ATOMIC PHYSICS

MASS OF A PHOTON
Rest mass of photon is zero.
Effective mass : If we assume that m is the effective mass of photons in moving conditions, then according
to Einsteins theory.
Energy of photon, E = mc2

but

E
c2
E = h = pc,

m=

m=

p = photon momentum

E
h
p
2 =
2 =
c
c
c

C1: Draw the graph of (a) momentum versus effective mass of photon (b) Energy versus effective mass,
(c) wavelength versus momentum, (d) Effective mass versus wavelength for a photon.
Sol:

(a) p = mc straight line tan = c

(b)

E = mc2 straight line tan = c2

m

(c)de-broglie wavelength of photon =

p = h Rectangular hyperbola

h
p

(d)

Effective mass of photon

m=

E
h
hc
2 =
2 =
c
c
c 2

m =

h
Rectangular hyperbola
c

Power of a light source

Suppose P = Power of the light source, = frequency of emitted photons,
Energy of single photon = h
Let,
n = numbers of photons emitted per sec by the source, then
Thus,
Energy emitted per sec. by the source = W = h
Intensity of light source at a point
The amount of energy incident on a point per unit area at that point in a unit time is called the intensity of light
at that point.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Thus, intensity at a point is energy incident per unit area unit time.
Suppose, I = Intensity of light at a point
= Frequency of photon
n0 = no. of photon incident / sec / Area

I = n0h
SI unit of intensity is J/second m2.
Intensity of light at a distance r :
Let,
W = Power of a point source
Amount of energy received by spherical surface per second
= Amount of energy emitted by light source per second = W
Hence, Intensity at distance

Thus,

r=

W
W
=
Area
4r 2

I=

W
4r 2

P
r

Example 1: The intensity of sunlight on the surface of earth is 1400 W/m2. Assuming the mean wavelength of
sunlight to be 6000 , calculate the number of photons emitted from the sun per second assuming the
average radius of earths orbit around sun is 1.49 1011 m.
Sol: Average radius, r = 1.49 1011 m. intensity of sunlight received by earth = I = 1400 W/m2,
= mean wavelength = 6000 .
Energy emitted per second by the sum = Power of the sun = W
but, Power, W = nh, where n is number of photons emitted by sun per sec.
.....(i)
Again, intensity at a distance r from a point source of power W.
I=

W
4r 2

I=

nh
4r 2

I 4r 2
I 4r 2
n=
=
h
hc

[From equation (i)]

hc
[ h =
]

Sun

Earth

Power = P

4r 2I
4 (1.49)2 1022 6 107 1400
n=
=
hc
6.63 10 34 3 108
n = 1.18 1045 photons per sec.

Photon Flux (i.e. photon/sec)

Suppose, W = Power of a source.
If A is the area of the metal surface on which radiations are incident, then the power received by the plate is
W
W = IA =
A
4r 2
If is the frequency of radiation, then the energy is photon is given by h.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
If n is the number of photons incident on the plate per second, then, we have
W = n h
W

A = N h
4r 2

Area(A)

4r 2 A
n =

P
Plate
r

n is called photon flux.

Photon flow density (n0) :
The number of photons incident on unit area of the plate in one second is called the photon flow density.
n'
W
i.e., Photon flow density, n0, =
=
A
4 r 2 h
Photon-concentration :
The number of photons per unit volume of the space.
If n is the number of photons incident per unit area per second, then
n
Photon - concentration = , where c is the speed of light.
c
Example 2: The power of light emitted by the sun is 3.9 1026 W. Assuming the mean wavelength of sunlight to
be 6000 , calculate the photon flux arriving at 1 m2 area on earth perpendicular to light radiations. The
average radius of earths orbit around sun is 1.49 1011 m.
Sol: Power of light emitted by the sun, W = 3.9 1026 W
r = earth sun mean distance = 1.49 1011 m
= mean wavelength of sun light = 6000 = 6 107 m
W
4r 2
Power received by area A on earth, W = I A
W

W =
A
4r 2
but, W = n h, where n is the number of photon incident per sec or photon-flux.

Intensity of light an earth, I =

P Sun

Earth

W A
2

W' 4r
n =
=
h h

n =

WA
4r 2 hc

[h = hc/]

(3.9 10 26 ) (6 107 ) 1
n =
photon /sec
4(1.49)2 1022 6.63 1034 3 108
= 4.22 1021 photon/sec

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
PRESSURE EXERTED BY PHOTONS OR RADIATIONS PRESSURE
(a) Each photon carries energy and momentum. Hence when photons of light is incident on a surface, the light
is either absorbed or reflected or both is done by the surface.
(b) change in momentum of light takes place, which causes impulse or force on the surface resulting in a
pressure called radiation pressure.
Let light of intensity I is incident on a surface. Each photon carries energy h and momentum =

h
.
c

Energy incident on unit area in unit time = I(by the definition of intensity).
Number of photons incident on unit area in unit time.
N
I
=
,
At
h
Momentum delivered to unit area in unit time,

i.e.

.....(i)

N
P
=
(change in momentum of each photon)
At At
Using equation (i) & (ii), we get

i.e.,

P
At

I
= (change in momentum of each photon)
h

but,

P
At

Pr = Radiation pressure =

Force exerted
,
A
= Radiation pressure

[ force exerted =

.....(ii)

P
]
t

I
(change in momentum of each photon) .....(iii)
h

Radiation pressure for perfectly absorbing surface :

In this case, change of momentum suffered by each photon =

h
.
c

hv
c

Using the equation (iii), we get

Radiation pressure =

Perfectly
absorbing
surface

I
h I

=
h
c
c

Radiation pressure =

I
for a perfectly absorbing surface.
c

Radiation pressure for a perfectly reflecting surface :

hv
c

h h 2h
In this case, change in momentum of each photon =
=
c
c
c

Hence, using the equation (iii), we get

Perfectly
reflecting
surface

hv
c

I 2h 2I
Radiation pressure =
=
c
h c

Radiation pressure =

2I
for a perfectly reflecting surface.
c

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Radiation pressure for a surface of reflection coefficient () :
In this case, Momentum of incident photon =
Momentum of reflected photon =
h

c
Thus, using equation (iii), we get,

Change in momentum =

Radiation pressure = (1 + )

h
c

hv
c

h
, = reflection coefficient
c

surface

hv
c

h
h
= (1 + )
c
c

I
for photons falling normally on a surface.
c

NOTE : (i) For a perfectly absorbing surface = 0

I
Radiation pressure =
c
(ii) For a perfectly reflecting surface = 1

Radiation pressure = (1 + 1)

I
2I
=
c
c

C2: A laser emits a light pulse of duration = 0.13 ms and energy E = 10J. Find the mean pressure exerted by
such a light pulse when it is focussed into a spot of diameter d = 10 m on a surface perpendicular to the
beam and possessing a reflection -coefficient = 0.50.
Sol: Laser energy, E = 10J
2
d
4
Pulse duration, = 0.13 s
Pressure exerted by light pulse i.e.,

Plate area =

Laser

I
Radiation pressure = (1 + ) , by the definition of radiation pressure by photons of light
c
Here, = reflection coefficient = 0.50
I = Intensity of light
c = speed of light = 3 108 m/s

d = 10 m

.....(i)

Laser energy
By the definition of intensity of light, I = (pulse duration) (Area of plate)
E
.....(ii)
2
d
4
4E
From (i) & (ii) Radiation pressure = (1 + )
c d 2

i.e.

I=

4 10
3 10 (0.13 103 )100 1012
= 4.9 107 Nm2 = 490 atm
= (1 + 0.50)

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 3: 1 A current flows in an x-ray tube operated at 10,000 V. The target area is 104 m2. Find the
pressure on the target, assuming that the electrons strike the target normally and the photons leave the target
normally. Consider the ideal situation where each incident electron gives rise to a photon of the same energy.
Sol: Energy of each electron = energy of each photon = E = 104 eV
Momentum delivered by each electron = p1 = 2mE
E
p1

e
c
p2
Change of momentum due to each electron-photon pair = p1 (p2) = p1 + p2
(photon)
Current incident on target = i = 106A
Number of electrons incident per second = i/e = no. of photons emitted per second.
Plate

Momentum taken away by each photon = p2 =

i
Total momentum change per second = force = (p1 + p2)
e

Pr, Pressure = force / area =

=

(p + p2)
Ae 1
E
i

2mE
c
Ae

104 1.6 1019

106
31
4
19 1/ 2
(2

9.1

10

10

1.6

10
)

Pr =

3 108
104 1.6 1019

6
2
= 3.7 10 Nm

FORCE EXERTED BY PHOTONS ON A SURFACE

We know that, when photons of light is incident on a surface, the change in momentum of photons takes
place resulting in a force exertion by the photons on the surface.
Let light of power W is incident on a surface.
h
c
Energy incident in unit time = W(by the definition of power)
But, power is given by

Each photon carries energy h and, momentum =

W =

N
(h),
t

.....(i)
Power = W

Surface

where N = total no. of photons incident in time t.

W
N
=
h
t
Momentum delivered in unit time.

.....(ii)

P N
= (change in momentum of each photon)
t t

=
but,

P
(change in momentum of each photon)
h

P
= rate of change of momentum
t

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
P
= F = Force exerted by the photons.
t

Hence,
Thus,

P
force = (change in momentum of each photon)
h

...(iii)

Force exerted by photons on a perfectly absorbing surface :

In this case, change of momentum suffered by each photon =

h
c

using equation (iii), we get

hv
c

W h W
force = =
h
c
c

thus,

F=

Perfectly
absorbing
surface

W
for a perfectly absorbing surface.
c

Force exerted by photons on a perfectly reflecting surface:

In this case, change of momentum suffered by
each photon =

hv
c

h h 2h
=
c
c
c

using equation ( iii), we get

hv
c

W 2h 2W
Force =
=
h
c
c

thus, F =

surface

2P
, for a perfectly reflecting surface.
c

Force exerted by photons on a surface of reflection coefficient :

In this case momentum of incident photon =
Momentum of reflected photon =

h
,
c

hv
c

h
c

surface

hv
c

h h
h
= (1 + )
c
c
c

Thus, using equation (iii), we get

Change in momentum =

W
h
Force = (1 + )
= (1 + )
c
c
h

i.e.

