most SCADA implementations is alarm handling. The system monitors whether
certain alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an alarm event has occurred. Once an
alarm event has been detected, one or more actions are taken (such as the activation of one or more
alarm indicators, and perhaps the generation of email or text messages so that management or
remote SCADA operators are informed). In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to
acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators
remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared. Alarm conditions can be explicitfor example,
an alarm point is a digital status point that has either the value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated
by a formula based on the values in other analogue and digital pointsor implicit: the SCADA
system might automatically monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies outside high and lowlimit values associated with that point. Examples of alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on
a screen, or a coloured or flashing area on a screen (that might act in a similar way to the "fuel tank
empty" light in a car); in each case, the role of the alarm indicator is to draw the operator's attention
to the part of the system 'in alarm' so that appropriate action can be taken. In designing SCADA
systems, care must be taken when a cascade of alarm events occurs in a short time, otherwise the
underlying cause (which might not be the earliest event detected) may get lost in the noise.
Unfortunately, when used as a noun, the word 'alarm' is used rather loosely in the industry; thus,
depending on context it might mean an alarm point, an alarm indicator, or an alarm event.
Hardware solutions[edit]
SCADA solutions often have Distributed Control System (DCS) components. Use of
"smart" RTUs or PLCs, which are capable of autonomously executing simple logic processes without
involving the master computer, is increasing. A standardized control programming language, IEC
61131-3 (a suite of 5 programming languages including Function Block, Ladder, Structured Text,
Sequence Function Charts and Instruction List), is frequently used to create programs which run on
these RTUs and PLCs. Unlike a procedural language such as the C programming
language or FORTRAN, IEC 61131-3 has minimal training requirements by virtue of resembling
historic physical control arrays. This allows SCADA system engineers to perform both the design and
implementation of a program to be executed on an RTU or PLC. A Programmable Automation
Controller (PAC) is a compact controller that combines the features and capabilities of a PC-based
control system with that of a typical PLC. PACs are deployed in SCADA systems to provide RTU and
PLC functions. In many electrical substation SCADA applications, "distributed RTUs" use information
processors or station computers to communicate with digital protective relays, PACs, and other
devices for I/O, and communicate with the SCADA master in lieu of a traditional RTU.
Since about 1998, virtually all major PLC manufacturers have offered integrated HMI/SCADA
systems, many of them using open and non-proprietary communications protocols. Numerous
specialized third-party HMI/SCADA packages, offering built-in compatibility with most major PLCs,
have also entered the market, allowing mechanical engineers, electrical engineers and technicians to
configure HMIs themselves, without the need for a custom-made program written by a software
programmer. The Remote Terminal Unit (RTU) connects to physical equipment. Typically, an RTU
converts the electrical signals from the equipment to digital values such as the open/closed status
from a switch or a valve, or measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or current. By converting
and sending these electrical signals out to equipment the RTU can control equipment, such as
opening or closing a switch or a valve, or setting the speed of a pump.
Supervisory station[edit]
The term supervisory station refers to the servers and software responsible for communicating with
the field equipment (RTUs, PLCs, SENSORS etc.), and then to the HMI software running on
workstations in the control room, or elsewhere. In smaller SCADA systems, the master station may
be composed of a single PC. In larger SCADA systems, the master station may include multiple
servers, distributed software applications, and disaster recovery sites. To increase the integrity of the
system the multiple servers will often be configured in a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation
providing continuous control and monitoring in the event of a server malfunction or breakdown.
Operational philosophy[edit]
For some installations, the costs that would result from the control system failing are extremely high.
Hardware for some SCADA systems is ruggedized to withstand temperature, vibration, and voltage
extremes. In the most critical installations, reliability is enhanced by having redundant hardware and
communications channels, up to the point of having multiple fully equipped control centres. A failing
part can be quickly identified and its functionality automatically taken over by backup hardware. A
failed part can often be replaced without interrupting the process. The reliability of such systems can
be calculated statistically and is stated as the mean time to failure, which is a variant of Mean Time
Between Failures (MTBF). The calculated mean time to failure of such high reliability systems can be
on the order of centuries.
Communication infrastructure and methods[edit]

SCADA systems have traditionally used combinations of radio and direct wired connections,
although SONET/SDH is also frequently used for large systems such as railways and power stations.
The remote management or monitoring function of a SCADA system is often referred to as telemetry.
Some users want SCADA data to travel over their pre-established corporate networks or to share the
network with other applications. The legacy of the early low-bandwidth protocols remains, though.
SCADA protocols are designed to be very compact. Many are designed to send information only
when the master station polls the RTU. Typical legacy SCADA protocols includeModbus RTU, RP570, Profibus and Conitel. These communication protocols are all SCADA-vendor specific but are
widely adopted and used. Standard protocols are IEC 60870-5-101 or 104, IEC 61850 and DNP3.
These communication protocols are standardized and recognized by all major SCADA vendors.
Many of these protocols now contain extensions to operate over TCP/IP. Although the use of
conventional networking specifications, such as TCP/IP, blurs the line between traditional and
industrial networking, they each fulfill fundamentally differing requirements. [4]
With increasing security demands (such as North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC)
and Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) in the US), there is increasing use of satellite-based
communication. This has the key advantages that the infrastructure can be self-contained (not using
circuits from the public telephone system), can have built-in encryption, and can be engineered to
the availability and reliability required by the SCADA system operator. Earlier experiences using
consumer-grade VSAT were poor. Modern carrier-class systems provide the quality of service
required for SCADA.[5]
RTUs and other automatic controller devices were developed before the advent of industry wide
standards for interoperability. The result is that developers and their management created a
multitude of control protocols. Among the larger vendors, there was also the incentive to create their
own protocol to "lock in" their customer base. A list of automation protocols is compiled here.
Recently, OLE for process control (OPC) has become a widely accepted solution for
intercommunicating different hardware and software, allowing communication even between devices
originally not intended to be part of an industrial network.
SCADA architectures[edit]
The United States Army's Training Manual 5-601 covers "SCADA Systems for C4ISR Facilities".
SCADA systems have evolved through four generations as follows: [6][7][8][9]
First generation: "Monolithic"[edit]
Early SCADA system computing was done by large minicomputers. Common network services did
not exist at the time SCADA was developed. Thus SCADA systems were independent systems with
no connectivity to other systems. The communication protocols used were strictly proprietary at that
time. The first-generation SCADA system redundancy was achieved using a back-up mainframe
system connected to all the Remote Terminal Unit sites and was used in the event of failure of the
primary mainframe system. Some first generation SCADA systems were developed as "turn key"
operations that ran on minicomputers such as the PDP-11 series made by theDigital Equipment
Corporation.
Second generation: "Distributed"[edit]

SCADA information and command processing was distributed across multiple stations which were
connected through a LAN. Information was shared in near real time. Each station was responsible
for a particular task thus making the size and cost of each station less than the one used in First
Generation. The network protocols used were still not standardized. Since the protocols were
proprietary, very few people beyond the developers knew enough to determine how secure a SCADA
installation was. Security of the SCADA installation was usually overlooked.*
Third generation: "Networked"[edit]

Similar to a distributed architecture, any complex SCADA can be reduced to simplest components
and connected through communication protocols. In the case of a networked design, the system may
be spread across more than one LAN network called a process control network (PCN) and
separated geographically. Several distributed architecture SCADAs running in parallel, with a single
supervisor and historian, could be considered a network architecture. This allows for a more cost
effective solution in very large scale systems.
Fourth generation: "Internet of Things"[edit]

With the commercial availability of cloud computing, SCADA systems have increasingly
adopted Internet of Things technology to significantly reduce infrastructure costs and increase ease
of maintenance and integration. As a result, SCADA systems can now report state in near real-time
and use the horizontal scale available in cloud environments to implement more complex control
algorithms than are practically feasible to implement on traditional programmable logic controllers.
[10]
Further, the use of open network protocols such as TLS inherent in the Internet of Things
technology, provides a more readily comprehensible and manageable security boundary than the
heterogeneous mix of proprietary network protocols typical of many decentralized SCADA
implementations. One such example of this technology is an innovative approach to rainwater
harvesting through the implementation of real time controls (RTC).
This decentralization of data also requires a different approach to SCADA than traditional PLC based
programs. When a SCADA system is used locally, the preferred methodology involves binding the
graphics on the user interface to the data stored in specific PLC memory addresses. However, when
the data comes from a disparate mix of sensors, controllers and databases (which may be local or at
varied connected locations), the typical 1 to 1 mapping becomes problematic. A solution to this
is Data Modeling, a concept derived from object oriented programming. [11]
In a Data Model, a virtual representation of each device is constructed in the SCADA software.
These virtual representations (Models) can contain not just the address mapping of the device
represented, but also any other pertinent information (web based info, database entries, media files,
etc.) that may be used by other facets of the SCADA/IoT implementation. As the increased
complexity of the Internet of Things renders traditional SCADA increasingly house-bound, and as
communication protocols evolve to favor platform-independent, service-oriented architecture (such
as OPC UA), it is likely that more SCADA software developers will implement some form of data
modeling.
Security issues[edit]
SCADA systems that tie together decentralized facilities such as power, oil, and gas pipelines and
water distribution and wastewater collection systems were designed to be open, robust, and easily
operated and repaired, but not necessarily secure. [12] The move from proprietary technologies to
more standardized and open solutions together with the increased number of connections between
SCADA systems, office networks, and the Internet has made them more vulnerable to types
of network attacks that are relatively common in computer security. For example, United States
Computer Emergency Readiness Team (US-CERT) released a vulnerability advisory[13] that allowed
unauthenticated users to download sensitive configuration information including password hashes on
an Inductive Automation Ignition system utilizing a standard attack type leveraging access to
the Tomcat Embedded Web server. Security researcher Jerry Brown submitted a similar advisory
regarding a buffer overflow vulnerability[14] in a Wonderware InBatchClientActiveX control. Both
vendors made updates available prior to public vulnerability release. Mitigation recommendations
were standard patching practices and requiring VPNaccess for secure connectivity. Consequently,
the security of some SCADA-based systems has come into question as they are seen as potentially
vulnerable to cyber attacks.[15][16][17]
In particular, security researchers are concerned about:
the lack of concern about security and authentication in the design,

deployment and operation of some existing SCADA networks
the belief that SCADA systems have the benefit of security through
obscurity through the use of specialized protocols and proprietary
interfaces
the belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are
physically secured
the belief that SCADA networks are secure because they are
disconnected from the Internet.
SCADA systems are used to control and monitor physical processes, examples of which are
transmission of electricity, transportation of gas and oil in pipelines, water distribution, traffic lights,
and other systems used as the basis of modern society. The security of these SCADA systems is
important because compromise or destruction of these systems would impact multiple areas of
society far removed from the original compromise. For example, a blackout caused by a
compromised electrical SCADA system would cause financial losses to all the customers that
received electricity from that source. How security will affect legacy SCADA and new deployments
remains to be seen.
There are many threat vectors to a modern SCADA system. One is the threat of unauthorized access
to the control software, whether it be human access or changes induced intentionally or accidentally
by virus infections and other software threats residing on the control host machine. Another is the
threat of packet access to the network segments hosting SCADA devices. In many cases, the control
protocol lacks any form of cryptographic security, allowing an attacker to control a SCADA device by
sending commands over a network. In many cases SCADA users have assumed that having a VPN
offered sufficient protection, unaware that security can be trivially bypassed with physical access to
SCADA-related network jacks and switches. Industrial control vendors suggest approaching SCADA
security like Information Security with a defense in depth strategy that leverages common IT
practices.[18]
The reliable function of SCADA systems in our modern infrastructure may be crucial to public health
and safety. As such, attacks on these systems may directly or indirectly threaten public health and
safety. Such an attack has already occurred, carried out on Maroochy Shire Council's sewage control
system in Queensland, Australia.[19] Shortly after a contractor installed a SCADA system in January
2000, system components began to function erratically. Pumps did not run when needed and alarms
were not reported. More critically, sewage flooded a nearby park and contaminated an open surfacewater drainage ditch and flowed 500 meters to a tidal canal. The SCADA system was directing
sewage valves to open when the design protocol should have kept them closed. Initially this was
believed to be a system bug. Monitoring of the system logs revealed the malfunctions were the result
of cyber attacks. Investigators reported 46 separate instances of malicious outside interference
before the culprit was identified. The attacks were made by a disgruntled ex-employee of the
company that had installed the SCADA system. The ex-employee was hoping to be hired by the
utility full-time to maintain the system.
In April 2008, the Commission to Assess the Threat to the United States from Electromagnetic Pulse
(EMP) Attack issued a Critical Infrastructures Report which discussed the extreme vulnerability of
SCADA systems to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) event. After testing and analysis, the
Commission concluded: "SCADA systems are vulnerable to EMP insult. The large numbers and
widespread reliance on such systems by all of the Nations critical infrastructures represent a
systemic threat to their continued operation following an EMP event. Additionally, the necessity to
reboot, repair, or replace large numbers of geographically widely dispersed systems will considerably
impede the Nations recovery from such an assault."[20]
Many vendors of SCADA and control products have begun to address the risks posed by
unauthorized access by developing lines of specialized industrial firewall and VPNsolutions for
TCP/IP-based SCADA networks as well as external SCADA monitoring and recording equipment.
The International Society of Automation (ISA) started formalizing SCADA security requirements in
2007 with a working group, WG4. WG4 "deals specifically with unique technical requirements,
measurements, and other features required to evaluate and assure security resilience and
performance of industrial automation and control systems devices".[21]
The increased interest in SCADA vulnerabilities has resulted in vulnerability researchers discovering
vulnerabilities in commercial SCADA software and more general offensive SCADA techniques
presented to the general security community.[22] In electric and gas utility SCADA systems, the
vulnerability of the large installed base of wired and wireless serial communications links is
addressed in some cases by applying bump-in-the-wire devices that employ authentication
and Advanced Encryption Standard encryption rather than replacing all existing nodes.[23]
In June 2010, anti-virus security company VirusBlokAda reported the first detection of malware that
attacks SCADA systems (Siemens' WinCC/PCS 7 systems) running on Windows operating systems.
The malware is called Stuxnet and uses four zero-day attacks to install a rootkit which in turn logs
into the SCADA's database and steals design and control files.[24][25] The malware is also capable of
changing the control system and hiding those changes. The malware was found on 14 systems, the
majority of which were located in Iran.[26]
In October 2013 National Geographic released a docudrama titled, "American Blackout" which dealt
with a large-scale cyber attack on SCADA and the United States' electrical grid.
SCADA In the workplace[edit]

SCADA is one of many tools that can be used while working in an environment where operational
duties need to be monitored through electronic communication instead of locally. For example, an
operator can position a valve to open or close through SCADA without leaving the control station or
the computer. The SCADA system also can switch a pump or motor on or off and has the capability
of putting motors on a "Hand" operating status, Off, or Automatic. "Hand" refers to operating the
equipment locally, while Automatic has the equipment operate according to set points the operator
provides on a computer that can communicate with the equipment through SCADA.
See also[edit]
BACnet
LonWorks
Modbus
Telemetry
EPICS
Stuxnet - The first known custom-made virus designed to

specifically infiltrate SCADA.
Industrial Internet
Process control network
References[edit]
1.
Jump up^ "Cyber Security Dictionary". 2 Jan 2012. Retrieved 23

March 2014.
2.
Jump up^ Boys, Walt (18 August 2009). "Back to Basics: SCADA".
Automation TV: Control Global - Control Design.
3.
Jump up^ Boyer, Stuart A. (2010). SCADA Supervisory Control and

Data Acquisition. USA: ISA - International Society of Automation.
p. 179. ISBN 978-1-936007-09-7.
4.
Jump up^ "Introduction to Industrial Control Networks" (PDF). IEEE

Communications Surveys and Tutorials. 2012.
5.
Jump up^ Bergan, Christian (August 2011). "Demystifying Satellite for

the Smart Grid: Four Common Misconceptions". Electric Light &
Powers. Utility Automation & Engineering T&D (Tulsa, OK:
PennWell) 16 (8). Four. Retrieved 2 May 2012. satellite is a costeffective and secure solution that can provide backup communications
and easily support core smart grid applications like SCADA, telemetry,
AMI backhaul and distribution automation
6.
Jump up^ OFFICE OF THE MANAGER NATIONAL

COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMctober 2004. "Supervisory Control and
Data Acquisition (SCADA) Systems" (PDF). NATIONAL
COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM.
7.
Jump up^ "SCADA Systems april 2014".
8.
Jump up^ J. Russel. "A Brief History of SCADA/EMS (2015)".
9.
Jump up^ N. Gribakin. "SCADA System Architecture".
10. Jump up^ How The "Internet Of Things" Is Turning Cities Into Living
Organisms Retrieved September 16, 2013
11. Jump up^ "The History of Data Modeling". Exforsys Inc. 11 January
2007.
12. Jump up^ Boyes, Walt (2011). Instrumentation Reference Book, 4th
Edition. USA: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 27. ISBN 0-7506-8308-2.
13. Jump up^ "ICSA-11-231-01INDUCTIVE AUTOMATION IGNITION
INFORMATION DISCLOSURE VULNERABILITY" (PDF). 19 Aug 2011.
Retrieved 21 Jan 2013.
14. Jump up^ "ICSA-11-094-01WONDERWARE INBATCH CLIENT
ACTIVEX BUFFER OVERFLOW" (PDF). 13 Apr 2011. Retrieved 26
Mar 2013.
15. Jump up^ D. Maynor and R. Graham (2006). "SCADA Security and
Terrorism: We're Not Crying Wolf" (PDF).
16. Jump up^ Robert Lemos (26 July 2006). "SCADA system makers
pushed toward security". SecurityFocus. Retrieved 9 May 2007.
17. Jump up^ "Cyberthreats, Vulnerabilities and Attacks on SCADA
Networks" (PDF). Rosa Tang, berkeley.edu. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
18. Jump up^ "Industrial Security Best Practices" (PDF). Rockwell

Automation. Retrieved 26 Mar 2013.
19. Jump up^ Slay, J.; Miller, M. (November 2007). "Chpt 6: Lessons
Learned from the Maroochy Water Breach". Critical infrastructure
protection (Online-Ausg. ed.). Springer Boston. pp. 7382.ISBN 978-0387-75461-1. Retrieved 2 May 2012.
20. Jump up^ http://www.empcommission.org/docs/A2473EMP_Commission-7MB.pdf
21. Jump up^ "Security for all". InTech. June 2008. Retrieved 2
May 2012.
22. Jump up^ "SCADA Security Generic Electric Grid Malware Design".
23. Jump up^ KEMA, Inc. (November 2006). "Substation
Communications: Enabler of Automation / An Assessment of
Communications Technologies". UTC United Telecom Council: 321.
24. Jump up^ Mills, Elinor (21 July 2010). "Details of the first-ever control
system malware (FAQ)". CNET. Retrieved 21 July 2010.
25. Jump up^ "SIMATIC WinCC / SIMATIC PCS 7: Information
concerning Malware / Virus / Trojan". Siemens. 21 July 2010.
Retrieved 22 July 2010. malware (trojan) which affects the
visualization system WinCC SCADA.
26. Jump up^ "Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems".
Retrieved 16 September 2010.
UK SCADA security guidelines
BBC NEWS | Technology | Spies 'infiltrate US power grid'
Categories:
Telemetry
Industrial automation
Industrial software
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Jerk (physics)
In physics, jerk, also known as jolt, surge, or lurch, is the rate of change of acceleration; that is,
the derivative of acceleration with respect to time, and as such the second derivative of velocity, or
the third derivative of position. Jerk is defined by any of the following equivalent expressions:
where
is acceleration,
is velocity,
is position,
is time.
Jerk is a vector, and there is no generally used term
to describe its scalar magnitude (more precisely,
its norm, e.g. "speed" as the norm of the velocity
vector).
According to the result of dimensional analysis of
jerk, [length/time3], the SI units are m/s3 (or ms3).
There is no universal agreement on the symbol for
jerk, but
is commonly used. Newton's notation for
the time derivative (
) is also applied.
The fourth derivative of position, equivalent to the

first derivative of jerk, is jounce.
Because of involving third derivatives,
in mathematics differential equations of the form
are called jerk equations. It has been shown

that a jerk equation, which is equivalent to a
system of three first order, ordinary, non-linear
differential equations, is in a certain sense the
minimal setting for solutions showing chaotic
behaviour. This motivates mathematical
interest in jerk systems. Systems involving a
fourth or higher derivative are accordingly
called hyperjerk systems.
Contents
[hide]
1Physiological effects and human perception of

physical jerk
2Forces and path derivatives

o
2.1Position itself, zeroth derivative
2.2Speed , magnitude of the first derivative
2.3Acceleration a, magnitude of the second

derivative
2.4Higher derivatives
3Jerk in an idealized setting
4Jerk in rotation
5Jerk in elastically deformable matter
6Applied considerations of Jerk

o
6.1Geometric design of roads and tracks
6.2Motion control
6.3Jerk in manufacturing
7See also
8Notes
9References
10External links
Physiological effects and

human perception of physical
jerk[edit]
The smooth movement and also the rest state
of an alert human body is achieved by
balancing the forces of several antagonistic
muscles which are controlled across neural
paths by the brain (for directed movement) or
sometimes across reflex arcs. In balancing
some given force (holding or pulling up a
weight, e.g.) the postcentral gyrus establishes
a control loop to achieve this equilibrium by
adjusting the muscular tension according to the
sensed position of the actuator. If the load
changes faster than the current state of this
control loop is capable of supplying a
suitable, adaptive response, the balance
cannot be upheld, because the tensioned
muscles cannot relax or build up tension fast
enough and overshoot in either direction, until
the neural control loop manages to take control
again. Of course the time to react is limited
from below by physiological bounds and also
depends on the attention level of the brain:
an expected change will be stabilized faster
than a sudden drop or increase of load.
So passengers in transportation, who need this
time to adapt to stress changes and to adjust
their muscle tension, or else suffer conditions
such as whiplash, can be safely subjected both
only to a less than maximum acceleration, and
to a less than maximum jerk,[1] so to avoid loss

of control over their body motion thereby
endangering their physical integrity. Even
where occupant safety is not an issue,
excessive jerk may result in an uncomfortable
ride on elevators, trams, and the like, and
engineers expend considerable design effort to
minimize "jerky motion".
Since forces, changing at a suitable rate in time
(that is, suitable jerk) are the cause of
vibrations, and vibrations significantly impair
the quality of transportation, there is good
reason to simply minimize jerk in transportation
vehicles.
As an everyday example, driving in a car can
show effects of acceleration and jerk. The more
experienced drivers accelerate smoothly, but
beginners provide a jerky ride.
Changing gears, especially with a footoperated clutch, offers well-known

examples: although the accelerating force
is bounded by the engine power, an
inexperienced driver lets you experience
severe jerk, because of intermittent force
closure over the clutch.
High-powered sports cars offer the feeling

of being pressed into the cushioning, but
this is the force of the acceleration. Only in
the very first moments, when the torque of
the engine grows with the rotational speed,
the acceleration grows remarkably and a
slight whiplash effect is noticeable in the
neck, mostly masked by the jerk of gear
switching.
The beginning of an emergency braking

lets the body whip forward faster than the
achieved acceleration value alone would
accomplish, and a collision does so to an
even greater degree, but quantitative
testing on living humans (and, for some, on
animals) runs afoul of ethical concerns,
with the effect that cadavers or crash test
dummies must be substituted, which, of
course, do not show the physiological
reactions to jerk caused by an active
control loop described above.
A highly reproducible experiment to

demonstrate jerk is as follows: Brake a car
starting at a modest speed in two different
ways:
1. apply a constant, modest force on
the pedal till the car comes to a
halt, only then release the pedal;
2. apply the same, constant, modest

force on the pedal, but just before
the halt, reduce the force on the
pedal, optimally releasing the
pedal fully, exactly when the car
stops.
The reason for the by far bigger jerk in the first way to brake is
a discontinuity of the acceleration, which is initially at
a constant value, due to the constant force on the pedal,
and drops to zero immediately, when the wheels stop rotating.
Note that there would be no jerk if the car started to
move backwards with the same acceleration. Every experienced
driver knows how to start and how to stop braking with low jerk.
See also below in the motion profile, segment 7: Deceleration
ramp-down.
For some remarks on how the human
perception of various motions is organized
in the proprioceptors, the vestibular organ
and by visual impressions, and how to
deceive it, see the article on motion
simulators.
Forces and path

derivatives[edit]
Position itself, zeroth
derivative[edit]
The most prominent force
associated
with the position of a particle relates
via Hooke's Law to the rigid stiffness
of
a spring.
This is a force opposing the increase in
displacement.
Speed , magnitude of the first

derivative[edit]
A particle moving in a viscous fluid
environment experiences a drag
force
, which, depending on
the Reynolds number and its area,
ranges between being proportional
to up to being proportional to
according to the drag equation:
where
is the density of the fluid,
is the speed of the object relative to the fluid,
is the cross-sectional area, and
is the drag coefficient a dimensionless number.
The drag
coefficient
depends on the
scalable shape of
the object and on
the Reynolds
number, which
itself depends on
the speed.
Acceleration a
, magnitude of
the second
derivative[edit]
The
acceleration
according
to Newton's
Second Law
is
bound to a
force , via
the
proportionality
given by the
mass .
Higher
derivatives
[edit]
In classical
mechanics of
rigid bodies
there are no
forces associa
ted with the
higher
derivatives of
the path,
nevertheless
not only the
physiological
effects of jerk,
but also
oscillations
and
deformation
propagation
along and in
non-ideally
rigid bodies,
require
various
techniques for
controlling
motion to
avoid the
resulting
destructive
forces. It is
often reported
(where?)
that NASA in
designing
the Hubble
Telescope not
only limited
the jerk in
their
requirement
specification,
but also the
next higher
derivative,
the jounce.
For a recoil
force on
accelerating c
harged particl
es emitting
radiation,
which is
proportional to
their jerk and
the square of
their charge,
see
the Abraham
Lorentz force.
A more
advanced
theory,
applicable in a
relativistic and
quantum
environment,
accounting
for self-energy
is provided
in Wheeler
Feynman
absorber
theory.
Jerk in
an
idealized
setting[edi
t]
In real world
environments,
because
of deformation
, granularity at
least at
the Planck
scale, i.e.
quanta-
effects, and
other reasons,
discontinuities
in acceleration
do not occur.
However,
frequently
used idealized
settings (rigid
bodies,
smooth
representation
s of paths, no
friction, and
the like)
applied to an
also
idealized point
mass moving
along
apiecewise s
mooth and as
a whole
continuous
path, suffice
for the
phenomenon
of a jumpdiscontinuity
in acceleration
at the points
where the
path is not
smooth, and
accordingly for
an unbounded
jerk in this
simplified
model of
classical
mechanics
(see two
examples
below).
Extrapolating
from the
idealized
settings, the
effect of jerk in
real situations
can be
qualitatively
described,
explained and
predicted.
The jumpdiscontinuity
in acceleration
may be
modeled by
a Dirac
delta in the
jerk, scaled
with the height
of this jump.
Integrating
jerk over time
generally
gives the
according
acceleration;
doing so
across such a
Dirac delta
reconstructs
exactly the
jump
discontinuity
in the
acceleration
belonging to
the Dirac delta
in the jerk.
Assume a
path along a
circular arc
with radius ,
which tangenti
ally connects
to a straight
line. The
whole path is
continuous
and its pieces
are smooth.
Now let a
point particle
move with
constant
speed along
this path, so
its tangential
acceleration is
zero, and
consider the
acceleration
orthogonal to
the path: it is
zero along the
straight part
and
alon
g the circle
(centripetal
acceleration).
This gives a
jumpdiscontinuity
in the
magnitude of
the
acceleration
by
, and
the particle
undergoes a
jerk measured
by a Dirac
delta scaled
with this
value, for
purely
geometric
reasons, when
it passes the
connection of
the pieces.
See below for
a more
concrete
application.
If we assume
an
idealized sprin
g and
idealized, kine
tic frictional
forces,
proportional to
the normal
force and
directed
oppositely to
the velocity,
there is
another
example of
discontinuous
acceleration.
Let a mass,
connected to
an ideal
spring,
oscillate on a
flat, idealized
surface with
friction. Each
time the
velocity
changes sign
(at the
maxima
ofdisplacemen
t), the
magnitude of
the force on
the mass,
which is the
vectorial sum
of the spring
force and the

kinetic
frictional force,
changes by
twice the
magnitude of
the frictional
force, since
the spring
force is
continuous
and the
frictional
force reverses
its direction
when the
velocity does.
Therefore the
acceleration
jumps by this
amount
divided by the
mass. That is,
the mass
experiences a
discontinuous
acceleration
and the jerk
contains a
Dirac delta,
each time the
mass passes
through the
(decreasing)
maximal
displacements
, until it comes
to a halt,
because the
static friction
force adapts
to the residual
spring force,
establishing
equilibrium
with zero net
force and zero
velocity.
The car
example relies
on the way
the brakes op
erate on a
rotating drum
or on a disc.
As long as the
disc rotates
the brake
pads act to
decelerate the
vehicle via the