F = (1 + )

W
for photons falling normally on a surface.
c

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
C3: If a point source of light of power W is placed at the centre of curvature of
a hemispherical surface, whose inner surface is completely reflecting, then

W
(Source)

W
.
2c
C4: If a perfectly reflecting solid sphere of radius r is kept in the path of a
parallel beam of light of large aperture and having an intensity I, then the

the force on the hemisphere due to the light falling on it is given by F =

r 2 I
force exerted by the beam on the sphere is given F =
.
c
Note that force is equal to the product of (I/c) and the projected area of
the sphere.
C5: If photon of light of power W falls at an angle to a perfectly reflecting

2W
surface, then net force exerted on the plate is given by Fnet =
cos.
c

C6: A laser emits a light pluse of duration T = 0.10 ms and energy E = 10 J. Find the mean pressure exerted by
such a pulse when it is focused on a spot of diameter d = 10 m on a surface perpendicular to the beam and
with a reflection coefficient = 0.5.
Sol. p, momentum of a photon = hv/c = E/c
Momentum of reflected photon = (E/c)
change of momentum = (E/c) (E/c) = (1 + )E/c
Force exerted
= [(1 + ) E/c]/T
Pressure
= 4 [(1 + ) E/c]/Td2
4(1 )E
4(1 0.5) 10

2
cTd
3 108 104 1010
= 6.37 106 Nm2

C7: A plane light wave of intensity I = 0.50 W cm2 falls on a plane mirror of reflection coefficient = 0.8. The
angle of incidence = 45. Find the normal presure exerted by light on that surface.
Sol. If S is the area of the mirror on which light falls, the transverse section of the incident beam is S cos .
Momentum of the incident photons = (I/c)(S cos ). Normal component of momentum
flux = (IS cos /c) cos = IS cos 2/c.
Momentum of reflected photons = (IS cos2/c) in the opposite direction.
rate of change of momentum = force = (1 + ) IS cos2/c
normal pressure = force/area = (1 + ) I cos2/c
required pressure
= (1 + 0.5) (0.5 104 cos2 45)/3 108
= 1.25 105 Nm2
Example 4: An isotropic point source of radiation power P is placed on the axis of an ideal mirror. The distance
between the source and the mirror is n times the radius of the mirro. Find the force that light exerts on the
mirror.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol. Energy flux through the annular space between two cones of half-angles
and + d
= (P/4) (2 sin d)
momentum of flux = P sin d/2c
rate of change of momentum along the normal.
2(P sin d/2c) cos = P sin cos d/c

A
R

nR

p
sin cos d
c 0
where = half-angle of the cone subtened by the mirror = tan1(1/n)

F = P sin2 / 2c = P/2(n2 + 1)c

force on mirror =

Example 5: Figure shows a small, plane strip of mass m suspended from a fixed support through a string. A
continuous beam of monochromatic light is incident horizontally on the strip and is completely absorbed.
The energy falling on the strip per unit time is W. find the deflection of the string from the vertical, if the strip
stays in equilibrium.
Sol: Force exerted by the photons of light
= (number of incident photons per sec) (change in momentum of each photon)
Let, Number of incident photons per sec = N
h
c
hence force exerted by the photons of light,

change in momentum of each photon =

Light

h
(Nh)
=
c
c
W = Nhv, by the definition of power

F = N
but,

W
c
If the string makes an angle with the vertical when the strip is at equilibrium, then for the equilibrium of the
strip,
Tsin = F, in horizontal direction,
and
Tcos = mg, in vertical direction.
T = tension
in the string
Dividing the above equations, we get

F =

W
W/c
F
tan =
=
=
,
mg
c mg
mg
tan =

W
W
= tan1
c mg
c mg

mg

Example 6. A plane light wave of intensity I = 0.80 W cm2 illuminates a sphere of radius R = 5.0 cm. Find the
force that the light exerts on the sphere.
Sol. p, momentum of the incident pulse = E/c.

p (E / c) (sin i cos j) with respect to a frame of reference with the outward normal as the y-axis
i

and a line perpendicular to it and lying in the plane of the mirror as the x-axis.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

pf = E/c
and
pf (E / c) (sin i cos j)

p p f pi ( 1)E / c sin i ( 1) cos E / c j

| p | E / c ( 1)2 sin 2 ( 1)2 cos 2

E / c 1 2 2 cos 2

| p | 10 / 3 108

1 0.82 2 0.8 cos 60

= 5.2 108 Nm2

Impulse applied by photon on a surface

Let hn be the energy of photons of a light incident normally on a surface,
h
.
c
Change in momentum of the photon takes place due to impact of the photons with the surface. This change
in momentum of the photons causes impulse.
Using impulse momentum theorem, we get
Impulse = Total change in momentum of photons
= (Total number of photons) (change in momentum of each photon)
Impulse = N (change in momentum of each photon)
......(i)

Momentum of an incident photon =

Impulse on a totally absorbing surface:

In this case, change in momentum of each photon =

h
c

using equation (i), we get

Impulse =
Impulse =

N ' h E
= , where E is the total energy of the light
c
c
E
for a perfectly absorbing surface.
c

Impulse on a totally reflecting surface:

Impulse = N (change in momentum of each photon)
h h 2(N ' h)
2E
= N =
=
c
c

c
c

Impulse =

[ E = total energy = Nh]

2E
for a perfectly reflecting surface.
c

Impulse on a surface of reflection-coefficient :

In this case, change in momentum of each photon =

h h
h
= (1 + ) .
c
c
c

Using equation (i), we get

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Impulse = N(1 + )

N ' h
h
E
= (1 + )
= (1 + ) ,
c
c
c

Impulse = (1 + )

E
for photons falling normally on the surface.
c

[E = total energy]

Example 7: A small perfectly reflecting mirror of mass m = 10 mg is

suspended by a weightless thread of length = 10 cm as shown in the
figure. Find the angle through which the thread will be deflected when
a short laser with energy E = 13J is shot in horizontal direction at right
angles to the mirror. (g = 10 m/s2).

2E
Sol: Impulse applies by laser on the mirror, Impulse =
, as mirror is perfectly
c
reflecting. Initial momentum of the mirror = 0
Let, final momentum of the mirror = mv
change in momentum of the mirror due to impact = 0 (mv) = mv, where
v is the speed of mirror just after impact.
But, Impulse momentum theorem gives,
Impulse = change in momentum

Laser
m

v=0
2E
2E
= mv
or
v=
.....(i)
c
mc
Total mechanical energy of the mirror will be conserved after impact.
Thus, Loss in kinetic energy = Gain in potential energy

(1 cos) = H
v

1 2
mv = mgh v2 = 2gH
2

4E 2
= 2gH,
m 2c2
2E 2
= gH
m 2c2

[as v =

2E
from equation (i)]
mc

2E 2
= g(1 cos),
m 2c2

[ H = (1 cos)]

2E 2
1 cos = 2 2
m c g
2E 2

2sin = 2 2
2 m c g

[ 1 cos = 2sin2 ]
2

E2

sin =
2 mc g

sin

Here E = 13J, m = 10 106 kg, = 0.1 m

13

= 5
= 0.0043
2 10 3 108 10 0.1

or

= 0.5

PHOTONS UNDER GRAVITY

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Photons can be considered as a particle of mass m.
If m = mass of photon
v = frequency of photon
E = energy of photon, then
mc2 = E = hv m =

h
E
2 =
c2
c

Thus, a photon of frequency v acts gravitationally like a particle of mass

h
.
c2

C8: If a photon frequency v falls on the surface of earth from a height h, then what will be its frequency on the
surface of earth.
v, E = hv + mgH
Sol: Change in frequency of the photon takes place.
Let v be the frequency of photon on the surface of earth.
H

h
v, E = hv
Mass of photon = 2
c
Ground
Mass of the photon depends on its frequency, but we will consider the mass to be constant as difference in
v and v is very small.
Energy conservation gives
Initial energy = final energy

hv + mgH = hv
h
gH = hv
c2

hv +

gH
v = v 1 2
c

Example 8: A planet of mass M and radius R emits a photon of frequency v. What will be the frequency of
photon when it covers an infinite distance.
Sol: Let vbe the frequency photon at a infinite distance.
v
G = Gravitational constant
v
R

h
Mass of the photon, m = 2
c

at

Energy of photon on the surface = hv G

GM h
Mm
= hv

R c2
R

Energy of photon at infinity = hv

Energy must be conserved,

hv

GM h
= hv
R c2

NOTE:

GM
v = v 1 2
Rc

GM
=
is called frequency shift.