kinetic
frictional
forces which
create a
constant
braking torque
on the disk.
This
decreases the
rotation linearl
y to zero
with constant
angular
acceleration,
but when the
rotation
reaches
exactly zero,
this hitherto
constant
frictional
force suddenl
y drops to
zero, as well
as the torque,
and the
associated
acceleration of
the car. This,
of course,
neglects all
effects of tire
sliding,
dipping of
suspension,
real deflection
of all ideally
rigid
mechanisms,
etc. A sudden
drop in
acceleration
indicates a
Dirac delta in
the physical je
rk, which is
smoothed
down by
the real enviro
nment, the
cumulative
effects of
which are
analogous to
damping, to
the physiologi
cally perceive
d jerk.
Another
example of
significant
jerk,
analogous to
the first
setting, is
given by
cutting the
rope twirling a
particle
around a
center. When
the rope is
cut, the
circular path
with non-zero
centripetal
acceleration
changes
abruptly to a
straight path
with suddenly
no force in the
direction to
the former
center.
Imagine a
monomolecula
r fiber, cut by
a laser and
you arrive at
very high
rates of jerk,
because of
the extremely
short cutting
time.
Jerk in
rotation[e
dit]
Animation
showing a
fourposition
external
Geneva
drive in
operation
Timing
diagram
over one
rev. for
angle,
angular
velocity,
angular
acceleration
, and
angular jerk
Consider a
rotational
movement of
a rigid body
about a fixed
axis in
an inertial
frame. The
orientation of
the solid can
be expressed
by an angle ,
the angular
position, from
which one can
express:
the angular speed
as the time
derivative of
the angular acceleration
derivative of
as the time
.
Differ
entiati
ng
the
with
respe
ct to
time,
define
s an
angul
ar
jerk
:
.
T
h
e
a
n
g
ul
ar
a
cc
el
er
at
io
n
c
or
re
s
p
o
n
d
s
to
th
e
q
u
ot
ie
nt
of
th
e
to
rq
u
e
a
cti
n
g
o
n
th
e
b
o
d
y
a
n
d
th
e
m
o
m
e
nt
of
in
er
ti
a
of
th
e
b
o
d
y
wi
th
re
s
p
e
ct
to
th
e
m
o
m
e
nt
ar
y
a
xi
s
of
ro
ta
ti
o
n.
A
n
a
br
u
pt
c
h
a
n
g
e
of
th
e
to
rq
u
e
re
s
ul
ts
in
a
n
i
m
p
or
ta
nt
a
n
g
ul
ar
je
rk
.
T
h
e
g
e
n
er
al
c
a
s
e
of
a
ri
gi
d
b
o
d
y
m
o
v
e
m
e
nt
in
s
p
a
c
e
c
a
n
b
e
m
o
d
el
e
d
b
y
a
ki
n
e
m
at
ic
sc
re
w,
w
hi
c
h
s
p
e
cif
ie
s
at
e
a
c
h
in
st
a
nt
o
n
e
(a
xi
al
)
v
e
ct
or
,
th
e
a
n
g
ul
ar
v
el
o
cit
y
a
n
d
o
n
e
(p
ol
ar
)
v
e
ct
or
,
th
e
lin
e
ar
v
el
o
cit
y
.
Fr
o
m
th
is
th
e
a
n
g
ul
ar
a
cc
el
er
at
io
n
is
d
ef
in
e
d
a
s
a
n
d
th
u
s
th
e
a
n
g
ul
ar
je
rk
.
Consi
der
for
exam
ple
a Gen
eva
drive,
a
devic
e for
creati
ng an
interm
ittent
rotatio
n of
the
driven
wheel
(blue)
from a
contin
uous
rotatio
n of
the
drivin
g
wheel
(red).
On
one
cycle
of the
drivin
g
wheel
there
is a
variati
on of
the
angul
ar
positi
on
of the
driven
wheel
by
one
quarte
r of a
cycle,
and a
const
ant
angul
ar
positi
on on
the
remai
nder
of the
cycle.
Becau
se of
the
neces
sary
finite
thickn
ess of
the
fork
makin
g up
the
slot
for the
drivin
g pin
this
devic
e
gener
ates a
disco
ntinuit
y in
the
angul
ar
accel
eratio
n ,
and
theref
ore an
unbou
nded
angul
ar
jerk
in the
driven
wheel
.
This
does
not
preclu
de the
mech
anism
from
being
used
in e.g.
movie
projec
tors to
stepwi
se
transp
ort the
film
with
high
reliabi
lity
(very
long
life)
and
just
slight
noise,
since
the
load
is
very
low the
syste
m
drives
just
that
part of
the
film
which
is
within
the
corrid
or of
projec
tion,
so a
very
low
mass
(a few
centi
meter
s thin
plastic
film),
with
low
frictio
n, at a
moder
ate
speed
(2.4 m
/s,
8.6 k
m/h)
is
affect
ed.
Dual
cam
drives
1/6 per
revolut
ion
1/3 per
revolut
ion
To
avoid
the
jerk
inhere
nt in a
single
cam
devic
e, a
dual
cam
devic
e can
be
used
instea
d,
bulkie
r and
more
expen
sive,
but
also
quiete
r. This
operat
es
two
cams
on
one
axis in
contin
uous
rotatio
n and
shiftin
g
anoth
er
axle
about
a
fractio
n of a
full
revolu
tion.
The
pictur
es
show
a step
drive
by
one
sixth
and
one
third
rotatio
n,
respe
ctively
per
full
revolu
tion of
the
drivin
g
axle.
Note
that
two of
the
arms
of the
stepp
ed
wheel
are
alway
s in
conta
ct with
the
doubl
e
cam,
so
there
is no
radial
cleara
nce.
To
follow
the
detail
ed
operat
ion of
the
dual
cam
devic
es it is
advis
able
to
have
a look
at the
enlarg
ed
pictur
es.
Gener
ally,
combi
ned
conta
cts
may
be
used
to
avoid
jerk
(and
also
wear
and
noise)
associ
ated
with
one
single
follow
er,
e.g.
glidin
g
along
a slot
and
thereb
y
chang
ing its
conta
ct
point
from
one
side
of the
slot to
the
other,
by
using
two
follow
ers
alway
s
sliding
along
the
same,
one
side
each.
Jer
k in
elas
tica
lly
def
orm
able
mat
ter[
edit]
Compre
sion
wave
pattern
Plane
wave
Cylindrica
symmetry
A
force/
accel
eratio
n
acting
on an
elastic
ally
defor
mable
mass
will
affect
a defo
rmatio
n whic
h
depen
ds on
itsstiff
ness
and
the
accel
eratio
n
applie
d. If
the
chang
e of
this
force
is
slow,
the
jerk is
small,
and
the
propa
gation
of this
defor
matio
n
throug
h the
body
may
be
consi
dered
instan
taneo
usly
comp
ared
to the
chang
e in
accel
eratio
n. The
distort
ed
body
acts
as if it
were
in
a qua
sistatic
regim
e. It is
the
comm
on
thread
that
only a
chang
ing
force,
i.e. a
nonzero
jerk,
can
cause
mech
anical
(or on
a
charg
ed
particl
e:
electr
omag
netic)
waves
to be
radiat
ed.
So for
nonzero
to
high
jerk
a sho
ck
wave
and
its pro
pagati
onthro
ugh
the
body
is to
be
consi
dered.
The
left
pictur
e
shows
the
propa
gation
of a
defor
matio
n as a
compr
essio
nal, pl
ane
wave
throug
h an
elastic
ally
defor
mable
materi
al. For
angul
ar jerk
the
defor
matio
n
waves
are
arran
ged ci
rcularl
y and
cause
shear
stress
as
show
n in
the
pictur
e to
the
right,
which
also
might
cause
other
mode
s of
vibrati
on. As
usual
with
waves
, one
has to
consi
der
their
reflect
ions
along
all
bound
aries
and
the
emerg
ing int
erfere
nce
patter
ns,
i.e.
destru
ctive
as
well
as
constr
uctive
interfe
rence,
which
may
lead
to
excee
ding
bound
aries
of stru
ctural
integri
ty. As
a
rough
estim
ate
the
defor
matio
n
waves
result
in vibr
ations
of the
whole
devic
e and,
gener
ally,
vibrati
ons
cause
noise,
wear,
and,
espec
ially in
reson
ance
cases
, even
disrup
tion.
Pole
with
massiv
e top
The
pictur
e to
the
left
shows
a
massi
ve top
bendi
ng the
elastic
pole,
to
which
it is
conne
cted,
to the
left,
when
the
botto
m
block
is
accel
erated
to the
right.
When
the
block
stops
accel
eratin
g, the
top on
the
pole
will
start a
(damp
ed)
oscilla
tion
under
the
regim
e of
the
stiffne
ss of
the
pole.
This
could
make
plausi
ble,
how a
bigger
(perio
dic)
jerk
might
excite
a
bigger
amplit
ude of
the
oscilla
tions,
becau
se
any
small
oscilla
tions
are
damp
ed
before
they
get
reinfor
ced
by
anoth
er
amplit
ude of
the
shock
wave.
Sinusoida
accelerat
n profile
One
can
also
argue
that
a stee
per sl
ope of
the
accel
eratio
n, i.e.
a
bigger
jerk,
excite
s
bigger
wave
comp
onent
s in
the
shock
wave
with
higher
freque
ncies,
belon
ging
to
higher
Fourie
r
coeffi
cients
, and
so an
increa
sed
proba
bility
of
excitin
g
a reso
nant
mode.
As a
gener
al
rule,
to
reduc
e the
amplit
ude of
excite
d
stress
waves
,
causi
ng
vibrati
ons,
any
motio
n of
massi
ve
parts
has to
be
shape
d by
limitin
g the
jerk,
i.e.
makin
g the
accel
eratio
n
contin
uous
and
keep
its
slope
s as
flat as
possi
ble.
Since
the
descri
bed
effect
s are
almos
t not
amen
able
to
abstra
ct
model
s
anym
ore,
the
variou
s
sugge
sted
algorit
hms
for
reduci
ng
vibrati
ons
includ
e still
higher
deriva
tives
such
as
the jo
unce
or
sugge
st
contin
uous
regim
es not
only
for the
accel
eratio
n, but
also
for the
jerk.
One
conce
pt is
e.g.
shapi
ng the
accel
eratio
n and
decel
eratio
n
sinus
oidal
with
zeroaccel
eratio
n in
betwe
en
(see
the
profile
to the
right),
makin
g the
speed
look
sinus
oidal
with
const
ant
maxi
mal
speed
, too.
The
jerk
howe
ver
will
remai
n
disco
ntinuo
us at
the
points
when
the
accel
eratio
n
enters
and
leave
s its
zerophase
s.
App
lied
con
side
rati
ons
of
Jer
k[edi
t]
Althou
gh
jerk is
not
directl
y
involv
ed in
Newto
n's
Laws,
it has
to be
consi
dered
in eng
ineeri
ng in
variou
s
place
s.
Norm
ally,
only
speed
and
accel
eratio
n are
used
for
analy
sis.
For
exam
ple,
the
jerk
produ
ced
by
falling
from o
uter
space
to the
Earth
is not
partic
ularly
useful
given
the gr
avitati
onal
accel
eratio
n cha
nges
very
slowly
.
Some
times
the
analy
sis
has to
includ
e the
jerk
for a
partic
ular
reaso
n.
Geo
metr
ic
desi
gn
of
road
s
and
trac
ks[e
dit]
Easemen
curve
The
princi
ples
of
geom
etric
desig
n
apply
to the
jerk
orient
ed
orthog
onally
to the
path
of
motio
n,
consi
dering
the
centri
petal
accel
eratio
n,
where
as the
velocit
y
along
the
path
is
assu
med
to be
const
ant,
and
so the
tange
ntial
jerk is
zero.
Any
chang
e in
curvat
ure of
the
path
implie
s nonzero
jerk,
arisin
g from
purely
geom
etric
reaso
ns. To
avoid
the
unbou
nded
(centri
petal)
jerk
when
movin
g from
a
straig
ht
path
into a
curve
or
vice
versa,
track
transit
ion
curve
s are
constr
ucted,
which
limit
the
jerk
by
gradu
ally
increa
sing
the
centri
petal
accel
eratio
n, i.e.
the
curvat
ure, to
the
value
that
belon
gs to
the
radius
of the
circle
and
the
speed
of
travel.
The
theore
tical
optim
um is
achie
ved
by
theEul
er
spiral,
which
linearl
y
increa
ses
the
accel
eratio
n, i.e.
minim
al
const
ant
jerk.
As a
desig
n rule
a
maxi
mum
value
of
0.5 m/
s3 and
for
conve
nienc
e
purpo
ses a
value
of
0.35
m/s3 a
re
recom
mend
ed in
railwa
y
desig
n. The
pictur
e
shows
a
piece
of an
Euler
spiral
leadin
g as
track
transit
ion
curve
from a
straig
ht line
to an
arc of
a
circle.
In the
real
scena
rio the
plane
of the
track
is
incline
d in
the
cours
e of
the
curve
and
so
also
this
vertic
al
accel
eratio
n of
the
neces
sary
lifting
of the
center
of
mass
of the
rail
car
has to
be
consi
dered
to
minim
ize
the
wear
on the
emba
nkme
nt and
the
tracks
by
followi
ng a
slightl
y
differe
nt
curve.
This
has
been
patent
ed as
the W
iener
Kurve
(Vien
nese
Curve
).[2][3]
Roller
coast
ers[1] a
re of
cours
e also
subje
ct to
these
desig
n
consi
derati
ons,
when
rolling
into a
loop.
The
accel
eratio
n
value
s
range
up to
4g in
this
enviro
nment
and it
would
not be
possi
ble to
ride
loopin
gs
witho
ut
track
transit
ions,
as
well
as
one
canno
t
smoot
hly
drive
along
a
figure
eight
consis
ting of
circles
.
Any S
shape
d
curve
must
contai
n
some
jerkreduci
ng
transit
ion.
Moti
on
cont
rol[e
dit]
In mot
ion
contro
l the
focus
is on
straig
ht
linear
motio
n,
where
the
need
is to
move
a
syste
m
from
one
stead
y
positi
on to
anoth
er
(pointtopoint
motio
n). So
effecti
vely,
the
jerk
resulti
ng
from
tange
ntial
accel
eratio
n is
under
contro
l.
Promi
nent
applic
ations
are
elevat
ors in
peopl
e
transp
ortatio
n, and
the
suppo
rt of
tools
in
machi
ning.
It is
report
ed[4] th
at
most
passe
ngers
rate a
vertic
al jerk
of
2.0 m/
s3 in a
lift
ride
as
accep
table,
6.0 m/
s3 as
intoler
able
and
for a
hospit
al
enviro
nment
0.7 m/
s3 is
sugge
sted.
In any
case,
limitin
g jerk
is
consi
dered
essen
tial for
riding
conve
nienc
e.[5] IS
O 18
738[6]
define
s how
to
meas
ure
elevat
or ride
qualit
y with
respe
ct to
jerk,
accel
eratio
n,
vibrati
ons
and
noise,
but
does
not
ventur
e into
defini
ng
what
are
differe
nt
levels
of
elevat
or ride
qualit
y.
Achie
ving
the
shorte
st
possi
ble
transit
ion
time,
thereb
y not
excee
ding
given
limit
magni
tudes
for
speed
,
accel
eratio
n, and
jerk,
will
result
in a
thirdorder
motio
n
profile
, with
quadr
atic
rampi
ng
and
derampi
ng
phase
s in
the
velocit
y, as
illustr
ated
below
:
This
motio
n
profile
consis
ts of
up to
seven
segm
ents
define
d by
the
followi
ng:
1. acce
ratio
build
up: l
mit
jerk
plies
near
incre
se o
acce
ratio
to
the l
it
acce
ratio
quad
atic
incre
se o
spee
2. limit
acce
ratio
: imp
es z
o
jerk
d lin
r
incre
se o
spee
3. acce
ratio
ram
dow
appr
achi
the
desi
d lim
velo
y wit
nega
ve
limit
jerk,
i.e. l
ear
decr
ase
acce
ratio
(neg
ive)
quad
atic
incre
se o
spee
4. limit
spee
: imp
es z
o
jerk
d ze
acce
ratio
5. dece
erat
n
build
up:
mit
nega
ve
jerk
plies
near
decr
ase
acce
ratio
to
the n
gativ
limit
acce
ratio
(neg
ive)
quad
atic
decr
ase
spee
6. limit
dece
erat
n: im
ies z
o
jerk
d lin
r
decr
ase
spee
7. dece
erat
n
ram
dow
limit
jerk
plies
near
incre
se o
acce
ratio
to
zero
quad
atic
decr
ase
spee
appr
achi
the
desi
d
posi
n at
zero
spee
and
zero
acce
ratio
The
time
allotte
d to
segm
ent 4,
conce
rning
const
ant
velocit
y, is to
be
varied
to suit
the
distan
ce
betwe
en the
two
positi
ons. If
the
initial
and
final
positi
ons
are so
close
togeth
er that
a
compl
ete
omissi
on of
this 4.
segm
ent
does
not
suffic
e, the
segm
ents
2. and
6.
with
const
ant
accel
eratio
n are
equall
y
reduc
ed
and
the
limit
of
speed
would
not be
reach
ed in
this
varian
t of
the
profile
. If
also
this
does
not
reduc
e the
cross
ed
distan
ce
suffici
ently,
in a
next
step
the
rampi
ng
segm
ents
1., 3.,
5.,
and 7.
are to
be
shorte
ned
by an
equal
amou
nt and
the
limit
of
accel
eratio
n is
not
reach
ed,
also.
There
are
also
other
strate
gies
to
desig
na
motio
n
profile
, e.g.
minim
izing
the
squar
e of
the
jerk
for a
given
transit
ion
time,
to be
select
ed
accor
ding
to the
varyin
g
applic
ations
in
machi
nes,
peopl
e
mover
s,
chain
hoists
,
autom
otive
indust
ries,
robot
desig
n, and
many
more.
For a
sinus
oidalshape
d
accel
eratio
n
profile
, with
sinus
oidalshape
d
speed
and
bound
ed
jerk
also,
see
above
.
Jerk
in
man
ufac
turin
g[edi
t]
Jerk
is also
import
ant to
consi
der
in ma
nufact
uring
proce
sses.
Rapid
chang
es in
accel
eratio
n of a
cuttin
g tool
can
lead
to
prema
ture
tool
wear
and
result
in
uneve
n
cuts.
This
is why
moder
n moti
on
contro
llers i
nclud
e jerk
limitati
on
featur
es. In
mech
anical
engin
eering
, jerk
is
consi
dered,
in
additi
on to
velocit
y and
accel
eratio
n, in
the
devel
opme
nt of
cam
profile
s
becau
se
of trib
ologic
al imp
licatio
ns
and
the
ability
of the
actuat
ed
body
to
follow
the
cam
profile
witho
ut cha
tter.[7]
Jerk
must
be
often
consi
dered
when
the
excita
tion of
vibrati
ons is
a
conce
rn. A
devic
e that
meas
ures
jerk is
called
a
"jerkm
eter".
See
also
[edit]
Jo
un
ce
,
th
e
de
riv
ati
ve
of
jer
k
G
eo
m
ag
ne
tic
jer
k
Ab
ra
ha
m
Lo
re
nt
z
for
ce
,a
for
ce
in
el
ec
tro
dy
na
mi
cs
w
ho
se
m
ag
nit
ud
e
is
pr
op
ort
io
na
l
to
jer
k
Sh
oc
k
(m
ec
ha
ni
cs
)
W
he
el
er
Fe
yn
m
an
ab
so
rb
er
th
eo
ry
Not
es[e
dit]
1.
^ Jum
up
to:a b
ow
Thing
Work
Rolle
Coas
rs The
Tarta
Onlin
.
Thet
an.or
2007
04-1
Retri
ed 20
3-09
15.
2.
Jum
up^
ps://d
patis
t.dpm
de/D
atisN
/depa
snet?
wind
=1&s
ace=
enu&
onten
treffe
actio
pdf&
cid=A
0000
4129
B
3.
Jum
up^
p://w
w.mp
sm.a
g/dow
load/
esle05.pd
4.
Jum
up^
owki
, Rog
E. "E
vator
Ride
Qual
- The
Hum
Ride
Expe
ence
VFZVerla
fr
Zielg
ppen
orma
onen
Gmb
& Co
KG.
Retri
ed 31
Dece
ber 2
14.
5.
Jum
up^
p://w
w.sch
dler.c
m/co
ent/ie
ntern
/en/m
bility
solut
ns/pr
ucts/
evato
/schi
ler5300
cr_co
ent/r
tPar/
wnlo
ist/do
nload
st/3_
4003
1186
down
ad.as
et.3_
4003
1186
05SM
9039
nform
Shee
EN.p
6.
Jum
up^
O
1873
1:201
. "Me
surem
ent o
ride
quali
-- Pa
1: Lif
(elev
ors)"
Inter
tiona
Orga
zatio
for
Stan
rdiza
n.
Retri
ed 31
Dece
ber 2
14.
7.
Jum
up^
air, G
"Mak
g the
Cam
Race
Engi
Tech
logy
,
Sept
mber
ctobe
2005
Ref
ere
nce
s[edit
]
S
pr
ott
J
C
(2
00
3)
.
C
ha
os
an
d
Ti
m
e-
S
eri
es
A
na
ly
si
s.
O
xf
or
d
U
ni
ve
rsi
ty
Pr
es
s.
IS
B
N
019
85
08
39
5.
S
pr
ott
J
C
(1
99
7)
."
S
o
m
e
si
m
pl
e
ch
ao
tic
jer
k
fu
nc
tio
ns
"(
P
DF
).
A
m
J
P
hy
s
65
(6
):
53
7
43
.
Bi
bc
od
e:
19
97
A
m
J
P
h..
65
..5
37
S.
do
i:1
0.
11
19
/1.
18
58
5.
R
et
rie
ve
d
20
09
09
28
.
Bl
air
G
(2
00
5)
."
M
ak
in
g
th
e
C
a
m
"(
P
DF
).
R
ac
e
E
ng
in
e
Te
ch
no
lo
gy
(0
10
).
R
et
rie
ve
d
20
09
09
29
.
Ext
ern
al
link
s[edit
]
W
ha
t
is
th
e
ter
m
us
ed
for
th
e
thi
rd
de
riv
ati
ve
of
po
siti
on
?,
de
sc
rip
tio
n
of
jer
k
in
th
e
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en
et
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ysi
cs
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Q
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at
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ati
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oti
on
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ofi
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rid
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ev
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uf
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Kinematics
"Kinematic" redirects here. For the Australian band, see Kinematic (band).
Classical mechanics
Second law of motion
History
Timeline
Branches[hide]
Applied
Celestial
Continuum
Dynamics
Kinematics
Kinetics
Statics
Statistical
Fundamentals[show]
Formulations[show]
Core topics[show]
Rotation[show]
Scientists[show]
Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points, bodies
(objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the causes of motion. [1][2]
[3]
Kinematics as a field of study is often referred to as the "geometry of motion". [4][5][6] For further
details, see Analytical dynamics.
To describe motion, kinematics studies the trajectories of points, lines, other geometric objects, and
their differential properties such as velocity and acceleration. Kinematics is used in astrophysics to
describe the motion of celestial bodies and systems, and inmechanical engineering, robotics,
and biomechanics[7] to describe the motion of systems composed of joined parts (multi-link systems)
such as an engine, a robotic arm or the skeleton of the human body.
The study of kinematics can be abstracted into purely mathematical functions. For
instance, rotation can be represented by elements of the unit circle in the complex plane.
Other planar algebras are used to represent the shear mapping of classical motion in absolute time
and space and to represent the Lorentz transformations of relativistic space and time. By
using time as a parameter in geometry, mathematicians have developed a science of kinematic

geometry.
The use of geometric transformations, also called rigid transformations, to describe the movement of
components of a mechanical system simplifies the derivation of its equations of motion, and is
central to dynamic analysis.
Kinematic analysis is the process of measuring the kinematic quantities used to describe motion. In
engineering, for instance, kinematic analysis may be used to find the range of movement for a
given mechanism, and, working in reverse, kinematic synthesis designs a mechanism for a desired
range of motion.[8] In addition, kinematics applies algebraic geometry to the study of the mechanical
advantage of a mechanical system or mechanism.
Contents
[hide]
1Etymology of the term
2Kinematics of a particle trajectory

o
2.1Velocity and speed
2.2Acceleration
2.3Relative position vector
2.4Relative velocity
3Particle trajectories under constant acceleration
4Particle trajectories in cylindrical-polar coordinates
4.1Constant radius
4.2Planar circular trajectories
5Point trajectories in a body moving in the plane

o
5.1Displacements and motion
5.2Matrix representation
6Pure translation
7Rotation of a body around a fixed axis
8Point trajectories in body moving in three dimensions
8.1Position
8.2Velocity
8.3Acceleration
9Kinematic constraints
o
9.1Kinematic coupling
9.2Rolling without slipping
9.3Inextensible cord
9.4Kinematic pairs
9.5Kinematic chains
10See also
11References
12Further reading
13External links
Etymology of the term[edit]

The term kinematic is the English version of A.M. Ampre's cinmatique,[9] which he constructed from
the Greek kinema ("movement, motion"), itself derived from kinein ("to move").[10][11]
Kinematic and cinmatique are related to the French word cinma, but neither are directly derived
from it. However, they do share a root word in common, as cinma came from the shortened form of
cinmatographe, "motion picture projector and camera," once again from the Greek word for
movement but also the Greek word for writing. [12]
Kinematics of a particle trajectory[edit]
Kinematic quantities of a classical particle: mass m, position r, velocity v, acceleration a.
Position vector r, always points radially from the origin.
Velocity vector v, always tangent to the path of motion.
Acceleration vector a, not parallel to the radial motion but offset by the angular and Coriolis accelerations, nor
tangent to the path but offset by the centripetal and and radial accelerations.
Kinematic vectors in plane polar coordinates. Notice the setup is not restricted to 2d space, but a plane in any
higher dimension.
Particle kinematics is the study of the properties of the trajectory of a particle. The position of a
particle is defined to be the coordinate vector from the origin of a coordinate frame to the particle. For
example, consider a tower 50 m south from your home, where the coordinate frame is located at
your home, such that East is the x-direction and North is the y-direction, then the coordinate vector to
the base of the tower is r=(0, -50, 0). If the tower is 50 m high, then the coordinate vector to the top
of the tower is r=(0, -50, 50).
Usually a three-dimensional coordinate systems is used to define the position of a particle. However,
if the particle is constrained to lie in a plane or on a sphere, a two-dimensional coordinate system
can be used. All observations in physics are incomplete without the reference frame being specified.
The position vector of a particle is a vector drawn from the origin of the reference frame to the
particle. It expresses both the distance of the point from the origin and its direction from the origin. In
three dimensions, the position of point P can be expressed as
where xP, yP, and zP are the Cartesian coordinates and i, j and k are
the unit vectors along the x, y, and z coordinate axes, respectively.
The magnitude of the position vector |P| gives the distance between
the point P and the origin.
The direction cosines of the position vector provide a

quantitative measure of direction. It is important to note that the
position vector of a particle isn't unique. The position vector of a
given particle is different relative to different frames of
reference.
The trajectory of a particle is a vector function of time, P(t),
which defines the curve traced by the moving particle, given by
where the coordinates xP, yP, and zP are each functions of

time.
The distance travelled is always greater than or equal to the

displacement.
Velocity and speed[edit]

The velocity of a particle is a vector quantity that tells about
the direction and magnitude of the rate of change of the
position vector, that is, how the position of a point changes
with each instant of time. Consider the ratio of the difference
of two positions of a particle divided by the time interval,
which is called the average velocity over that time interval.
This average velocity is defined as
where P is the difference in the position vector over

the time interval t.
In the limit as the time interval t becomes smaller and
smaller, the average velocity becomes the time
derivative of the position vector,
Thus, velocity is the time rate of change of position,

and the dot denotes the derivative with respect to
time. Furthermore, the velocity is tangent to the
trajectory of the particle.
As a position vector itself is frame dependent,
therefore its velocity is also dependent on the
reference frame.
The speed of an object is the magnitude |V| of its
velocity. It is a scalar quantity:
where s is the arc-length measured along the

trajectory of the particle. This arc-length
traveled by a particle over time is a nondecreasing quantity. Hence, ds/dt is nonnegative, which implies that speed is also nonnegative.
Acceleration[edit]
The acceleration of a particle is the vector
defined by the rate of change of the velocity
vector. The average acceleration of a particle

over a time interval is defined as the ratio.
where V is the difference in the velocity

vector and t is the time interval.
The acceleration of the particle is the limit
of the average acceleration as the time
interval approaches zero, which is the time
derivative,
Thus, acceleration is the second

derivative of the position vector that
defines the trajectory of a particle.
Relative position vector[edit]

A relative position vector is a vector
that defines the position of a particle
relative to another particle. It is the
difference in position of the two
particles.
If point A has position PA = (xA,yA,zA)
and point B has position PB = (xB,yB,zB),
the displacement RB/A of B from A is
given by:
Geometrically, the relative position

vector RB/A is the vector from
point A to point B. The values of
the coordinate vectors of points
vary with the choice of coordinate
frame, however the relative
position vector between a pair of
points has the same length no
matter what coordinate frame is
used and is said to be frame
invariant.
To describe the motion of a
particle B relative to another
particle A, we notice that the
position B can be formulated as
the position of A plus the position
of B relative to A, that is:
Relative velocity[edit]
Main article: Relative velocity
Relative velocities between

two particles in classical
mechanics.
The relations between relative

positions vectors become
relations between relative
velocities by computing the
time-derivative. The second
time derivative yields relations
for relative accelerations.
For example, let the
particle B move with
velocity VB and particle A move
with velocity VA in a given
reference frame. Then the
velocity of B relative to A is
given by:
This can be obtained by

computing the time
derivative of the relative
position vector RB/A.
This equation provides a
formula for the velocity
of B in terms of the velocity
of A and its relative
velocity,
With a large velocity V,