Rc 2

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

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12

ATOMIC PHYSICS
Ejection of electrons from a metal plate when illuminated by light or any other radiation of suitable wavelength
(or frequency) is called photoelectric effect.
This phenomenon was first discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. One year later, Hallwachs made the
important observation that when a negatively-charged zinc plate is irradiated with ultra-violet light, it loses
its negative charge. Afterwards, it was discovered that alkali metals like lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium
and caesium eject electrons when visible light falls on them. Ten years later, J.J. Thomson and P.Lenard
showed that the action of light was to cause the emission of free electrons from metal surface. Although
these electrons are no different from all other electrons, it is customary to refer to them as photoelectrons.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
Quartz
Photoelectric phenomenon can be studied with the help of a simple
apparatus shown in figure. It consists of two photosensitive surfaces

C +
E
E and C enclosed in an evacuated quartz bulb. In the absence of
light, there is no flow of current in the circuit and the ammeter A
A
reads zero. When plate E is exposed to some source of
V
monochromatic light, current starts flowing. However, no current
is found to flow when light falls on plate C.
The explanation of the above behaviour lies in the fact that when E is irradiated with light, the incident
photons eject electrons by collision with its atoms. These photoelectrons are immediately attracted by the
collector plate C thereby starting current flow as indicated by the ammeter.
When C is irradiated, even then photoelectrons are produced but they are not allowed to leave plate C
(i) firstly, because of the pulling effect of positive potential of C and
(ii) secondly, due to repulsion from the negative plate E.
Hence, no current is found to flow in the circuit.
Einsteins Photoelectric Equation:
Following Plancks idea that light consists of photons, Einstein proposed an explanation of photoelectric
effect as early as 1905. According to this explanation when a single photon is incident on a metal surface, it
is completely absorbed an imparts its energy hf to a single electron. The photon energy is utilised for two
purposes:
(i) Partly for getting the electron free from the atom and away from the metal surface. This energy is known
as the photoelectric work function of the metal and is represented by W0.
(ii) the balance of the photon energy is used up in giving the electron a kinetic energy of 1/2mv2.

hf = W0 + 1/2mv2
.....(i)
It is known as Einsteins photoelectric equation.
In case, the photon energy is just sufficient to liberate the electron only then no energy would be available
for imparting kinetic energy to the electron. Hence, the above equation would reduce to
hf0 = W0
.....(ii)
where f0 is called the threshold frequency. It is defined as the minimum frequency which can cause photoelectric
emission. For frequencies lower than f0, there would be no emission of electrons whereas for frequencies
greater than f0, electrons would be ejected with a certain definite velocity (and hence kinetic energy).
Substituting this value of W0 in equation (i) above, the Einsteins photoelectric equation becomes
1
mv2
2
hf = hf0 + K.E.

hf = hf0 +
or

Long Wavelength Limit ( 0)

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
It is the wavelength corresponding to the threshold frequency f0. Its physical significance is that radiations
having wavelength longer than 0 would not be able to eject electrons from a given material whereas those
having < 0 will. In other words, it represents the upper limit of wavelength for photoelectric phenomenon.
By analogy, it is also referred to as threshold wavelength.
Now,

c = f0 0

Also, W0 = hf0

0 =

c
f0

1
h
=
f0
W0

ch
0 = W
0

(i) When W0 is in joules

3 108 6.625 1034
0 =
W0
19.875 1026
=
metre
W0
(ii) When W0 is electron volts (eV)
3 108 6.625 1034
0 =
1.602 1019 W0
12, 400
12.4 107
=
metre = W

W0
0

Kinetic energy of Photoelectrons

Einsteins photoelectric equation can be used to find the velocity and hence the kinetic energy of an ejected
photo-electron.
1
mv2
2
= hf0 + K.E.
K.E. = hf hf0 = h(f f0)

hf = W0 +

Now, f

c
c
and f0 =

1 1
K.E. = ch
0

1 1
= 3 108 6.625 1034
0

1 1
= 19.875 1026 joules
0

and 0 in metres

1 1
= 19.875 1026 joules
and 0 in
0

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14

ATOMIC PHYSICS

19.875 1016 1 1

eV
1.602 1019 0

and 0 in

1 1
K.E. = 12,400 eV
and 0 in
0

Incidentally, it may be noted that this also represents the maximum value of the kinetic energy a photoelectron
can have.
Emass = h(f f0) = h.f joules

1 1
= 12,400 eV
0

and 0 in

Photoelectric Work Function

As explained above it is defined as the energy which is just sufficient to liberate electrons from a body with
zero velocity. Its value is given by
W0

ch
3 108 6.625 1034
= hf0 = =
0
0

19.875 1026
joules
0

0 in metres

19.875 1016
joules
0

0 in

19.875 1016
eV
1.602 1019 0

0 in

12, 400
0 eV

0 in

W0 =

Laws of Photoelectric Emission

Quartz
A
C
V

B
R

The apparatus shown in figure was used by Millikan to study the photoelectric effect and the various laws
governing it. S is a source of radiations of variable but known frequency f and intensity I. E is the emitting
electrode made of the photosensitive material and C is the collecting electrode. Both these electrodes are
enclosed in an evacuated glass envelope with a quartz window that permits the passage of ultraviolet and

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15

ATOMIC PHYSICS
visible light. As shown, any potential difference can be established between the two electrodes. A reversing
switch RS enables the polarities of the two electrodes to be reversed. If the tube is in the dark, then no
photoelectrons are emitted and the microammeter A read zero. However, if ultraviolet or visible light is
allowed to fall on the emitting electrode, electrons are liberated and circuit current is set up.
From the experimental data collected by Richardson and Compton in 1912, photoelectric emission was
found to be governed by the following laws:
(i) Photoelectric current (i.e., number of electrons emitted per second) is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light (or radiation).
Photoelectric
current

Frequency
constant

Light Intensity I

Photoelectric
current

This can be verified by increasing the intensity of light and

measuring the corresponding photoelectric current while holding
the frequency of the incident light frequency of the incident light
and the accelerating potential V of the collecting electrode C
constant. The graph is similar to one shown in figure. Increase in
intensity means more photons and hence greater ejection of
electrons.
(ii) For each photosensitive surface, there is a minimum frequency of
radiation (called threshold frequency) at which emission begins.

As seen from Einsteins photoelectric equation of

1
mv 2max = h(f f0)
2

or Emax f

Emax

Intensity
Light of lower frequency (or longer wavelength), however strong,
constant
will not be able to produce any electron emission. This fact can be
verified by keeping the light intensity constant while varying the
frequency. The graph so obtained is shown in figure. The current is
found to increase (though non-linearly) with the frequency of the
incident light.
f0
Moreover, it is seen that there is a limiting or critical frequency below
Frequency
which no photoelectons are emitted. It is called threshold frequency
and its value depends on the nature of the material irradiated because for each material there is a certain
minimum energy nessecary to liberate an electron. This energy is known as photoelectric work function or
threshold energy W0. As seen from f0 = W0/h.
The wavelength corresponding to be threshold frequency f0 is called threshold wavelength or long wavelength
limit. No photo-electrons are emitted for wavelength greater than 0, no matter how long the light falls on
the surface or how greater is its intensity. The photoelectric or quantum yield (which is defined as the photoelectric current in amperes per watt of incident light) depends on the frequency (and not intensity) of the
incident light.
Intensity
(iii) The maximum velocity of electron emission (and hence kinetic energy) varies
constant
linearly with the frequency o the incident light but is independent of its intensity.

f0
Frequency

Hence, increase in the frequency of the incident light increase the velocity with which photoelectrons are
ejected. The same fact is illustrated by figure. Incidentally, it may be noted that the slope of the curve gives
the value of Plancks constant h.
If the intensity of the incident light is increased (keeping frequency constant), more photons will be incident

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16

ATOMIC PHYSICS
on the metal surface, each photon having the same energy. Hence, more photo electrons will be ejected.
Since an electron can absorb only one photon, each photoelectron will have the same energy and will be
ejected with the same velocity. Obviously, increase in intensity only increases the number of photo-electrons
ejected but not their kinetic energy.
(iv) The velocities of emitted electrons have values between zero and a definite maximum. The proportion
of the electrons having a particular velocity is independent of the intensity of radiation.
(v) Electrons are emitted almost instantaneously even when the intensity of incident radiations is very low.
The time lag between the incidence of radiation and emission of first electrons is less than 108 second.
(vi) For a given metal surface, stopping potential V0 is directly proportional to frequency but is independent
of the intensity of the incident light.
i
Suppose in figure, the frequency and intensity of incident light are
H
held constant but the potential difference V between the two
electrodes E and C is increased. Up to some stage as this p.d. is
b
a
I
increased photoelectric current is also increased. However, soon
some value of V is reached when the current reaches a limiting or
saturation value when al the photoelectrons emitted by E are
v0
v
O
immediately collected by C. Further increase in V hardly produces
any appreciable increase in current as shown by the flat portion of
curve I in figure.
If V is reversed with the help of the reversing switch RS i.e. E is made positive and C negative, the current
i does not immediately drop to zero proving that electrons are emitted from E with some definite velocity.
This velocity is such that it gives enough kinetic energy to the electrons so as to surmount the retarding
electric field between the two electrodes. Hence, some electrons do succeed in reaching C despite the fact
that the electric field opposes their motion.
When reversed V is made large enough, a value V0 (called stopping or inhibiting potential) is reached when
current is reduced to zero.
Stopping potential is that value of the retarding potential difference between the two electrodes which is just
sufficient to half the most energetic photoelectrons emitted.
As seen from curve II of figure, doubling the intensity of the incident light merely doubles the current but
does not affect the value of V0.
Now, if vmax is the maximum velocity of emission of a photoelectron and V0 the stopping potential, then

1
mv 2max
2

or

= eV0 or vmax =

vmax =

2.eV0
m

2 1.76 1011 V0

= 5.93 105

V0 m/s

Obviously Emax = eV0 joules

= V0 electron-volt
If however, the experiment is repeated by varying the frequency of the light, it is found that the stopping
potential varies linearly with frequency as shown in figure. Below threshold frequency, no electrons are
emitted, hence stopping potential is zero for that reason. But as frequency is increased above f0, the stopping
potential varies linearly with the frequency of incident light.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

hf = W0 +

1
mv 2max
2
1
mv 2max = eV0
2

Now,

W 0 = hf0 and

hf = hf0 + eV0 or V0 =

Now,

V0 =

h(f f 0 )
e

c
c
and f0 =

f0
Frequency

ch 1 1

e 0

1 1
= 12.4 107 volt
0

Stopping potential, V0

Einsteins photoelectric equation may be expressed in terms of stopping potential as given below:

1 1
V0 = 12,400 volt
0

and 0 in metres

and 0 in

C9: Photoelectrons with a maximum speed of 7 105 m/sec are emitted from a metal surface when light of
frequency 8 1014 Hz falls on it. Calyculate the threshold frequency of the surface.
Sol:
Emax = h(f f0)

or

1
mv 2max = h(f f0)
2
1
9.1 1031 (7 105)2 = 6.625 1034 (8 1014 f0)
2
f0 = 4.635 1014 Hz

C10: A tungsten cathode whose threshold wavelength 2300 is irradiated by ultraviolet light of wavelength
1800 . Calculate (i) the maximum energy of the photoelectrons emitted and (ii) the work function for
tungsten, both in electron-volts.
Sol: (i)

W0 =

12, 400 12, 400

=
= 5.4 eV
0
2300

1 1
(ii) Emax = 12,400 eV
0

1
1

= 12,400
= 1.5 eV
1800 2300
C11: If light of = 6000 falls on a metal surface and emits photoelectrons with a velocity of 4 105 m/s, what
is photoelectric threshold wavelength ?

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
1
(4 105 )2
31
Sol: K.E. of photoelectrons = 9.1 10
= 0.445 eV
2
1.6 1019

Energy content of photon of = 6000 =

12, 000
= 2.07 eV
6000

W0 = 2.07 0.445 = 1.625 eV

0 =

12, 000
= 7631
1.625

C12: Calculate the threshold frequency for gold having photoelectric work function equal to 4.8 eV. If light of
wavelength 2220 falls on gold, what will be maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons coming out?
12, 000
= 5.58 eV. Out of this, 4.8 eV would be used for dislodging the
2220
electron and the balance would represent its kinetic energy.
Emax = 5.58 4.8 = 0.78 eV

Sol: Energy of the light photon =

Alternatively, 0 =

12, 400
= 2583 . Hence, we may use
4.8

1 1
Emax = 12,400 eV..
0

C13: When violet light of = 4000 Au strikes the cathode of a photocell a retarding potential of 0.4 V is
required to stop emission of electrons. Calculate (i) light frequency (ii) photon energy (iii) work function (iv)
threshold frequency and (v) net energy after the electron leaves the surface.
Sol: (i)

c
3 108
=

4000 1010
= 7.5 1014 Hz

f =

(iii)

E = hf = 6.625 1034 7.5 1014

= 4.95 1019 J = 3.1 eV
W0 = hf K.E. = hf V0 = 3.1 0.4 = 2.7 eV

(iv)

f0 =

(ii)

W0
2.7 1.6 1019
=
h
6.625 1034
= 6.5 1014 Hz

(v) Net energy hf W0 = 3.1 2.7 = 0.4 eV = 6.4 1020 J

Example 9: A photon of wavelength 3310 falling on a photo cathode ejects an electron of energy 3 1019
J and one of wavelength 5000 ejects an electron of energy 0.972 1019 J. Calculate the value of
Plancks constant and the threshold wavelength for the photo cathode.
Sol:

hf = W0 + K.E. or

hc
= W0 + K.E.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

h 3 108
In the first case,
= W0 + 3 1019
3310 1010
h 3 108
In the second case,
= W0 + 0.972 1019
5000 1010
Subtracting one from the other,
h = 6.62 1034 J-s
Substituting this value of h, W0 = 3 1019 J
ch
3 108 6.62 10 34
0 = W =
3 1019
0

vmax

= 6620 1010 m.
= 7.12 105 m/s

Example 10: A certain metal has a threshold wavelength of 6525 . Find the stopping potential when the metal
is irradiated with
(a) monochromatic light having a wavelength of 4000 .
(b) light having twice the frequency and three times the intensity of that in (a) above.
(c) If a material having double the work function were used, what would be the answer to (a) and (b)
above?
1
1

Sol: (a) V0 = 12,400

= 1.2 volt
4000 6525
(b) Stopping potential is independent of the intensity of the incident light but varies directly as frequency f
provided it is more than f0.
Since frequency is twice, the wavelength of the light is half i.e. 2000
1
1

V0 = 12,400
= 4.3 V
2000 6525
6525
(c) If work function is double, then 0 is reduced to half i.e. 0 =
= 3262.5 . Since the incident light
2
has = 4000 , it would not be able to produce photoemission.
In the second case, = 2000 .
1
1

V0 = 12,400
= 2.4 volt
2000 3262.5

C14: A certain metallic surface is illuminated by monochromatic light of variable wavelength. No photoelectrons
are emitted above a wavelength of 5000 . With an unknown wavelength, a stopping potential of 3.1 V is
necessary to stop photoelectric current. Find the unknown wavelength.
Sol: Here, 0 = 5000 , V0 = 3.1 V, = ?
1 1
Now, V0 = 12,400
0

1
1
3.1 = 12,400

5000
= 2,222

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
C15: Light of wavelength 2000 falls on an aluminium surface. In aluminium, 4.2 eV are required to remove an
electron. Determine (i) KE of the fastest emitted photo-electron (ii) KE of the slowest emitted photoelectron (iii) stopping potential and (iv) cut-off wavelength for aluminium.
Sol: Photon energy of the incident light is
12400
= 6.2 eV
2000
(i) Emax = (6.2 4.2) eV
= 2 eV = 2 1.6 1019 = 3.2 1019 J
(ii) Emin = 0
(iii) Ve = Emax = 2 V

(iv) 0 =

12400 12400
W0 = 4.2 = 2952.4

C16: The stopping potential is 4.6 V for light of frequency 2 1015 Hz. When light of frequency 4 1015 Hz is
used, the stopping potential is 12.9 V. Calculate the value of Plancks constant.
Sol:
eV0 = h(f f0)
Substituting the two given values, we get
4.6e = h (2 1015 f0)
12.9e = h(4 1015 f0)
Subtracting one from the other, we have
8.3e = 2h 1015
8.3 1.6 1019 = 2h 1015

h =

8.3 1.6 10 19
= 6.44 1034 Js
2 1015

Example 11. 103 W of 5000 light is directed on a photoelectric cell. If the current in the cell is 0.16 A, the
percentage of incident photons which produce photoelectrons, is
(A) 0.4%
(B) .04%
(C) 20%
(D) 10%
Sol. The percentage of incident photons which produce photoelectrons is
=

n / t
100
N / t

...(1)

ne
t

n I 0.16 1016

t e 1.6 1019
n
1012
t
N hc
W
and

t
1012
Persentage = 16 4 100
10

Persentage 0.04%

...(2)

N W 1016

t
hc
4

...(3)

[from eq. (1), (2) and (3)]

Hence (B) is correct.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 12. In a photo-emissive cell, with exciting wavelength , the maximum kinetic energy of electron is K.
If the exciting wavelength is changed to
(A) 3K/4
Sol.

(B) 4K/3

3
the the kinetic energy of the fastest emitted electron will be :
4
(C) less than 4K/3
(D) greater than 4K/3

hc
K

...(1)

hc
K
3 / 4
Substracte eqn. (1) from eq. (2)

...(2)

4hc hc
KK
3
4hc 3hc
K K
3
hc
K K
3
K
K K
3

K
K
3

4K
3

Hence (D) is correct.

Example 13. Let K1 be the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted by a light of wavelength 1 and
K2 corresponding to 2. If 1= 22, then :
(A) 2K1 = K2
Sol.

(B) K1 = 2K2

(C) K1 <

K2
2

(D) K1 > 2K2

P2
K.E. =
2m

P 2mK
P K

h
K

1
K

1
K2

2
K1

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

1 = 22

2 2

2
4

K2
K1

K2
K1

K1

K2
4

K1

K2
2

Hence (C) is correct.

Example 14. Radiation of two photon energies twice and five times the work function of metal are incident
sucessively on the metal surface. The ratio of the maximum velocity of photoelectrons emitted is the two
cases will be
(A) 1 : 2
(B) 2 : 1
(C) 1 : 4
(D) 4 : 1
Sol.
E1 = 2
E2 = 5
E1 = + K1
2 = + K1
K1 =
and
E2 = + K2
5 = + K2
K2 = 4

K1 1

K2 4

1
mv 2max 1 1
2

1
2
mv max 2 4
2
v 2max1
v

2
max 2

v max 1
v max 2

1
4

1
2

Hence (A) is correct.

Example 15. When photons of energy 4.25 eV strike the surface of a metal A, the ejected photoelectrons have
maximum kinetic energy Ta eV and de-Broglie wavelength a. the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
liberated from another metal B by photones of energy 4.7 eV is Tb = (Ta 1.5) eV. If the De-Broglie
wavelength of these photoelectrons is b = 2a, then find
(a) The work function of a
(b) The work function of b is
(c) Ta and Tb

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
1
h A mv 2Amax
2

Sol.
and

h
PA

PA

h
a

1
P2
mv 2A max A
2
2m

h A

or

4.25 = A

where m is mass of electron.