where the
fraction V/c is
significant, c being
the speed of light,
another scheme of
relative velocity
called rapidity, that
depends on this ratio,
is used in special
relativity.
Particle
trajectories
under constant
acceleration[edi
t]
Newton's laws state
that a constant force
acting on a particle
generates a constant
acceleration. For
example, a particle in
a parallel gravity field
experiences a force
acting downwards that
is proportional to the
constant acceleration
of gravity, and no force
in the horizontal
direction. This is
called projectile
motion.
If the acceleration
vector A of a
particle P is constant
in magnitude and
direction, the particle
is said to be
undergoing uniformly
accelerated motion. In
this case, the
trajectory P(t) of the
particle can be
obtained by integrating
the acceleration A with
respect to time.
The first integral yields
the velocity of the
particle,
A second
integration yields
its trajectory,
Additional
relations
between
displacement,
velocity,
acceleration,
and time can
be derived.
Since A =
(V V0)/t,
By using
the
definition
of
an averag
e, this
equation
states that
when the
accelerati
on is
constant
average
velocity
times time
equals
displacem
ent.
A
relationshi
p without
explicit
time
dependen
ce may
also be
derived
using the
relation At
= V V0 ,
where
denot
es
the do
t
produ
ct.
Divide
both
sides
by t a
nd
expan
d the
dotprodu
cts to
obtain
,
In
th
e
c
a
s
e
of
st
ra
ig
ht
lin
e
m
ot
io
n,
w
h
er
e
P
a
n
d
P0
ar
e
p
ar
all
el
to
A,
th
is
e
q
u
at
io
n
b
e
c
o
m
e
s:
T
hi
s
c
a
n
b
e
si
m
pli
fi
e
d
u
si
n
g
th
e
n
ot
at
io
n
|
A|
=
a,
|
V|
=
v,
a
n
d
|
P|
=r
,
s
o
This
relatio
n is
useful
when
time
is not
know
n
explici
tly.
Figure 2:
Velocity
and
accelerat
n for
nonunifor
m circula
motion:
the
velocity
vector is
tangentia
to the
orbit, but
the
accelerat
n vector i
not radia
inward
because
its
tangentia
compone
t a that
increases
the rate o
rotation:
d/dt = |
a|/R.
Par
ticle
traj
ecto
ries
in
cyli
ndr
ical
pol
ar
coo
rdi
nat
es[e
dit]
See
also:
Gene
ralize
d
coordi
nates,
Curvil
inear
coordi
nates,
Ortho
gonal
coordi
nates
and F
renetSerret
formu
las
It is
often
conve
nient
to
formul
ate
the
traject
ory of
a
particl
e P(t)
=
(X(t),
Y(t)
and
Z(t))
using
polar
coordi
nates
in
the XY plan
e. In
this
case,
its
velocit
y and
accel
eratio
n take
a
conve
nient
form.
Recall
that
the
traject
ory of
a
particl
e P is
define
d by
its
coordi
nate
vector
P me
asure
d in a
fixed
refere
nce
frame
F. As
the
particl
e
move
s, its
coordi
nate
vector
P(t)
traces
its
traject
ory,
which
is a
curve
in
space
,
given
by:
where i,
and k ar
the unit
vectors
along
the X, Y
nd Z axe
of
the refer
nce
frame F,
respectiv
ly.
Conside
a
particle P
that
moves o
the
surface
a circula
cylinder,
is
possible
to align
the Z ax
of the
fixed
frame F
th the ax
of the
cylinder.
Then, th
angle
around
this axis
in the XY plane
can be
used to
define th
trajector
as,
The cylin
coordina
for P(t) c
simplifie
introduc
the radia
tangenti
vectors,
Using th
notation
takes the
where R
In gener
trajector
constrain
circular c
the radiu
with time
trajector
cylindric
coordina
The velo
the time
trajector
yields:
where
In this ca
which is
velocity
Consta
If the tra
constrain
the radiu
velocity
simplify.
derivativ
The acc
Planar
Each par
trajectory
A specia
circular c
moveme
where R
velocity
where
is the an
of the cy
The acc
The com
are calle
accelera
The nota
defined
so the ra
trajector
Point
plane
The mov
attachin
frames m
sufficien
used to
mechan
Geomet
the spac
invariant
school E
under co
transform
without c
Kinemat
a mecha
Euclidea
The coo
rigid tran
between
the Pyth
dimensio
denoted
Displa
The mov
modeled
The pos
defined
to a fixed
of M rela
displace
The set
space of
configur
the moti
set of ro
Matrix
The com
represen
transform
2x2 rota
These h
the plan
In partic
frame M
by the tr
relative
Homoge
necessa
projectiv
become
Pure
If a rigid
fixed fra
every po
Thus, fo
body are
where th
accelera
vector p
Rotat
Main art
Figure 1:
rotation,
Rotation
descripti
descripti
In what
The z-ax
Position
This allows the description of a rotation as the angular position
of a planar reference frame M relative to a fixed F about this
shared z-axis. Coordinates p=(x, y) in M are related to
coordinates P=(X, Y) in F by the matrix equation:
where
is the rotation matrix that defines the angular position

of M relative to F.
Velocity
If the point p does not move in M, its velocity in F is given by
It is convenient to eliminate the coordinates p and write this as

an operation on the trajectory P(t),
where the matrix
is known as the angular velocity matrix of M relative to F. The

parameter is the time derivative of the angle , that is:
Acceler
The acceleration of P(t) in F is obtained as the time derivative of
the velocity,
which becomes
where
is the angular acceleration matrix of M on F, and
The des
Ang
the p
Then
rotat
Ang
Ang
The angular velocity is represented in Figure 1 by a

vector pointing along the axis of rotation with
magnitude and sense determined by the direction of rotation
as given by the right-hand rule.
The equ
exchang
Here i a
accelera
a true ve
Point
Importan
importan
Positio
In order
the hom
traced in
This not
This equ
This exp
Velocit
The velo
The dot
This form
equation
The mat
where
is the an
Multiplyi
where th
is the po
is the ve
Accele
The acc
This equ
and
The form
or
where
is the re
is the ac
Kinem
Kinemat
construc
a plane,
Kinem
A kinem
Rolling
An objec
For the c
Inexten
This is th
this sum
this type
Kinem
Main art
Reuleau
between
Lower p
A lower
A rev
fixed
A pri
impo
A cy
is de
A sp
A pla
Higher p
General
a cam jo
Kinem
Illustratio
Rigid bo
number
Exampl
The plan
N=2
N=4
N=6
com
N=8
N=1
N=1
For large
See al
Che
Refer
1.
Jum
2.
Jum
3.
Jum
4.
Jum
5.
Jum
6.
Jum
7.
Jum
8.
Jum
9.
Jum
10. Jum
11. Jum
12. Jum
13. Jum
14. Jum
15. Jum
16. Jum
17. Jum
18. Jum
19. Jum
20. Jum
21. Jum
22. Jum
23. Jum
Furth
Koet
Moo
Edua
Exter
Java
Phys
Kine
Micr
Categor
Kine
Clas
Mec
Mec
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Speed of gravity
In classical theories of gravitation, the speed of gravity is the speed at which changes in
a gravitational field propagate. This is the speed at which a change in the distribution
ofenergy and momentum of matter results in subsequent alteration, at a distance, of the gravitational
field which it produces. In a more physically correct sense, the "speed of gravity" refers to the speed
of a gravitational wave, which should be the same speed as the speed of light (c).
Contents
[hide]
1Introduction
2Static fields
3Newtonian gravitation
4Laplace
5Electrodynamical analogies
o
5.1Early theories
5.2Lorentz
6Lorentz covariant models
7General relativity
o
7.1Background
7.2Aberration of field direction in general relativity, for a weakly

accelerated observer
7.3Formulaic conventions
7.4Possible experimental measurements
8References
9External links
Introduction[edit]
The speed of gravitational waves in the general theory of relativity is equal to the speed of light in
vacuum, c.[1] Within the theory of special relativity, the constant c is not exclusively about light;
instead it is the highest possible speed for any interaction in nature. Formally, c is a conversion factor
for changing the unit of time to the unit of space.[2]This makes it the only speed which does not
depend either on the motion of an observer or a source of light and/or gravity. Thus, the speed of
"light" is also the speed of gravitational waves and any other massless particle. Such particles
include the gluon (carrier of the strong force), the photons that make up light, and the
theoretical gravitonswhich make up the associated field particles of gravity (however a theory of the
graviton requires a theory of quantum gravity).
Static fields[edit]
The speed of physical changes in a gravitational or electromagnetic field should not be confused with
"changes" in the behavior of static fields that are due to pure observer-effects. These changes in
direction of a static field, because of relativistic considerations, are the same for an observer when a
distant charge is moving, as when an observer (instead) decides to move with respect to a distant
charge. Thus, constant motion of an observer with regard to a static charge and its extended static
field (either a gravitational or electric field) does not change the field. For static fields, such as the
electrostatic field connected with electric charge, or the gravitational field connected to a massive
object, the field extends to infinity, and does not propagate. Motion of an observer does not cause
the direction of such a field to change, and by symmetrical considerations, changing the observer
frame so that the charge appears to be moving at a constant rate, also does not cause the direction
of its field to change, but requires that it continue to "point" in the direction of the charge, at all
distances from the charge.
The consequence of this is that static fields (either electric or gravitational) always point directly to
the actual position of the bodies that they are connected to, without any delay that is due to any
"signal" traveling (or propagating) from the charge, over a distance to an observer. This remains true
if the charged bodies and their observers are made to "move" (or not), by simply changing reference
frames. This fact sometimes causes confusion about the "speed" of such static fields, which
sometimes appear to change infinitely quickly when the changes in the field are mere artifacts of the
motion of the observer, or of observation.
In such cases, nothing actually changes infinitely quickly, save the point of view of an observer of the
field. For example, when an observer begins to move with respect to a static field that already
extends over light years, it appears as though "immediately" the entire field, along with its source,
has begun moving at the speed of the observer. This, of course, includes the extended parts of the
field. However, this "change" in the apparent behavior of the field source, along with its distant field,
does not represent any sort of propagation that is faster than light.
Newtonian gravitation[edit]
Isaac Newton's formulation of a gravitational force law requires that each particle with mass respond
instantaneously to every other particle with mass irrespective of the distance between them. In
modern terms, Newtonian gravitation is described by the Poisson equation, according to which,
when the mass distribution of a system changes, its gravitational field instantaneously adjusts.
Therefore the theory assumes the speed of gravity to be infinite. This assumption was adequate to
account for all phenomena with the observational accuracy of that time. It was not until the 19th
century that an anomaly in astronomical observations which could not be reconciled with the
Newtonian gravitational model of instantaneous action was noted: the French astronomer Urbain Le
Verrier determined in 1859 that the elliptical orbit of Mercury precesses at a significantly different rate
from that predicted by Newtonian theory.[3]
Laplace[edit]
The first attempt to combine a finite gravitational speed with Newton's theory was made
by Laplace in 1805. Based on Newton's force law he considered a model in which the gravitational
field is defined as a radiation field or fluid. Changes in the motion of the attracting body are
transmitted by some sort of waves.[4] Therefore, the movements of the celestial bodies should be
modified in the order v/c, where v is the relative speed between the bodies and c is the speed of
gravity. The effect of a finite speed of gravity goes to zero as c goes to infinity, but not as 1/c2 as it
does in modern theories. This led Laplace to conclude that the speed of gravitational interactions is
at least 7106 times the speed of light. This velocity was used by many in the 19th century to criticize
any model based on a finite speed of gravity, like electrical or mechanical explanations of gravitation.
From a modern point of view, Laplace's analysis is incorrect. Not knowing about Lorentz' invariance
of static fields, Laplace assumed that when an object like the Earth is moving around the Sun, the
attraction of the Earth would not be toward the instantaneous position of the Sun, but toward where
the Sun had been if its position was retarded using the relative velocity (this retardation
actually does happen with the optical position of the Sun, and is called annual solar aberration).
Putting the Sun immobile at the origin, when the Earth is moving in an orbit of radius R with
velocity v presuming that the gravitational influence moves with velocity c, moves the Sun's true
position ahead of its optical position, by an amount equal to vR/c, which is the travel time of gravity
from the sun to the Earth times the relative velocity of the sun and the Earth. The pull of gravity (if it
behaved like a wave, such as light) would then be always displaced in the direction of the Earth's
velocity, so that the Earth would always be pulled toward the optical position of the Sun, rather than
its actual position. This would cause a pull ahead of the Earth, which would cause the orbit of the
Earth to spiral outward. Such an outspiral would be suppressed by an amount v/c compared to the
force which keeps the Earth in orbit; and since the Earth's orbit is observed to be stable,
Laplace's c must be very large. As is now known, it may be considered to be infinite in the limit of
straight-line motion, since as a static influence, it is instantaneous at distance, when seen by
observers at constant transverse velocity. For orbits in which velocity (direction of speed) changes
slowly, it is almost infinite.
The attraction toward an object moving with a steady velocity is towards its instantaneous position
with no delay, for both gravity and electric charge. In a field equation consistent with special relativity
(i.e., a Lorentz invariant equation), the attraction between static charges moving with constant
relative velocity, is always toward the instantaneous position of the charge (in this case, the
"gravitational charge" of the Sun), not the time-retarded position of the Sun. When an object is
moving in orbit at a steady speed but changing velocity v, the effect on the orbit is order v2/c2, and the
effect preserves energy and angular momentum, so that orbits do not decay.
Electrodynamical analogies[edit]
Early theories[edit]
At the end of the 19th century, many tried to combine Newton's force law with the established laws of
electrodynamics, like those of Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Carl Friedrich Gauss,Bernhard
Riemann and James Clerk Maxwell. Those theories are not invalidated by Laplace's critique,
because although they are based on finite propagation speeds, they contain additional terms which
maintain the stability of the planetary system. Those models were used to explain the perihelion
advance of Mercury, but they could not provide exact values. One exception was Maurice Lvy in
1890, who succeeded in doing so by combining the laws of Weber and Riemann, whereby the speed
of gravity is equal to the speed of light. So those hypotheses were rejected. [5][6]
However, a more important variation of those attempts was the theory of Paul Gerber, who derived in
1898 the identical formula, which was also derived later by Einstein for the perihelion advance.
Based on that formula, Gerber calculated a propagation speed for gravity of 305 000 km/s, i.e.
practically the speed of light. But Gerber's derivation of the formula was faulty, i.e., his conclusions
did not follow from his premises, and therefore many (including Einstein) did not consider it to be a
meaningful theoretical effort. Additionally, the value it predicted for the deflection of light in the
gravitational field of the sun was too high by the factor 3/2.[7][8][9]
Lorentz[edit]
In 1900 Hendrik Lorentz tried to explain gravity on the basis of his ether theory and the Maxwell
equations. After proposing (and rejecting) a Le Sage type model, he assumed likeOttaviano Fabrizio
Mossotti and Johann Karl Friedrich Zllner that the attraction of opposite charged particles is
stronger than the repulsion of equal charged particles. The resulting net force is exactly what is
known as universal gravitation, in which the speed of gravity is that of light. This leads to a conflict
with the law of gravitation by Isaac Newton, in which it was shown by Pierre Simon Laplace that a
finite speed of gravity leads to some sort of aberration and therefore makes the orbits unstable.
However, Lorentz showed that the theory is not concerned by Laplace's critique, because due to the
structure of the Maxwell equations only effects in the order v2/c2 arise. But Lorentz calculated that the
value for the perihelion advance of Mercury was much too low. He wrote: [10]
The special form of these terms may perhaps be modified. Yet, what has been said is sufficient to
show that gravitation may be attributed to actions which are propagated with no greater velocity than
that of light.
In 1908 Henri Poincar examined the gravitational theory of Lorentz and classified it as compatible
with the relativity principle, but (like Lorentz) he criticized the inaccurate indication of the perihelion
advance of Mercury.[11]
Lorentz covariant models[edit]
Henri Poincar argued in 1904 that a propagation speed of gravity which is greater than c would
contradict the concept of local time (based on synchronization by light signals) and the principle of
relativity. He wrote:[12]
What would happen if we could communicate by signals other than those of light, the velocity of
propagation of which differed from that of light? If, after having regulated our watches by the optimal
method, we wished to verify the result by means of these new signals, we should observe
discrepancies due to the common translatory motion of the two stations. And are such signals
inconceivable, if we take the view of Laplace, that universal gravitation is transmitted with a velocity a
million times as great as that of light?
However, in 1905 Poincar calculated that changes in the gravitational field can propagate with the
speed of light if it is presupposed that such a theory is based on the Lorentz transformation. He
wrote:[13]
Laplace showed in effect that the propagation is either instantaneous or much faster than that of
light. However, Laplace examined the hypothesis of finite propagation velocity ceteris non mutatis;
here, on the contrary, this hypothesis is conjoined with many others, and it may be that between
them a more or less perfect compensation takes place. The application of the Lorentz transformation
has already provided us with numerous examples of this.
Similar models were also proposed by Hermann Minkowski (1907) and Arnold Sommerfeld (1910).
However, those attempts were quickly superseded by Einstein's theory of general relativity.
[14]
Whitehead's theory of gravitation (1922) explains gravitational red shift, light bending, perihelion
shift and Shapiro delay.[15]
General relativity[edit]
Background[edit]
General relativity predicts that gravitational radiation should exist and propagate as a wave at
lightspeed: a slowly evolving and weak gravitational field will produce, according togeneral relativity,
effects like those of Newtonian gravitation.
Suddenly displacing one of two gravitoelectrically interacting particles would, after a delay
corresponding to lightspeed, cause the other to feel the displaced particle's absence: accelerations
due to the change in quadrupole moment of star systems, like the HulseTaylor binary have removed
much energy (almost 2% of the energy of our own Sun's output) as gravitational waves, which would
theoretically travel at the speed of light.
Two gravitoelectrically interacting particle ensembles, e.g., two planets or stars moving at constant
velocity with respect to each other, each feel a force toward the instantaneous position of the other
body without a speed-of-light delay because Lorentz invariance demands that what a moving body in
a static field sees and what a moving body that emits that field sees be symmetrical.
A moving body's seeing no aberration in a static field emanating from a "motionless body" therefore
causes Lorentz invariance to require that in the previously moving body'sreference frame the (now
moving) emitting body's field lines must not at a distance be retarded or aberred. Moving charged
bodies (including bodies that emit static gravitational fields) exhibit static field lines that bend not with
distance and show no speed of light delay effects, as seen from bodies moving with regard to them.
In other words, since the gravitoelectric field is, by definition, static and continuous, it does not
propagate. If such a source of a static field is accelerated (for example stopped) with regard to its
formerly constant velocity frame, its distant field continues to be updated as though the charged body
continued with constant velocity. This effect causes the distant fields of unaccelerated moving
charges to appear to be "updated" instantly for their constant velocity motion, as seen from distant
positions, in the frame where the source-object is moving at constant velocity. However, as
discussed, this is an effect which can be removed at any time, by transitioning to a new reference
frame in which the distant charged body is now at rest.
The static and continuous gravitoelectric component of a gravitational field is not
a gravitomagnetic component (gravitational radiation); see Petrov classification. The gravitoelectric
field is a static field and therefore cannot superluminally transmit quantized (discrete) information,
i.e., it could not constitute a well-ordered series of impulses carrying a well-defined meaning (this is
the same for gravity and electromagnetism).
Aberration of field direction in general relativity, for a weakly accelerated