PA2
2m
h2
2m 2a

...(1)

For B,
4.7 = B + Tb
h2
4.7 B
2m 2b
But
b = 2a
and
Tb = Ta 1.5
After solving
(a) 2.25 eV
(b) 4.2 eV

...(2)

(c) 2 eV and 0.5 eV

C17: An isolated metal body is illuminated with monochromatic light and is observed to become charged to a
steady positive potential 1.0 V with respect to the surrounding. The work function of the metal is 3.0 eV. the
frequency of the incident light is __________.
Sol.
h = + eV
or
h = 3 + 1 = 4 eV

4 eV 4 1.6 10 19

h
6.63 1034
= 0.96 1015 Hz

Example 16. 663 mW of light from a 540 nm source is incident on the surface of a metal. If only 1 of each 5
109 incident photons is absorbed and causes an electron to be ejected from the surface, the total photocurrent
in the circuit is _______.
N
= no. of photon incident per second.
t

Sol.

663 103

N hc
t

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

N 663 103
663 103

hc
1242 nmeV
t

540

n / t
1

N / t 5 109

n
1
N
1
663 103 540

t 5 109 t 5 109
1242 nmeV

ne
5.76 1011 A
t

Example 17. Light of wavelength 330 nm falling on a piece of metal ejects electrons with sufficient energy which
requires voltage V0 to prevent a electron from reading collector. In the same setup, light of wavelength 220
nm, ejects electrons which require twich the voltage V0 stop them in reaching a collector. Find the numerical
value of voltage V 0. (take planks constant, h = 6.6 1034 Js and 1 eV = 1.6 1019 J)
hc
eV0
1

Sol.
and

hc
2eV0
2

Here
1 = 330 nm
and
2 = 220 nm
After solving,
V0

15
volt
8

Example 18. A small 10W source of ultraviolet light of wavelength 99 nm is held at a distance 0.1 m from a
metal surface. The radius of an atom of the metal is approximately 0.05 nm. Find
(i) the average number of photons striking an atom per second.
(ii) the number of photoelectrons emitted per unit area per second if the efficiency of liberation of photoelectrons is
1%.

10
4(0.1) 2
w = power incident on atom

Sol. (i) I = intensity =

2
= I r

10
0.05 10 9
2
4 10

n hc
t

n
w
5

t hc / 16

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(ii) no. of photons incident per unit area per second
I
hc /
no. of ejected electrons per unit area per second

I
1
1020

hc / 100 80

Example 19. The surface of cesium is illuminated with monochromatic light of

various wavelengths and the stopping potentials for the wavelengths are
measured. The results of this experiment is plotted as shown in the figure.
estimate the value of work function of the cesium and Plancks constant.

supporting potential (volt)

2
1
0
1
2

0.49
0.5 1.0 1.5

v 10 15 Hz

h = + eVs

Sol.
or

Vs

e e

From graph
h
2

e 0.49 1015

But

2
1.6 1019
15
0.49 10
h = 6.53 1034 Js
h

2
e
= 2 eV

Example 20. In a photoelectric effect set-up a point source of light of power 3.2 103 W emits monoenergetic
photons of energy 5.0 eV. The source is located at a distance of 0.8 m from the centre of a stationary
metallic sphere of work function 3.0 eV and of radius 8.0 103 m. The efficiency of photoelectron
emission is one for every 106 incident photons. Assume that the sphere is isolated and initially neutral and
that photoelectrons are instantly swept away after emission.
(a) Calculate the number of photoelectrons emitted per second.
(b) Find the ratio of the wavelength of incident light to the de-Broglie wavelength of the fastest photoelectrons
emitted.
(c) It is observed that the photoelectron emission stops at a certain time t after the light source is switched on
why?
(d) Evaluate the time t.
Sol. (a) Energy of emitted photons
E1 = 5.0 eV = 5.0 1.6 1019 J
E1 = 8.0 1019 J
Power of the point source is 3.2 103 watt or 3.2 103 J/s
s 0.8 m
r = 8.0103 m
Therefore, energy emitted per second,
E2 = 3.2 103 J.
Hence number of photons emitted per second

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
n1

E2
E1

or

n1

3.2 103
8.0 1019

n1 = 4.0 1015 photons/sec.

Number of photons incident on unit area at a distance of 8.0 m from the source S will be

n1
4.0 1015
n2 =
=
5.0 1014 photon/sec m2.
4 (0.8)2
4(0.64)
The area of metallic sphere over which photons will fall is :
A = r2 = (8 103)2 m2 2.01 104 m2
Therefore, number of photons incident on the sphere per second are
n3 = n2 A = (5.0 1014 2.01 104) 10111 per second
But since one photoelectron is emitted for every 106 photons hence number of photoelectrons emitted per
second,

n3
1011
n = 6 = 6 = 105 per second
10
10
5
or
n = 10 per second
(b) Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
Kmax = Energy of incident photones work function
Kmax = (5.0 3.0) eV = 2.0 eV = 2.0 1.6 1019 J
Kmax = 3.2 1019 J
The de-Broglie wavelength of these photoelectrons will be
1

h
2 K max m

(Here h = Plancks constant and m = mass of electron)

6.63 10 34

1
2 3.2 10 19 9.1 10 31
1 = 8.681010 m = 8.68
12375
Wavelength of incident light 2 (in ) = E (in eV)
1
12375
= 2476
5
Therefore, the desired ratio is

or

2 =

2 2475

285.1
1 8.68

(c) As soon as electrons are emitted from the metal sphere, it gets positively charged and acquires positive
potential. The positive potential gradually increases as more and more photoelectrons are emitted from its
surface. Emission of photoelectrons is stopped when its potential is equal to the stopping potential required
for fastest moving electrons.
(b) As discussed in part (c), emission of photoelectrons is stopped when potential on the metal sphere is
equal to the stoppeing potential of fastest moving electrons.
Since
Kmax = 2.0 eV

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Therefore, stopping potential V0 = 2 volt. Let q be the charge required for the potential on the sphere to be
equal to stopping potential or 2 volt. Then
2

1 q
9
. 9.0 109
4 0 r
8.0 103

q = 1.78 1012 C
Photoelectrons emitted per second = 105
[part a]
19
5
or charge emitted per second
= (1.6 10 ) 10 C
= (1.6 1014) C
Therefore, time required to acquire to charge q will be

q
1.728 102
sec

sec
1.6 1014
1.6
t 111 second
t

or

Example 21. Monochromatic radiation of wavelength 1 = 3000 falls on a photocell operating in saturation
mode. The corresponding spectral sensitivity of photocell is J = 4.8 mA/W. When another monochromatic
radiation of wavelength 2 = 1650 and power P = 5 mW is incident. It is found that maximum velocity of
photoelectrons increases to n = 2 times. Assuming efficiency of photo-electron generation per incident
photon to be same for both the cases, calculate
(i) threshold wavelength for the cell and
(ii) saturation current in second case.
[Given, h = 6.6 1034 Js, c = 3 108 ms1 and e = 1.6 1019 coul.]
hc
W0, where is wavelength of incident

radiation and W0 is work function of the surface on which radiation is incident.

Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted by radiation of wavelength 1 is

Sol. Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is given by Ek =

given by

1
hc
mv12 =
W0
2
1

hc

mv12 2 W0
...(1)
1

where m is mass of an electron and v1 is maximum velocity of photoelectrons.

or

Similarly, for radiation of wavelength 1,

But

1
hc
mv 22
W0
2
2

...(2)

v2 = 2v1, therefore from equation (2),

2mv12

hc
W0
2

...(3)

From equations (1) and (3),

hc
hc
4 W0
W0
1
2
or

W0 = 3 eV

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
hc
But work-function W0 = where 0 is threshold wavelength.
0
hc

0 = W = 4125
Ans. (i)
0
In saturation mode, spectal sensitivity with wavelength 1 = 3000 is J = 4.8 mA/W or 4.8 mC/J. It means
when 1 joule radiation of wavelength 1 = 3000 is incident, a charge of 4.8 mC flows in saturation mode
4.8 mC
or
electrons are ejected.
e
hc
Energy of each photon of wavelength 1 is E1 =
1
Number of photons in 1 joule radiation of wavelength 1
1 1

E1 hc
J
4.8 103
=
= 3 1016
e 1.6 10 19
Efficiency of photo-electron generation per incident photon,
3 1016

0.0198 .
(1 / hc)
Energy of each photon of wavelength 2,
hc
E2 =
2
Rate of incidence of photons of wavelength 2 in a radiation of power P

No. of electrons ejected by these photons =

P P 2

E2
hc per second

Since, efficiency of photo-electron generation is same for both the case, therefore, rate of ejection of
electrons in later case
P
. 2 per second
hc
P 2
Rate of flow of charge in saturation mode =
e Cs1 = 13.2 Cs1
hc
But rate of flow of charge is current. Hence, saturation current is second case = 13.2 A. Ans. (ii)
A
Example 22. A monochromatic point source S radiating wavelength
= 6000 with power P = 2 watt, an aperture A of radius R = 1 cm
and a large screen are placed as shown in fig. A photoemissive detector S
D
L
D of surface area S = 0.5 cm2 is placed at centre of the screen.
Efficiency of detector for photoelectric emission per incident photon
60cm
is = 0.9.
6m
(i) calculate photon flux at centre of screen and photo current in the detector.
(ii) If a convex lens L of focal length f = 30 cm is inserted in the aperture as shown, calculate new value of
photon flux and photo current assuming a uniform average transmission of 80% from the lens.
(iii) If work function of photo-emissive surface is W0 = 1 eV, calculate value of stopping potential in two cases
(without and with the lens in aperture).
Given, h = 6.625 1034 J-S, c = 3 108 ms1.

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29

ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol. Photon flux is rate of incidence of photons per unit are of detector. Therefore, to calculate photon flux, first
rate of emission of electrons from the source should be calculated.
hc

Rate of emission of energy from the source is

E

Energy of each photon is

P = 2 watt = 2 Js1

Rate of emission of photons from the source is n

(i)

P P

E hc

or
n = 6.04 1018 photons per second
Distance of detector from source is r1 = 6 m
Photon flux at detector,
1

n
1.33 1016 photons/m2s
4r12

Rate of incidence of photons on detector = 1 . S

Rate of emission of electrons from detector = 1S per second
Since, current is charge flowing per second, therefore photo current
= (1S)e = 9.6 108 amp
(ii) When a concave lens is inserted in the aperture, it refracts incident rays. Therefore, photon flux and hence
photo-current changes.
Distance of lens from source is r2 = 0.60 m
n
Photon flux at lens is = 4r 2 = 1.33 1018 photons/m2s
2

Considering a very small area A of the lens,

Rate of incidence of photons on this area of lens = A
Now considering refraction through the lens,
u = 60 cm, f = + 30 cm v = ?
1 1 1
,
v = + 60 cm
v u f
Since, average transmission from lens is 80%, therefore, rate of transmission of photons from area A of lens
= 0.8 A
But these photons are transmitted in a solid angle subtended by the area A at P as shown in fig.

Using lens formule,

A
A

2
v
(0.6)2
Rate of photons transmitted per unit solid angle is

This solid angle,

(0.8 A)
= (0.8 ) (0.6)2 = 0.288

S
v

4.80m

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Solid angle subtended by unit area of detector at P, =

1
(4.80)2

Photon flux at D, 2 = T = 1.67 1016 photons/m2s

Rate of incidence of photons on detector = 2S
Rate of emission of electrons from detector = 2S
Photo current = (2S)e = 1.20 107 amp
hc

(iii) Since, stopping potential V0 is given by e.V0 = W0 and and W0 both remain unchanged, therefore,

stopping potential is same for both the cases.

1 hc

V0 W0 1.07 volt

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT

According to wave theory, when light falls on a metal surface, energy is continuously distributed over the
surface, energy is continuously distributed over the surface. All the free electrons at the surface receive light
energy. An electron may be ejected only when it acquired energy more than the work function. If we use a
low-intensity source, it may take hours before an electron acquires this much energy from the light. In this
period, there will be many collisions and any extra energy accumulated so far will be shared with the
remaining metal. This will result in no photoelectron. This is contrary to experimental observations. No
matter how small is the intensity, photoelectrons are ejected and that too without any appreciable time
delay. In the photon theory, low intensity means less number of photons and hence less number of electrons
get a change to absorb energy. But any fortunate electron on which a photon falls, gets the full energy of the
photon and may come out immediately.
In figure, we illustrate an analogy to the wave the particle behaviour of light. In part (a), water is sprayed
from a distance on an area containing several plants. Each plant receives water at nearly the same rate. It
takes time for a particular plant to receive a certain amount of water. In part (b) of the figure, water is filled
in identical, loosely-tied water bags and a particle physicist throws the bags randomly at the plants. When a
bag collides with a plant, it sprays all its water on that plant in a very short time. In the same way, whole of
the energy associated with a photon is absorbed by a free electron when the photon hits it.

(a)

(b)

The maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron does not depend on the intensity of the incident light. This
fact is also not understood by the wave theory. According to this theory, more intensity means more energy
and the maximum kinetic energy must increase with the increase in intensity which is not true. The dependence
of maximum kinetic energy on wavelength is also against the wave theory. There should not be any threshold
wavelength according to the wave theory. According to this theory, by using sufficiently intense light of any
wavelength, an electron may be given the required amount of energy to come out. Experiments, however,
show the existence of threshold wavelength.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT
(a) Wave nature:
Wave nature of light can be explained on the basis of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization.
(b) Particle Nature:
Energy is transported by energy particles, photons. It could be explained by photoelectric effect, Zeeman
effect, Compton effect etc.
MATTER WAVE THEORY OR DE-BROGLIES THEORY
(a) This theory was given on the basis of duel nature of light.
(b) According to de-Broglie theory each and every moving particle has some wave nature associated with itself
which is called matter waves.
(c) Thus, moving particles like e, proton, neutron, -particle etc, also behave like waves.
(d) These waves are waves of probability.
(e) The wavelength associated with a moving particles is given by = h/p, where p is the momentum of the
particle.
(f) This wavelength is known as the de-Broglie wavelength of the particle.
DE BROGLIE WAVELENGTHS
For Photon

For moving particle

Rest mass

Zero

Effective mass

m=

Energy (kinetic)

E = hv =

Momentum

p=

h
E
h
=
=
c
c

p = mv =

2mE

Wavelength

h
hc
=
p
E

h
=
p

h
2mE

h
E
2 =
c2
c
hc

E=

m0
1 v2 / c2
1
p2
mv2, E =
2
2m

h
2mE
K.E. = qV
=

Wavelength for charged particle

accelerated by V volts
Speed

m=

c = 3 108 m/s

De-Broglies explanation for stable Bohrs orbits :

(a) De-Broglie suggested that non-radiation of energy by the electrons circling
in a Bohrs orbit can be explained on the basis on the basis of the formation
of stationary waves by the electrons in circular motion in Bohrs orbits.
(b) Comparing this to the vibrations of a wire loop such stationary waves would
be formed if each wave joins smoothly with the next.

v=

2E / m =

2qV / m

r
O

Fourth Bohr-orbit

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(c) In other words the number of wavelengths must be an integer.
(d) Condition for stable orbits :
An election can circle around an atomic nucleus without radiation energy if the circumference of its orbit is
an integral multiple of the electrons wavelength.
i.e.
2r = n condition for stable orbits.
2r = n

h
nh
nh
pr =
mvr =
p
2
2

[ p = mv]

nh
2
As mvr is the angular momentum of the circling electron. Bohrs postulate is justified.

mvr =

C18: Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the motion of earth (mass = 6 1024kg) orbiting
around the sun at a speed of 3 106 ms1.
Sol:

6.63 1034 (Js)

h
=
=
(6 1024 ) (3 106 )(kg ms1 )
mv
= 3.68 1065 m

NOTE: The wavelengths associated with the motion of macroscopic objects like earth, train etc, are
negligible compared to their sizes. This is why the wave-like character of these objects is not
observable in our daily life.
C19: Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an -particle of mass 6.576 1027 kg and charge 3.2 1019
coulomb, accelerated though 2000 V.
Sol:
E = kinetic energy of a-particle = qV

E = 3.2 1019 2000 J = 6.4 1016 J

de Broglie wavelength,
h
=
,
[ 2mE = momentum of photon]
2mE
=

6.63 10 34 (J s)
2 6.576 10

27

6.4 10

16

(J kg)

= 2.28 1013 m

NOTE: The wavelength associated with -particles is of the order of size of the -particle.
That is why the wave like character of a-particle is observable.
C20: A particle of mass m and charge q is accelerated through a potential difference V. Find (a) its kinetic energy
(b) momentum, and (c) de-Broglie wavelength associated with its motion.
Sol: When the particle is accelerated through a potential difference V, gain in kinetic energy is given by K = qV.
(a) Thus, kinetic energy, K = qV.
p2
(b) Momentum of the particle (p) is given by K =
2m
p = 2mK = 2m qv

Momentum = 2m qv

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(c)

De- Broglie wavelength is given by,

=

h
=
p

h
2m qV

Thus, wavelength =

h
2m qV

Example 23. Assume that the de-Broglie was associated with an electron can form a standing wave between
the atoms arranged in a one dimensional array with nodes at each of the atomic sites. It is found that one
such standing wave is formed if the distance d between the atoms of the array is 2 . A similar standing
wave is again formed if d is increased to 2.5 but not for any intermediate value of d. Find the energy of
the electron in eV and the least value of d for which the standing wave of the type described above can
form.
Sol. From the figure it is clear that
2
p . (/2) = 2
(p + 1) . /2 = 2.5
N
N

/2 = (2.5 2.0) = 0.5

p-loops
/2
or
= 1 = 1010 m
(i) de Broglie wavelength is given by
(p + 1) loops
2.5

h
h

p
2 km
K = kinetic energy of electron

h2
(6.63 1034 )2
K

2.415 1017 J
2
31
10 2
2m
2(9.1 10 )(10 )
2.415 1017
K
eV
1.6 1019

(ii) N

K = 150.8 eV
N The least value of d will be when only one loop is formed
dmin = /2

or

dmin = 0.5

C21: Find the de-broglie wavelength associated with an electron accelerated through a potential difference of
30 kV.
Sol: Kinetic energy of the electron
K = qV = e(30 kV) = 30 keV = 30 103 1.6 1019 J = 4.8 1015 J
Now, momentum of the electron =
De-broglie wavelength, =

2mK = 2 9.1 1034 4.8 1015 kg.J = 2.96 1024 kg.m/s

h
Momentum

6.63 1034 J s
=
2.96 1024 Kg m / s
= 2.24 1010 m = 2.24 A

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOMIC MODEL
By now, it is well-known that matter, electricity and radiation etc. are all atomic in character. Although, no
one has so far seen individual atoms, there is no doubt that they really exist. In 1895, it was discovered by
J.Perrin in Paris that the cathode rays consist of negatively-charged practices called electrons. In 1897,
J.J. Thomson measured the e/m ratio for an electron whereas its charge was measured by Millikan in
1906 by his famous oil-drop experiment. Mass of the electron was found by dividing charge e by the ratio
e/m. Discovery of positive rays during the latter part of 19th century indicated that a normal atom consisted
of both negative and positive charges. But how these charges are distributed in an atom was not known at
that time. Consinuous efforts have been made since then to study the physical structure of an atom such as
its extra-nuclear electronic structure chiefly with the help of spectral properties of atoms. To account for the
spectroscopic data obtained experimentally over the years, several theories regarding atomic structure have
been proposed from time to time which are called the atomic models. Various atomic models proposed by
scientists over the last few decades are:
(i) Thomsons Plum pudding model, (ii) Rutherfords Nuclear model, (iii) Bohrs model (iv) Sommerfelds
Relativistic model (v) Vector model and finally (vi) Wave-mechanical model.
These different models have been suggested one after the other in an effort to get a satisfactory interpretation
of the experimental data which, it is hoped, will ultimately lead to a perfect and complete understanding of
the physical structure of an atom.
+ +
+ +
+

+ + +

+ + + +

+ +

++ +

+
+
+
+
+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + + + +

+ +

++ +
++

+ +

+ + + +

+ +

+ +

+ + +

+ + + +
+

+
+ + + +
Thomsons Plum Pudding Model
+
+ + +
+ + + +
According to this model, the atom is regarded as a heavy sphere of positive
+ + + +

charge seasoned with enough electron plums to make it electrically neutral.