observer[edit]
Main article: LinardWiechert potential
The finite speed of gravitational interaction in general relativity does not lead to the sorts of problems
with the aberration of gravity that Newton was originally concerned with, because there is no such
aberration in static field effects. Because the acceleration of the Earth with regard to the Sun is small
(meaning, to a good approximation, the two bodies can be regarded as traveling in straight lines past
each other with unchanging velocity) the orbital results calculated by general relativity are the same
as those of Newtonian gravity with instantaneous action at a distance, because they are modelled by
the behavior of a static field with constant-velocity relative motion, and no aberration for the forces
involved.[16] Although the calculations are considerably more complicated, one can show that a static
field in general relativity does not suffer from aberration problems as seen by an unaccelerated
observer (or a weakly accelerated observer, such as the Earth). Analogously, the "static term" in the
electromagnetic LinardWiechert potential theory of the fields from a moving charge, does not
suffer from either aberration or positional-retardation. Only the term corresponding
to acceleration and electromagnetic emission in the LinardWiechert potential shows a direction
toward the time-retarded position of the emitter.
It is in fact not very easy to construct a self-consistent gravity theory in which gravitational interaction
propagates at a speed other than the speed of light, which complicates discussion of this possibility.
[17]
Formulaic conventions[edit]
In general relativity the metric tensor symbolizes the gravitational potential, and Christoffel
symbols of the spacetime manifold symbolize the gravitational force field. The tidal gravitational field
is associated with the curvature of spacetime.
Possible experimental measurements[edit]

The speed of gravity (more correctly, the speed of gravitational waves) can be calculated from
observations of the orbital decay rate of binary pulsars PSR 1913+16 (the HulseTaylor binary
system noted above) and PSR B1534+12. The orbits of these binary pulsars are decaying due to
loss of energy in the form of gravitational radiation. The rate of this energy loss ("gravitational
damping") can be measured, and since it depends on the speed of gravity, comparing the measured
values to theory shows that the speed of gravity is equal to the speed of light to within 1%.
[18]
However, according to PPN formalism setting, measuring the speed of gravity by comparing
theoretical results with experimental results will depend on the theory; use of a theory other than that
of general relativity could in principle show a different speed, although the existence of gravitational
damping at all implies that the speed cannot be infinite. [citation needed]
In September 2002, Sergei Kopeikin and Edward Fomalont announced that they had made an
indirect measurement of the speed of gravity, using their data from VLBImeasurement of the retarded
position of Jupiter on its orbit during Jupiter's transit across the line-of-sight of the bright radio
source quasar QSO J0842+1835. Kopeikin and Fomalont concluded that the speed of gravity is
between 0.8 and 1.2 times the speed of light, which would be fully consistent with the theoretical
prediction of general relativity that the speed of gravity is exactly the same as the speed of light.[19]
Several physicists, including Clifford M. Will and Steve Carlip, have criticized these claims on the
grounds that they have allegedly misinterpreted the results of their measurements. Notably, prior to
the actual transit, Hideki Asada in a paper to the Astrophysical Journal Letters theorized that the
proposed experiment was essentially a roundabout confirmation of the speed of light instead of the
speed of gravity.[20] However, Kopeikin and Fomalont continue to vigorously argue their case and the
means of presenting their result at the press-conference of AAS that was offered after the peer
review of the results of the Jovian experiment had been done by the experts of the AAS scientific
organizing committee. In later publication by Kopeikin and Fomalont, which uses a bi-metric
formalism that splits the space-time null cone in two one for gravity and another one for light, the
authors claimed that Asada's claim was theoretically unsound.[21] The two null cones overlap in
general relativity, which makes tracking the speed-of-gravity effects difficult and requires a special
mathematical technique of gravitational retarded potentials, which was worked out by Kopeikin and
co-authors[22][23] but was never properly employed by Asada and/or the other critics.
Stuart Samuel also suggested that the experiment did not actually measure the speed of gravity
because the effects were too small to have been measured.[24] A response by Kopeikin and Fomalont
challenges this opinion.[25]
It is important to understand that none of the participants in this controversy are claiming that general
relativity is "wrong". Rather, the debate concerns whether or not Kopeikin and Fomalont have really
provided yet another verification of one of its fundamental predictions. A comprehensive review of the
definition of the speed of gravity and its measurement with high-precision astrometric and other
techniques appears in the textbook Relativistic Celestial Mechanics in the Solar System.[26]
References[edit]
1.
Jump up^ Hartle, JB (2003). Gravity: An Introduction to Einstein's

General Relativity. Addison-Wesley. p. 332. ISBN 981-02-2749-3.
2.
Jump up^ Taylor, Edwin F. and Wheeler, John Archibald, Spacetime

Physics, 2nd edition, 1991, p. 12.
3.
Jump up^ U. Le Verrier, Lettre de M. Le Verrier M. Faye sur la

thorie de Mercure et sur le mouvement du prihlie de cette plante,
C. R. Acad. Sci. 49 (1859), 379383.
4.
Jump up^ Laplace, P.S.: (1805) "A Treatise in Celestial Mechanics",

Volume IV, Book X, Chapter VII, translated by N. Bowditch (Chelsea,
New York, 1966)
5.
Jump up^ Zenneck, J. (1903). "Gravitation". Encyklopdie der

mathematischen Wissenschaften mit Einschluss ihrer
Anwendungen (in German) 5: 2567. doi:10.1007/978-3-663-160168_2.
6.
Jump up^ Roseveare, N. T (1982). Mercury's perihelion, from

Leverrier to Einstein. Oxford: University Press. ISBN 0-19-858174-2.
7.
Jump up^ Gerber, P. (1898). "Die rumliche und zeitliche Ausbreitung

der Gravitation". Zeitschrift fr mathematische Physik (in German) 43:
93104.
8.
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9.
Jump up^ "Gerber's Gravity". Mathpages. Retrieved 2 Dec 2010.
10. Jump up^ Lorentz, H.A. (1900). "Considerations on

Gravitation". Proc. Acad. Amsterdam 2: 559574.
11. Jump up^ Poincar, H. (1908). "La dynamique de
l'lectron" (PDF). Revue gnrale des sciences pures et appliques 19:
386402. Reprinted in Poincar, Oeuvres, tome IX, S. 551586 and in
"Science and Method" (1908)
12. Jump up^ Poincar, Henri (1904). "L'tat actuel et l'avenir de la
physique mathmatique". Bulletin des Sciences Mathmatiques 28 (2):
302324.. English translation in Poincar, Henri (1905). "The
Principles of Mathematical Physics". In Rogers, Howard J. Congress
of arts and science, universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904 1. Boston
and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. pp. 604
622. Reprinted in "The value of science", Ch. 79.
13. Jump up^ Poincar, H. (1906). "Sur la dynamique de

l'lectron" (PDF). Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo (in
French) 21 (1): 129176. doi:10.1007/BF03013466. See also
the English Translation.
14. Jump up^ Walter, Scott (2007). Renn, J., ed. "Breaking in the 4vectors: the four-dimensional movement in gravitation, 1905
1910" (PDF). The Genesis of General Relativity (Berlin: Springer) 3:
193252.
15. Jump up^ Will, Clifford & Gibbons, Gary. "On the Multiple Deaths of
Whitehead's Theory of Gravity", to be submitted to Studies In History
And Philosophy Of Modern Physics (2006).
16. Jump up^ Carlip, S. (2000). "Aberration and the Speed of
Gravity". Phys. Lett. A 267 (23): 8187. arXiv:grqc/9909087. Bibcode:2000PhLA..267...81C. doi:10.1016/S03759601(00)00101-8.
17. Jump up^ * Carlip, S. (2004). "Model-Dependence of Shapiro Time
Delay and the "Speed of Gravity/Speed of Light" Controversy". Class.
Quant. Grav. 21: 38033812. arXiv:gr-qc/0403060.
18. Jump up^ C. Will (2001). "The confrontation between general
relativity and experiment". Living Rev. Relativity 4: 4. arXiv:grqc/0103036. Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....4W.
19. Jump up^ Ed Fomalont & Sergei Kopeikin (2003). "The Measurement
of the Light Deflection from Jupiter: Experimental Results". The
Astrophysical Journal 598 (1): 704711. arXiv:astroph/0302294. Bibcode:2003ApJ...598..704F. doi:10.1086/378785.
20. Jump up^ Hideki Asada (2002). "Light Cone Effect and the Shapiro
Time Delay". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 574 (1):
L69. arXiv:astro-ph/0206266. Bibcod
e:2002ApJ...574L..69A.doi:10.1086/342369.
21. Jump up^ Kopeikin S.M. & Fomalont E.B. (2006). "Aberration and the
Fundamental Speed of Gravity in the Jovian Deflection
Experiment". Foundations of Physics 36 (8): 12441285. arXiv:astroph/0311063. Bibcode:2006FoPh...36.1244K. doi:10.1007/s10701-0069059-7.
22. Jump up^ Kopeikin S.M. & Schaefer G. (1999). "Lorentz covariant
theory of light propagation in gravitational fields of arbitrary-moving
bodies". Physical Review D 60 (12): id. 124002 [44 pages].arXiv:grqc/9902030. Bibcode:1999PhRvD..60l4002K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.
60.124002.
23. Jump up^ Kopeikin S.M. & Mashhoon B. (2002). "Gravitomagnetic
effects in the propagation of electromagnetic waves in variable
gravitational fields of arbitrary-moving and spinning bodies". Physical
Review D 65 (6): id. 064025 [20 pages]. arXiv:grqc/0110101. Bibcode:2002PhRvD..65f4025K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.
65.064025.
24. Jump up^ http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/Phys-speed-ofgravity.html
25. Jump up^ Kopeikin, Sergei & Fomalont, Edward (2006). "On the
speed of gravity and relativistic v/c corrections to the Shapiro time
delay". Physics Letters A 355 (3): 163166. arXiv:gr-
qc/0310065.Bibcode:2006PhLA..355..163K. doi:10.1016/j.physleta.20
06.02.028.
26. Jump up^ S. Kopeikin, M. Efroimsky and G. Kaplan [1] Relativistic
Celestial Mechanics in the Solar System, Wiley-VCH, 2011. XXXII, 860
Pages, 65 Fig., 6 Tab.
Kopeikin, Sergei M. (2001). "Testing Relativistic Effect of Propagation of

Gravity by Very-Long Baseline Interferometry". Astrophys. J. 556 (1): L1
L6. arXiv:gr-qc/0105060.Bibcode:2001ApJ...556L...1K. do
i:10.1086/322872.
Asada, Hidecki (2002). "The Light-cone Effect on the Shapiro Time

Delay". Astrophys. J. 574 (1): L69. arXiv:astroph/0206266. Bibcode:2002ApJ...574L..69A. doi:10.1086/342369.
Will, Clifford M. (2003). "Propagation Speed of Gravity and the Relativistic

Time Delay". Astrophys. J. 590 (2): 683690. arXiv:astroph/0301145. Bibcode:2003ApJ...590..683W.doi:10.1086/375164.
Fomalont, E. B. & Kopeikin, Sergei M. (2003). "The Measurement of the

Light Deflection from Jupiter: Experimental Results". Astrophys. J. 598 (1):
704711. arXiv:astro-ph/0302294.Bibcode:2003ApJ...598..704F. do
i:10.1086/378785.
Kopeikin, Sergei M. (Feb 21, 2003). "The Measurement of the Light

Deflection from Jupiter: Theoretical Interpretation". arXiv:astro-ph/0302462.
Kopeikin, Sergei M. (2003). "The Post-Newtonian Treatment of the VLBI

Experiment on September 8, 2002". Phys. Lett. A 312 (34): 147
157. arXiv:gr-qc/0212121.Bibcode:2003PhLA..312..147K. do
i:10.1016/S0375-9601(03)00613-3.
Faber, Joshua A. (Mar 14, 2003). "The speed of gravity has not been
measured from time delays". arXiv:astro-ph/0303346.
Kopeikin, Sergei M. (2004). "The Speed of Gravity in General Relativity and

Theoretical Interpretation of the Jovian Deflection Experiment". Classical
and Quantum Gravity 21 (13): 32513286.arXiv:grqc/0310059. Bibcode:2004CQGra..21.3251K. doi:10.1088/02649381/21/13/010.
Samuel, Stuart (2003). "On the Speed of Gravity and the v/c Corrections to
the Shapiro Time Delay". Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 (23): 231101. arXiv:astroph/0304006.Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90w1101S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.
231101. PMID 12857246.
Kopeikin, Sergei & Fomalont, Edward (2006). "On the speed of gravity and
relativistic v/c corrections to the Shapiro time delay". Physics Letters
A 355 (3): 163166. arXiv:grqc/0310065.Bibcode:2006PhLA..355..163K. doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2006.02
.028.
Hideki, Asada (Aug 20, 2003). "Comments on "Measuring the Gravity

Speed by VLBI"". arXiv:astro-ph/0308343.
Kopeikin, Sergei & Fomalont, Edward (2006). "Aberration and the

Fundamental Speed of Gravity in the Jovian Deflection
Experiment". Foundations of Physics 36 (8): 12441285. arXiv:astroph/0311063. Bibcode:2006FoPh...36.1244K. doi:10.1007/s10701-0069059-7.
Carlip, Steven (2004). "Model-Dependence of Shapiro Time Delay and the

"Speed of Gravity/Speed of Light" Controversy". Class. Quant.
Grav. 21 (15): 38033812. arXiv:grqc/0403060.Bibcode:2004CQGra..21.3803C. doi:10.1088/02649381/21/15/011.
Kopeikin, Sergei M. (2005). "Comment on 'Model-dependence of Shapiro

time delay and the "speed of gravity/speed of light" controversy". Class.
Quant. Grav. 22 (23): 51815186. arXiv:grqc/0510048. Bibcode:2005CQGra..22.5181K. doi:10.1088/02649381/22/23/N01.
Pascual-Snchez, J.-F. (2004). "Speed of gravity and

gravitomagnetism". Int. J. Mod. Phys. D 13 (10): 23452350. arXiv:grqc/0405123. Bibcode:2004IJMPD..13.2345P.doi:10.1142/S0218271804006
425.
Kopeikin, Sergei (2006). "Gravitomagnetism and the speed of gravity". Int.