+ +
+ +
Thomson visualized the positive charge of an atom being spread out uniformly

throughout a sphere of about 1010 metre radius with electrons as smaller

particles distributed in circular shells as shown in figure. Whereas the net force
exerted by the positively-charged sphere on each electron is towards the centre of the sphere, the different
electrons experience mutual repulsion and get arranged in the form of circular shells.
This atomic model was given up after some time because it could not provide any satisfactory mechanism
for explaining the large deflection suffered by -particles in Rutherfords experiment.

+ + +

Rutherfords Experiment on -particle Scattering

As shown in figure high-speed a-particle (i.e. helium nuclei each with a charge of +2e) from some radioactive
material like radium or radon, confined to a narrow beam by a hole in a lead block, were made to strike a
very thin gold foil G. While most of the -particles went straight through the foil as if there were nothing there
(and produced scintillations on a fluorescent screen), some of them collided with the atoms of the foil and
were scattered around at various angles -a few being turned back towards the source itself.

Lead block

15
0

45
60

Beam of
-particles

Radium

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Although some small angle scattering could be expected from Thomsons model, large-angle scattering was
absolutely not expected at all. Further detailed experiments in Rutherfords laboratory by Geiger and Marsden
showed conslusively that large-angle scattering can be expected only if one assumes that a massive positive
point charge exists at the centre of each gold atom as shown in figure.
According to this model proposed by Rutherford in 1911, the positive massive part of an atom is assumed
to be concentrated in a very small volume at its centre. This central core, now called nucleus, is surrounded
by a cloud of electrons which makes the entire atom electrically neutral.
The large-angle scattering of positively-charged -particles
Trajectory
P
could be easily explained on this atomic model as shown in of -particle

Nucleus

figure. This scattering is due to the mutual repulsion (as per

Coulombs law) between the -particles and the concentrated
+Ze
positive charge on the nucleus. The -particle approaches
the positively-charged nucleus along AO. If there were no
Asymptote
of trajectory
repulsion from the nucleus, it would have passed at a distance
of p from it. However, due to
coulombic force of repulsion, the -particle follows a hyperbola with nucleus as its focus. The lines AO and
AO are the asymptotes of the hyperbola and present approximately the initial and final directions of the particle when it has passed out of the effective range of the nuclear electric field.
As seen, the -particle is deflected through an angle . The perpendicular distance from the nucleus to the
line AO is called the impact parameter and is denoted by p. The Rutherfords scattering formula is
Q1Q2
=
2pE
2
Charge of the incoming -particle
Charge of the scattering nucleus
Kinetic energy of the incident -particle
Impact parameter

tan

where

Q1 =
Q2 =
E =
p =

Distance of Closest Approach

Suppose that an -particle approaches a positively-charged nucleus for a head on collision with a kinetic
energy of K. As shown in figure at point A, the repulsive force of the nucleus is so strong as to stop the particle momentarily. At this point, all the kinetic energy of the -particle is converted into potential energy.
Let D be the distance of closest approach of the -particle. The potential at point A due to nuclear charge
Ze is
Ze
= 4 D
0

Potential energy of the -particle when at point A is

Ze.2e
2Ze
= 4 D =
4 0 D
0

2Ze 2
2Ze 2
K=
or D =
4 0 D
4 0 K

Since -particles are generally obtained from natural radioactive substances, their kinetic energy K is
known. Hence, value of D can be found easily from the above equation.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
C22: In Geiger-Marsden experiment on -particle scattering from gold foil, the kinetic energy of -particles
used was 7.68 MeV. Calculate the distance of closest approach of -particle if atomic number of gold in
79.
2Ze 2
D=
4 0 K

Sol:
Here,

Z = 79, e = 1.6 1019 C;

0 = 8.854 1012 F/m
13
K = 7.68 MeV = 7.68 1.6 10 J

2 79 (1.6 10 19 )2
4 8.854 1012 7.68 1.6 1013
= 2.96 1014 m

D=

Major Deficiencies in Rutherfords Nuclear Model

It was found later on that Rutherfords model had two serious drawbacks concerning
(i) distribution of electrons outside the nucleus and
(ii) the stability of the atom as a whole.
It can be shown that electrostatic forces between the positive nucleus and the static negative extra-nuclear
electrons are not enough to produce equilibrium in such a nuclear atom. For example, consider the case of
an atom* having two electrons and a nucleus with a charge of +2e. Suppose the electrons are symmetrically
placed at a distance of r from the nucleus and are stationary. The force of attraction between the nucleus and
each of the electrons is F = e.

2e
2e 2
=
while the force of repulsion between the two electrons is
4 r 2 4 r 2

e2
e2
=
. Since the force of attraction is eight times the force of repulsion, the electrons will
4 4r 2 16 r 2
fall into the nucleus thereby destroying the stable structure of the atom.

+
2e
+

+
+

+
2e
+

m v
r e
+
+

2e
+

Photon

(hv)

(b)

(a)

(c)

To overcome this difficulty, Rutherford suggested that stability can be achieved (as in a solar system) by
assuming that electrons, instead of being static, revolve round the nucleus with such a speed that the centrifugal
force balances the attractive force exerted by the nucleus on the electrons. As seen from figure (b), condition
for stability is achieved when
2e.e
2e 2
mv 2
2
= 4 r 2 or mv r =
4 0
r
0
In general, if Z is the atomic number, then nuclear charge is Ze, so that the above relation becomes
Ze.e
mv 2
= 4 r 2
r
0

Ze 2
or mv r =
4 0
2

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Incidentally, it may be noted that according to the above relation, it is possible to have an infinite number of
orbits in which electrons can rotate.
But this assumption of revolving electrons led to serious difficulty from the point of view o the electromagnetic
theory according to which an accelerated charge must continuously emit electromagnetic radiation or energy.
Since an electron revolving in a circular orbit has centripetal acceleration (= v2/r), it must radiate energy as
per the laws of classical electrodynamics.
Due to this continuous loss of energy, the electrons will gradually approach the nucleus by a spiral path and
finally fall into it as shown in figure (c). Hence, it is seen that the orbital motion of the electron destroys the
very purpose for which it was postulated i.e. the stability of the atom. Obviously, either Rutherfords nuclear
atomic model with revolving electrons is defective or the classical electromagnetic theory fails in this particular
case. This dilemma was solved in 1913 by Neils Bohr who proposed an improved version of Rutherfords
atomic model.
Bohrs Atomic model
This model (first proposed for hydrogen atom but later applied to other atoms as well) retains the two
essential features of Rutherfords planetary model i.e.
(i) the atom has a massive positively-charged nucleus and
(ii) the electrons revolve round their nucleus in circular orbits the centrifugal force being balanced, as before, by
the electrostatic pull between the nucleus and electrons.
However, he extended this model further by utilizing Plancks Quantum Theory. He made the following
three assumptions:
(iii) an electron cannot revolve round the nucleus in any arbitrary orbit but in just certain definite and discrete
orbits. Only those orbits are possible (or permitted) for which the orbital angular momentum (i.e. moment of
h
nh
i.e. orbital angular momentum =
where
2
2
n is an integer and h is Plancks constant. Such orbits are also known as stationary orbits.
(iv) while revolving in these permitted stationary (or stable) orbits, the electron does not radiate out any
electromagnetic energy. In other words, the permissible orbits are non-radiating paths of the electron.
(v) the atom radiates out energy only when an electron jumps from one orbit to another. I f E2 and E1 are the
energies corresponding to two orbits before and after the jump, the frequency of the emitted photon is given
by the relation
E2 E1 = hv or E = hv
where v is the frequency of the emitted radiations.

momentum) of the electron is equal to an integral multiple of

C 23: If I is the moment of inertia of an electron and its angular velocity, then as per assumption (iii) given
above
I =

nh
2

or

(mr2) =

nh
2

n.h
n.h
(mr 2 )v
=
or
mvr =
2
2
r
Alternatively, since the momentum of the revolving electron is mv, its moment
about the nucleus is = mvr

or

Hence

n.h
mvr =
2

.....(i)

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r

38

ATOMIC PHYSICS
where, n = 1, 2, 3 for the first second and third orbits respectively. It is called the principal quantum number
and because it can take whole number values only, it fixes the sizes of the allowed orbits (also called Bohrs
circular orbits).
E3
E2

r1 r2

E1

E3
E2

E1

r3

+Ze

+Ze

n=1
n=2
n=3

Permitted orbits
(a)

K
L
M

Electron Jump
(b)