J. Mod. Phys. D 15 (3): 305320. arXiv:grqc/0507001. Bibcode:2006IJMPD..15..305K.doi:10.1142/S0218271806007
663.
Samuel, Stuart (2004). "On the Speed of Gravity and the Jupiter/Quasar
Measurement". Int. J. Mod. Phys. D 13 (9): 17531770. arXiv:astroph/0412401. Bibcode:2004IJMPD..13.1753S.doi:10.1142/S021827180400
5900.
Kopeikin, Sergei (2006). "Comments on the paper by S. Samuel "On the

speed of gravity and the Jupiter/Quasar measurement"". Int. J. Mod. Phys.
D 15 (2): 273288. arXiv:grqc/0501001.Bibcode:2006IJMPD..15..273K. doi:10.1142/S0218271806008
53X.
Kopeikin, Sergei & Fomalont, Edward (2007). "Gravimagnetism, Causality,

and Aberration of Gravity in the Gravitational Light-Ray Deflection
Experiments". General Relativity and Gravitation 39(10): 1583
1624. arXiv:gr-qc/0510077. Bibcode:2007GReGr..39.1583K. do
i:10.1007/s10714-007-0483-6.
Kopeikin, Sergei & Fomalont, Edward (2008). "Radio interferometric tests

of general relativity". "A Giant Step: from Milli- to Micro-arcsecond
Astrometry", Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, IAU
Symposium 248 (S248): 383
386. Bibcode:2008IAUS..248..383F. doi:10.1017/S1743921308019613.
Zhu, Yin (2011). "Measurement of the Speed of Gravity". arXiv:1108.3761.
Does Gravity Travel at the Speed of Light? in The Physics

FAQ (also here).
Measuring the Speed of Gravity at MathPages
Hazel Muir, First speed of gravity measurement revealed, a New

Scientist article on Kopeikin's original announcement.
Clifford M. Will, Has the Speed of Gravity Been Measured?.
Kevin Carlson, MU physicist defends Einstein's theory and 'speed of

gravity' measurement.
Categories:
Effects of gravitation
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Gravitational field
In physics, a gravitational field is a model used to explain the influence that a massive body
extends into the space around itself, producing a force on another massive body.[1]Thus, a
gravitational field is used to explain gravitational phenomena, and is measured
in newtons per kilogram (N/kg). In its original concept, gravity was a force between pointmasses.
Following Newton, Laplace attempted to model gravity as some kind of radiation field or fluid, and
since the 19th century explanations for gravity have usually been taught in terms of a field model,
rather than a point attraction.
In a field model, rather than two particles attracting each other, the particles distort spacetime via
their mass, and this distortion is what is perceived and measured as a "force". In such a model one
states that matter moves in certain ways in response to the curvature of spacetime, [2] and that there
is either no gravitational force,[3] or that gravity is afictitious force.[4]
Contents
[hide]
1Classical mechanics
2General relativity
3See also
4Notes
Classical mechanics[edit]
In classical mechanics as in physics, a gravitational field is a physical quantity.[5] A gravitational field
can be defined using Newton's law of universal gravitation. Determined in this way, the gravitational
field g around a single particle of mass M is a vector field consisting at every point of
a vector pointing directly towards the particle. The magnitude of the field at every point is calculated
applying the universal law, and represents the force per unit mass on any object at that point in
space. Because the force field is conservative, there is a scalar potential energy per unit mass, , at
each point in space associated with the force fields; this is called gravitational potential.[6] The
gravitational field equation is[7]
where F is the gravitational force, m is the mass of the test

particle, R is the position of the test particle,
is a unit vector in the
direction of R, t is time, G is the gravitational constant, and is
the del operator.
This includes Newton's law of gravitation, and the relation between
gravitational potential and field acceleration. Note that
d2R/dt2 and F/m are both equal to the gravitational
acceleration g (equivalent to the inertial acceleration, so same
mathematical form, but also defined as gravitational force per unit
mass[8]). The negative signs are inserted since the force acts
antiparallel to the displacement. The equivalent field equation in
terms of mass density of the attracting mass is:
which contains Gauss's law for gravity, and Poisson's equation

for gravity. Newton's and Gauss's law are mathematically
equivalent, and are related by the divergence theorem.
Poisson's equation is obtained by taking the divergence of both
sides of the previous equation. These classical equations
are differential equations of motion for a test particle in the
presence of a gravitational field, i.e. setting up and solving these
equations allows the motion of a test mass to be determined
and described.
The field around multiple particles is simply the vector sum of
the fields around each individual particle. An object in such a
field will experience a force that equals the vector sum of the
forces it would feel in these individual fields. This is
mathematically:[9]
i.e. the gravitational field on mass mj is the sum of all

gravitational fields due to all other masses mi, except the
mass mj itself. The unit vector
of Ri Rj.
is in the direction
General relativity[edit]
See also: Gravitational acceleration General
relativity and Gravitational potential General relativity
In general relativity the gravitational field is determined by
solving the Einstein field equations,[10]
Here T is the stressenergy tensor, G is the Einstein

tensor, and c is the speed of light,
These equations are dependent on the distribution of
matter and energy in a region of space, unlike
Newtonian gravity, which is dependent only on the
distribution of matter. The fields themselves in general
relativity represent the curvature of spacetime. General
relativity states that being in a region of curved space
is equivalent to accelerating up thegradient of the field.
By Newton's second law, this will cause an object to
experience a fictitious force if it is held still with respect
to the field. This is why a person will feel himself pulled
down by the force of gravity while standing still on the
Earth's surface. In general the gravitational fields
predicted by general relativity differ in their effects only
slightly from those predicted by classical mechanics,
but there are a number of easily verifiable differences,
one of the most well known being the bending of light in
such fields.
See also[edit]
Classical mechanics
Gravitation
Gravitational potential
Newton's law of universal gravitation
Newton's laws of motion
Potential energy
Speed of gravity
Tests of general relativity
Defining equation (physics)
Notes[edit]
1.
Jump up^ Richard Feynman (1970). The Feynman

Lectures on Physics Vol I. Addison Wesley
Longman. ISBN 978-0-201-02115-8.
2.
Jump up^ Geroch, Robert (1981). General relativity

from A to B. University of Chicago Press.
p. 181. ISBN 0-226-28864-1., Chapter 7, page 181
3.
Jump up^ Grn, yvind; Hervik, Sigbjrn

(2007). Einstein's general theory of relativity: with
modern applications in cosmology. Springer Japan.
4.
Jump up^ J. Foster, J. D. Nightingale, J. Foster, J.

D. Nightingale; J. Foster, J. D. Nightingale, J. Foster,
J. D. Nightingale (2006). A short course in general
relativity (3 ed.). Springer Science & Business.
5.
Jump up^ Richard Feynman (1970). The Feynman

Lectures on Physics Vol II. Addison Wesley
Longman. ISBN 978-0-201-02115-8. A field is any
physical quantity which takes on different values at
different points in space.
6.
Jump up^ Dynamics and Relativity, J.R. Forshaw,

A.G. Smith, Wiley, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-01460-8
7.
Jump up^ Encyclopaedia of Physics, R.G. Lerner,

G.L. Trigg, 2nd Edition, VHC Publishers, Hans
Warlimont, Springer, 2005
8.
Jump up^ Essential Principles of Physics, P.M.

Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson, 2nd Edition, 1978, John
Murray, ISBN 0-7195-3382-1
9.
Jump up^ Classical Mechanics (2nd Edition),

T.W.B. Kibble, European Physics Series, Mc Graw
Hill (UK), 1973, ISBN 0-07-084018-0.
10. Jump up^ Gravitation, J.A. Wheeler, C. Misner, K.S.

Thorne, W.H. Freeman & Co, 1973, ISBN 0-71670344-0
Categories:
Theories of gravitation
Gravitation
Geodesy
General relativity
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Classical mechanics
For the textbooks, see Classical Mechanics (Goldstein book) and Classical Mechanics (Kibble and
Berkshire book).
Classical mechanics
Second law of motion
History
Timeline
Branches[show]
Fundamentals[show]
Formulations[show]
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Rotation[show]
Scientists[show]
Diagram of orbital motion of a satellite around the earth, showing perpendicular velocity and acceleration (force)
vectors.
In physics, classical mechanics and quantum mechanics are the two major sub-fields
of mechanics. Classical mechanics is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion
of bodies under the influence of a system of forces. The study of the motion of bodies is an ancient
one, making classical mechanics one of the oldest and largest subjects
in science, engineering andtechnology. It is also widely known as Newtonian mechanics.
Classical mechanics describes the motion of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts
of machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies.
Besides this, many specializations within the subject deal with solids, liquidsand gases and other
specific sub-topics. Classical mechanics also provides extremely accurate results as long as the
domain of study is restricted to large objects and the speeds involved do not approach the speed of
light. When the objects being dealt with become sufficiently small, it becomes necessary to introduce
the other major sub-field of mechanics, quantum mechanics, which reconciles the macroscopic laws
of physics with the atomic nature of matter and handles the waveparticle
duality of atoms andmolecules. When both quantum mechanics and classical mechanics cannot
apply, such as at the quantum level with high speeds,quantum field theory (QFT) becomes
applicable.
The term classical mechanics was coined in the early 20th century to describe the system of physics
begun by Isaac Newton and many contemporary 17th century natural philosophers, building upon
the earlier astronomical theories of Johannes Kepler, which in turn were based on the precise
observations of Tycho Brahe and the studies of terrestrial projectile motion of Galileo. Since these
aspects of physics were developed long before the emergence of quantum physics and relativity,
some sources exclude Einstein's theory of relativity from this category. However, a number of
modern sources do include relativistic mechanics, which in their view represents classical
mechanics in its most developed and most accurate form.[note 1]
The initial stage in the development of classical mechanics is often referred to as Newtonian
mechanics, and is associated with the physical concepts employed by and the mathematical
methods invented by Newton himself, in parallel with Leibniz, and others. This is further described in
the following sections. Later, more abstract and general methods were developed, leading to
reformulations of classical mechanics known asLagrangian mechanics and Hamiltonian mechanics.
These advances were largely made in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they extend substantially
beyond Newton's work, particularly through their use of analytical mechanics.
Contents
[hide]
1Description of the theory

o
1.1Position and its derivatives
1.1.1Velocity and speed
1.1.2Acceleration
1.1.3Frames of reference
1.2Forces; Newton's second law
1.3Work and energy
1.4Beyond Newton's laws
2Limits of validity
o
2.1The Newtonian approximation to special relativity
2.2The classical approximation to quantum mechanics
3History
4Branches
5See also
6Notes
7References
8Further reading
9External links
Description of the theory[edit]
The analysis of projectile motion is a part of classical mechanics.
The following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it often models
real-world objects as point particles, objects with negligible size. The motion of a point particle is
characterized by a small number of parameters: its position, mass, and theforces applied to it. Each
of these parameters is discussed in turn.
In reality, the kind of objects that classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size.
(The physics of very small particles, such as the electron, is more accurately described by quantum
mechanics.) Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point
particles, because of the additional degrees of freedom: a baseball can spin while it is moving, for
example. However, the results for point particles can be used to study such objects by treating them
as composite objects, made up of a large number of interacting point particles. The center of mass of
a composite object behaves like a point particle.
Classical mechanics uses common-sense notions of how matter and forces exist and interact. It
assumes that matter and energy have definite, knowable attributes such as where an object is in
space and its speed. It also assumes that objects may be directly influenced only by their immediate
surroundings, known as the principle of locality. In quantum mechanics, an object may have either its
position or velocity undetermined.
Position and its derivatives[edit]

Main article: Kinematics
The SI derived "mechanical"
(that is, not electromagnetic or thermal)
units with kg, m and s
position
angular position/angle
unitless (radian)
velocity
ms1
angular velocity
s1
acceleration
ms2
angular acceleration
s2
jerk
ms3
"angular jerk"
s3
specific energy
m2s2
absorbed dose rate
m2s3
moment of inertia
kgm2
momentum
kgms1
angular momentum
kgm2s1
force
kgms2
torque
kgm2s2
energy
kgm2s2
power
kgm2s3
pressure and energy density
kgm1s2
surface tension
kgs2
spring constant
kgs2
irradiance and energy flux
kgs3
kinematic viscosity
m2s1
dynamic viscosity
kgm1s1
density (mass density)
kgm3
density (weight density)
kgm2s2
number density
m3
action
kgm2s1
The position of a point particle is defined with respect to an arbitrary fixed reference point, O,
in space, usually accompanied by a coordinate system, with the reference point located at
the origin of the coordinate system. It is defined as the vector r fromO to the particle. In general, the
point particle need not be stationary relative to O, so r is a function of t, the time elapsed since an
arbitrary initial time. In pre-Einstein relativity (known as Galilean relativity), time is considered an
absolute, i.e., the time interval between any given pair of events is the same for all observers.[1] In
addition to relying on absolute time, classical mechanics assumes Euclidean geometry for the
structure of space.[2]
Velocity and speed[edit]
Main articles: Velocity and speed
The velocity, or the rate of change of position with time, is defined as the derivative of the position
with respect to time:
.
In classical mechanics, velocities are directly additive and
subtractive. For example, if one car traveling east at 60 km/h passes
another car traveling east at 50 km/h, then from the perspective of
the slower car, the faster car is traveling east at60 50 = 10 km/h.
Whereas, from the perspective of the faster car, the slower car is
moving 10 km/h to the west. Velocities are directly additive as vector
quantities; they must be dealt with using vector analysis.
Mathematically, if the velocity of the first object in the previous
discussion is denoted by the vector u = ud and the velocity of the
second object by the vector v = ve, where u is the speed of the first
object, v is the speed of the second object, and d ande are unit
vectors in the directions of motion of each particle respectively, then
the velocity of the first object as seen by the second object is
Similarly,
When both objects are moving in the same direction, this
equation can be simplified to
Or, by ignoring direction, the difference can be given in

terms of speed only:
Acceleration[edit]
Main article: Acceleration
The acceleration, or rate of change of velocity, is
the derivative of the velocity with respect to time
(the second derivative of the position with respect
to time):
Acceleration represents the velocity's change

over time: either of the velocity's magnitude or
direction, or both. If only the magnitude v of the
velocity decreases, this is sometimes referred
to as deceleration, but generally any change in
the velocity with time, including deceleration, is
simply referred to as acceleration.
Frames of reference[edit]
Main articles: Inertial frame of
reference and Galilean transformation
While the position, velocity and acceleration of

a particle can be referred to any observer in
any state of motion, classical mechanics
assumes the existence of a special family
ofreference frames in terms of which the
mechanical laws of nature take a comparatively
simple form. These special reference frames
are called inertial frames. An inertial frame is
such that when an object without any force
interactions (an idealized situation) is viewed
from it, it appears either to be at rest or in a
state of uniform motion in a straight line. This is
the fundamental definition of an inertial frame.
They are characterized by the requirement that
all forces entering the observer's physical
laws[clarification needed] originate in identifiable sources
(charges, gravitational bodies, and so forth). A
non-inertial reference frame is one accelerating
with respect to an inertial one, and in such a
non-inertial frame a particle is subject to
acceleration by fictitious forces that enter the
equations of motion solely as a result of its
accelerated motion, and do not originate in
identifiable sources. These fictitious forces are
in addition to the real forces recognized in an
inertial frame. A key concept of inertial frames
is the method for identifying them. For practical
purposes, reference frames that are
unaccelerated with respect to the distant
stars (an extremely distant point) are regarded
as good approximations to inertial frames.
Consider two reference frames S and S'. For
observers in each of the reference frames an
event has space-time coordinates of (x,y,z,t) in
frame S and (x',y',z',t') in frame S'. Assuming
time is measured the same in all reference
frames, and if we require x = x' when t = 0, then
the relation between the space-time
coordinates of the same event observed from
the reference frames S' and S, which are
moving at a relative velocity of u in
the x direction is:
x' = x ut
y' = y
z' = z
t' = t.
This set of formulas defines
a group transformation known
as the Galilean
transformation (informally,
the Galilean transform). This
group is a limiting case of
the Poincar groupused
in special relativity. The limiting
case applies when the
velocity u is very small
compared to c, the speed of
light.
The transformations have the

following consequences:
v = v u (the velocity v of
a particle from the
perspective of S is slower
by u than its
velocity v from the
perspective of S)
a = a (the acceleration of
a particle is the same in
any inertial reference
frame)
F = F (the force on a
particle is the same in any
inertial reference frame)
the speed of light is not a

constant in classical
mechanics, nor does the
special position given to
the speed of light
in relativistic
mechanics have a
counterpart in classical
mechanics.
For some problems, it is

convenient to use rotating
coordinates (reference
frames). Thereby one can
either keep a mapping to a
convenient inertial frame, or
introduce additionally a
fictitious centrifugal
force and Coriolis force.
Forces; Newton's
second law[edit]
Main
articles: Force and Newton's
laws of motion
Newton was the first to
mathematically express the
relationship
between force and momentum.
Some physicists
interpret Newton's second law
of motion as a definition of
force and mass, while others
consider it a fundamental
postulate, a law of nature.[citation
needed]
Either interpretation has
the same mathematical
consequences, historically
known as "Newton's Second
Law":
The quantity mv is called

the
(canonical) momentum.
The net force on a particle
is thus equal to the rate of
change of the momentum
of the particle with time.
Since the definition of
acceleration is a = dv/dt,
the second law can be
written in the simplified
and more familiar form:
So long as the force
acting on a particle is
known, Newton's
second law is
sufficient to describe
the motion of a
particle. Once
independent relations
for each force acting
on a particle are
available, they can be
substituted into
Newton's second law
to obtain an ordinary
differential equation,
which is called
the equation of motion.
As an example,
assume that friction is
the only force acting
on the particle, and
that it may be modeled
as a function of the
velocity of the particle,
for example:
where is a
positive constant.
Then the equation
of motion is
This can
be integrated t
o obtain
where v0 i
s the
initial
velocity.
This
means
that the
velocity of
this
particle de
cays
exponenti
ally to
zero as
time
progresse
s. In this
case, an
equivalent
viewpoint
is that the
kinetic
energy of
the
particle is
absorbed
by friction
(which
converts it
to heat
energy in
accordanc
e with
the conser
vation of
energy),
and the
particle is
slowing
down.
This
expressio
n can be
further
integrated
to obtain
the
position r
of the
particle as
a function
of time.
Important
forces
include
the gravita
tional
force and
the Lorent
z
force for e
lectromag
netism. In
addition,
Newton's
third
law can
sometime
s be used
to deduce
the forces
acting on
a particle:
if it is
known
that
particle A
exerts a
force F on
another
particle B,
it follows
that B
must exert
an equal
and
opposite r
eaction
force, F,
on A. The
strong
form of
Newton's
third law
requires
that F and
F act
along the
line
connectin
g A and B,
while the
weak form
does not.
Illustration
s of the
weak form
of
Newton's
third law
are often
found for
magnetic
forces.
Work
and
energy[
edit]
Main
articles:
Work
(physics),
kinetic
energy an
d potentia
l energy
If a
constant
force F is
applied to
a particle
that
achieves
a
displacem
ent r,[note
2]
the work
done by
the force
is defined
as
the scalar
product of
the force
and
displacem
ent
vectors:
More
gener
ally, if
the
force
varies
as a
functi
on of
positi
on as
the
particl
e
move
s
from r
1 to r2
along
a
path
C, the
work
done
on the
particl
e is
given
by
the lin
e
integr
al
If
th
e
w
or
k
d
o
n
e
in
m
o
vi
n
g
th
e
p
ar
tic
le
fr
o
m
r1
to
r2
is
th
e
s
a
m
e
n
o
m
at
te
r
w
h
at
p
at
h
is
ta
k
e
n,
th
e
fo
rc
e
is
s
ai
d
to
b
e
c
o
n
s
er
v
at
iv
e.
G
ra
vit
yi
s
a
c
o
n
s
er
v
at
iv
e
fo
rc
e,
a
s
is
th
e
fo
rc
e
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u
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a
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id
e
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z
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d
s
pr
in
g,
a
s
gi
v
e
n
b
y
H
o
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w.
T
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rc
e
d
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e
to
fri
cti
o
n
is
n
o
nc
o
n
s
er
v
at
iv
e.
T
h
e
ki
n
et
ic
e
n
er
g
y
Ek
of
a
p
ar
tic
le
of
m
a
ss
m
tr
a
v
ell
in
g
at
s
p
e
e
d
vi
s
gi
v
e
n
b
y
F
or
e
xt
e
n
d
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o
bj
e
ct
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p
o
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of
m
a
n
y
p
ar
tic
le
s,
th
e
ki
n
et
ic
e
n
er
g
y
of
th
e
c
o
m
p
o
sit
e
b
o
d
y
is
th
e
s
u
m
of
th
e
ki
n
et
ic
e
n
er
gi
e
s
of
th
e
p
ar
tic
le
s.
T
h
e
w
or
k

e
n
er
g
y
th
e
or
e
m
st
at
e
s
th
at
fo
r
a
p
ar
tic
le
of
c
o
n
st
a
nt
m
a
ss
m
th
e
to
ta
l
w
or
k
W
d
o
n
e
o
n
th
e
p
ar
tic
le
fr
o
m
p
o
sit
io
n
r1
to
r2
is
e
q
u
al
to
th
e
c
h
a
n
g
e
in
ki
n
et
ic
e
n
er
g
y
Ek
of
th
e
p
ar
tic
le
:
Cons
ervati
ve
forces
can
be
expre
ssed
as
the gr
adient
of a
scalar
functi
on,
know
n as
the po
tential
energ
y and
denot
ed Ep:
If all the
forces
acting o
a particle
are
conserv
ve,
and Ep is
the total
potentia
energy
(which is
defined
a work o
involved
forces to
rearrang
mutual
positions
of
bodies),
obtained
by
summin
the
potentia
energies
correspo
ding to
each
force
This res
known
as conse
on of
energy a
states th
total ene
is consta
It is often
because
common
encount
forces a
conserv
Beyon
Newto
laws[e
Classica
mechan
includes
descripti
complex
of exten
pointlike
objects.
laws pro
extensio
Newton'
this area
concepts
of angul
moment
the
same ca
d to des
dimensio
motion.
equation
the notio
of chang
object's
moment
include t
of an ob
"losing m
There ar
importan
alternati
formulat
classica
mechan
ngian
mechan
miltonian
mechan
These, a
modern
formulat
usually b
concept
instead
to other
quantitie
energy,
moment
describin
mechan
systems
in gener
coordina
The exp
given ab
moment
kinetic e
only vali
there is
significa
electrom
contribu
electrom
Newton'
law for c
carrying
breaks d
unless o
includes
electrom
field con
to the m
of the sy
expresse
the Poyn
vector d
by c2, wh
the spee
light in fr
Limit
validi
Domain o
Classical
Many br
classica
mechan
simplific
approxim
more ac
forms; tw
most acc
being ge
relativity
relativist
al
mechan
etric opt
approxim
the quan
theory o
does no
superior
"classica
When bo
quantum
mechan
classica
mechan
apply, su
the quan
with man
degrees
freedom
field the
become
applicab
deals wi
distance
large sp
many de
freedom
as the p
of any c
the num
particles
througho
interactio
deal with
degrees
freedom
macrosc
level, sta
mechan
es valid.
mechan
explores
number
particles
interactio
whole in
life. Stat
mechan
mainly u
in therm
s. In the
high velo
ts appro
speed o
classica
mechan
enhance
by speci
relativity
relativity
special r
with New
of univer
gravitati
allowing
to
handle g
at a dee
The
Newto
approx
to spec
relativi
In specia
relativity
moment
particle
where m
particle's
mass, v
and c is
light.
If v is ve
compare
approxim
and so
Thus the
equation
approxim
relativist
bodies m
speeds
speed o
For exam
relativist
frequenc
a cyclotr
high volt
given by
where fc
frequenc
other ch
kinetic e
mass m0
field. Th
electron
frequenc
a magne
5.11 kV
accelera
The cla
approx
quantu
mecha
The ray
classica
down wh
wavelen
smaller
of the sy
relativist
wavelen
where h
constant
Again, th
with elec
with hea
example
by Clinto
Germer
volts, ha
0.167 nm
to exhibi
lobe whe
of a nick
spacing
larger va
seem re
the angu
a radian
quantum
periodic
circuit co
More pra
failure o
an engin
conducti
tunnelin
narrow t
d circuits
Classica
extreme
approxim
It is mor
describe
with rest
moment
De Brog
massles
with the
Histo
Main art
mechan
See also
mechan
Some G
antiquity
founder
may hav
the idea
for a rea
principle
understa
modern
preserve
eminent
conspicu
mathem
controlle
it. These
decisive
science,
classica
In his El
demons
medieva
de Nem
"position
compon
Three sta
impetus a
The first
publishe
motions
Kepler's
nova pu
conclude
Brahe's
of Mars,
were elli
with anc
happeni
that Gali
mathem
of objec
have pe
experim
cannonb
from the
that they
same tim
experim
importan
quantita
balls on
theory o
derived
experim
cornerst
mechan
Sir Isaac
influentia
and whos
basis of c
As found
natural p
Newton
motion:
second
(mention
of action
laid the
mechan
and third
proper s
treatmen
Naturalis
which di
earlier a
similar p
either in
given litt
expressi
enunciat
of conse
moment
moment
was also
first corr
mathem
of gravit
universa
combina
motion a
fullest an
descripti
He dem
apply to
as to ce
he obtai
explanat
motion o
Newton
the calcu
used it to
mathem
accepta
the Princ
entirely
establish
which w
calculus
was Leib
notation
the deriv
d[3] today
Hamilton
perhaps
of Newto
calledHa
Newton,
contemp
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Remote terminal unit

For other uses, see Terminal (disambiguation).

1.2Digital or status inputs

1.4Digital (control) outputs

1.6Software and logic control

2Comparison with other control systems

Digital or status inputs[edit]

Digital (control) outputs[edit]

Software and logic control[edit]

Comparison with other control systems[edit]

Remote monitoring of functions and instrumentation for:

Oil and gas (offshore platforms, onshore oil wells)

Networks of pump stations (wastewater collection, or for water

Environmental monitoring systems (pollution, air quality,

Air traffic equipment such as navigation aids (DVOR, DME, ILS

Remote monitoring and control of functions and instrumentation for:

Hydro-graphic (water supply, reservoirs, sewage systems)

Electrical power transmission networks and associated

Natural gas networks and associated equipment

Outdoor warning sirens

Digital protective relay

Jump up^ Gordon R. Clarke, Deon Reynders, Edwin Wright, Practical

What links here

Cite this page

This page was last modified on 9 October 2015, at 20:32.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional

Modbus is a serial communications protocol originally published by Modicon (now Schneider

developed with industrial applications in mind

openly published and royalty-free

easy to deploy and maintain

moves raw bits or words without placing many restrictions on

2Communication and devices

4Supported function codes

5Format of data of requests and responses for main function codes

5.1Function code 1 (read coils) and function code 2 (read discrete

5.2Function code 5 (force/write single coil)

5.3Function code 15 (force/write multiple coils)

5.4Function code 4 (read input registers) and function code 3 (read

5.5Function code 6 (preset/write single holding register)

5.6Function code 16 (preset/write multiple holding registers)

5.8Main Modbus exception codes

Modbus RTU This is used in serial communication & makes use

Modbus ASCII This is used in serial communication & makes use

Modbus TCP/IP or Modbus TCP This is a Modbus variant used

Modbus over TCP/IP or Modbus over TCP or Modbus RTU/IP

Modbus over UDP Some have experimented with using Modbus

Modbus Plus (Modbus+, MB+ or MBP) Modbus

to handle fast HDLC-like token rotation. It uses twisted pair at 1

Modbus PEMEX- This variant is an extension of standard Modbus

Enron Modbus- This variant is an extension of standard Modbus

Communication and devices[edit]

ADU = Address + PDU + Error check

PDU = Function code + Data

All Modbus variants choose one of the following frame formats.[1]

At least 3 12 character times of silence (mark condition)

Indicates the function code; e.g., read coils/holding registers

Data + length will be filled depending on the message type

Cyclic Redundancy Check

At least 3 12 character times of silence between frames

Note about the CRC:

Initial value: 65,535

Example of frame in hexadecimal: 01 04 02 FF FF B8 80 (CRC16-ANSI calculation from 01 to FF gives 80B8 which is