Let the different permitted orbit have energies of E1, E2, E3 etc. as shown in figure (a). The electron can be
raised from n = 1 orbit to any other higher orbit if it is given proper amount of energy. When it drops back
to n = 1 orbit after a short interval of time, it gives out the energy difference E in the form of a radiation as
shown in figure (b). The relation between the energy released and frequency of the emitted radiation is
E2 E1 = hv or E = hv
Expressions for velocity, radius, energy of electron and orbital frequency in Bohrs orbit
Here it should be kept in mind that Bohrs model is valid only for hydrogen atom and hydrogen-like ions. In
other words, we can say that is applicable to hydrogen atom and ions having just one electron. Examples of
such ions are He+, Li++, Be+++ etc.
According to Bohrs
2

First postulate,

Ze
mv
2 =
4 0 r
r

1
where 4 = 9 109 Nm2 C2
0

and

0 = 8.854 1012 C2/Nm2

= Absolute permittivity
of vacuum or free space

Ze2
r=
4 0 mv 2

ze
+ r

e, m

v = velocity of electron
m
Z
r
e
n

=
=
=
=
=

mass of an electron
atomic number
radius of the orbit
magnitude of charge on an electron
principal quantum number i.e. orbit number

.....(i)

From fourth postulate of Bohr, we have

nh
.....(ii)
2
where, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ........ i.e., n is a positive integer.
From equations (i) and (ii), we get

mvr =

Ze2
ze 2
nh
mv
=

v =
4 0 mv 2
2 0 nh
2
Now, let us substitute the value of v in equation (ii),

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
ze 2 r
nh
m
=
2 0 nh
2
Note that for fixed n,

0 n 2 h 2
r
mZe 2

v Z,

1
Z

1
,
r n2
n
If V1 is the speed of the electron in the 1st orbit

For fixed z,

Z
c
, where V1 =
, where c is speed of light.
n
137
If a0 = first Bohr radius = 0.53 , then

Then, Vn = V1

rn = a0

n2
Z

mZ2 e 4
1
kZe 2
2
K.E. of the electron = mv =
=K=
,
8 20 h 2 n 2
2
2r
Potential energy of the atom =

Ze 2
kZe 2
=U=
4 0 r
r

[k = 1/40]

mZ2 e 4
U=
4 02 h 2 n 2
Total energy of the atom, E = K + U
E=

mZ2 e 4
8 20 h 2 n 2

In general, En = 13.6

Z2
in eV..
n2

Orbital frequency for the electron,

Ze 2 mZe 2
mZ2 e 4
V
v=
=
v=
2 2 0 hn0 h 2 n 2
4 02 n 3 h 3
2r
Time period of revolution (T) is given by
T = T1

n3
Z2

where T1 = time period of revolution in the 1st orbit = 1.52 1016 s =

2a 0
v1

NOTE : It is assumed that the acceleration of the nucleus is negligible on account of its large mass.
Some important results for H-atoms when n = 1
1. Bohr radius,
a0 = 0.53
rn = a0n2/Z
2. v1 = 2.18 106 ms1 c/137
3.

E1 = 13.6 eV =

U1
2

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
U1
2

4.

K 1 = 13.6 eV =

5.
6.
7.
8.

U1 = 27.2 eV
v1 = 6.6 1015 Hz
1 rydberg = 13.6 eV
B1 = 12.5 tesla, where B1 is the magnetic field at the centre of Bohr atom due to the current generated by
the motion of electron in 1st orbit.

Ground state and excited states

The state of an atom with the lowest energy is called its ground state or normal state. For ground state, n =
1.
The states with higher energies are called excited states. For the first excited state, n = 2; for the 2nd excited
state, n = 3 and so on.
For mth excited state, n = m + 1
Ionization energy and ionization potential
The minimum energy needed to ionize an atom is called ionization energy.
The potential difference through which an electron should be accelerated to acquire the value of ionization
energy is called ionization potential.
The value of ionization energy of H-atom in ground state is 13.6 eV that of ionization potential is 13.6 eV.
Binding energy
Binding energy of a system is the energy needed to separate its constituents to large distances or it may be
defined as the energy released when its constituents are brought from infinity to form the system.
The value of binding energy of H-atom is 13.6 eV, identical to its ionization energy.
Excitation energy and excitation potential
The energy needed to take the atom from its ground state to an excited state is called the excitation energy
of that excited state.
The potential difference through which an electron should be accelerated to acquire the value of excitation
energy is called excitation potential.
NOTE : (A) I.E. = E E1 = E1 = Binding energy of the H-atom.
(B)
Movement of electron in circular orbits in a Bohr atom causes electric current in the orbit. This
current will lead to self-generated magnetic field in the atom and also magnetic current (m)
(a) Magnetic field(B)
If B is the magnetic field generated at the centre of atom, then
e
0i
B = 2a , where i is the current due to motion of the electron
0

and a0 is the 1st Bohr-radius.

Hence, i = ev

a0
+e
H-atom

0 e
hence B = 2a
0

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Putting the values of v and a0, we get B = 12.5 Tesla

Magnetic movement vector ( )

(b)

= iA

= iA = ev a 20

(c)

Relation between & L (angular momentum vector)

= iA = ev a 20 ,

[i = ev, A = a 20 ]

L = mV1a0 = m2v a 20

[V1 = 2va0]

ea 20

=
2 =
m2a 0
L
2m
L
2m
Vectorially,
e
L
2m

Example 24: The quantum number of Bohr orbit in H-atom whose radius is 0.01 mm is
(a) 223
(b) 435
(c) 891
(d) none of these
Sol: (b) We know that
rn = a0n2
rn
n2 = a
0

n =

0.01 10 3
0.529 1010

n = 435

Example 25: The quantum number n in the Bohrs model of H-atom specifies:
(a) radius of the electron
(b) energy of the electron
(c) angular momentum of the electron
(d) all of these
Sol: (d)

0 h 2
rn = me 2 n2

En =

me 4 ,
8 20 h 2 n 2

h
Ln = n
2

Example 26: The radius Bohrs orbit in ground state for H-atom is
(Take 0 = 8.86 1012 C2/Nm2, h = 6.6 1034 J-s)
(a) 0.528
(b) 0.0528
(c) 5.28 1010 m
Sol: (a)

a0 =

0 h 2
me 2

(d) 5.28 1010 cm

(in this case, Z = 1, n = 1)

(6.6 1034 )2 (8.86 10 12 )

a0 =
3.14 (9.11031 ) (1.6 1019 )2

= 0.528

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42

ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 27: The speed of the electron in the first Bohr orbit of H-atom is (Take c = speed of light in vacuum)
c
c
(a) c
(b)
(c)
(d) 137 c
13.6
137
Sol: (c) For H-atom, we know that
e2
v =
[since n this case, Z = 1 and n = 1]
2 0 h
e2 c
=
2 0 hc
e2
1
=
= fine structure constant
2 0 hc 137

But

v =

c
137

Example 28: In a H-atom, binding energy of the electron in the ground state is E1. Then the frequency of
revolution of the electron in the nth orbit is
2E1
2mE1
2E1n 3
(b)
(c)
3
nh
h
n 3h
Sol: (b) The frequency of revolution of the electron in the nth orbit is given by

(a)

(d) none of these

mZ2 e 4
mZ2 e 4
2E1
v =
=
where E1 =
4 02 h 3 n 3
8 20 h 2
hn 3
C24: Calculate the energy of a He+ ion in its first excited state.
Sol:

(13.6eV)Z2
En =
n2
Here, Z = 2, n = 2
13.6 2 2

En =
eV = 13.6 eV
n2

C25. An electron in a hydrogen like atom is in an excited state. It has a total energy of 3.4 eV. Calculate :
(i) the kinetic energy
(ii) the de-Broglie wavelength of the electron
Sol. (i) Kinetic energy of electron in the orbits of hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms
= | Total energy |

Kinetic energy = 3.4 eV

(ii) The de Broglie wavelength is given by
h
h

(K = kinetic energy of electron)
P
2 Km
Substituting the values, we have
(6.6 1034 J s)

2(3.4 1.6 1019 J)(9.1 1031 kg)

= 6.63 1010m
or
= 6.63

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 30. The electron in a hydrogen atom makes transition from M shell to L. The ratio of magnitudes of
initial to final centripetal acceleration of the electron is
(A) 9 : 4
(B) 81 : 16
(C) 4 : 9
(D) 16 : 81
2
Sol.
rn n
and

vn

1
n

an

v2n
rn

1
n n2
1
an 4
n
an

an

K
n4

a M a3

K
81

{ M = 3}

aL a2

K
16

{ L = 2}

a M 16

a L 81

Hence (D) is correct.

Example 31. The angular momentum opf an electron in the hydrogen atom is
The kinetic energy of this electron is :
(A) 4.53 eV
(B) 1.51 eV
Sol.

(C) 3.4 eV

3h
. Here h is Plancks constant.
2

(D) 6.8 eV

nh 3h

2 2

n=3
In the electronic third orbit, the energy of electron
L

E 13.6

Z2
n2

E 13.6
E

1
9

13.6
1.51 eV
9

Hence (B) is correct.

Example 32. A particle of mass m moves along a circular orbit in a centrosymmetrical potential field
kr 2
U(r) =
. Using the Bohrs quantization condition, find the permissible orbital radii and energy levels of
2
that particle.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol.

dU
= kr
dr
Negative sign implies that force is acting towards centre. The necessary centripetal force to the particle is
being provided by this force F. Hence

F=

mv 2
= kr
r

...(1)

where h

2
solving equations (1) and (2) we get

and

mvr = n h

r = rn =

nh
m

where =

...(2)

k
m

1
kr 2
and
total energy E = U + K =
+ mv2
2
2
Substituting the values, we get
E = n h = En

Example 33. In a hypothetical system a particle of mass m and charge 3q is moving around a very heavy
particle having charge q. Assuming Bohrs model to be true to this system, the orbital velocity of mass m
when it is nearest to heavy particle is
3q 2
(A)
2 0 h

3q 2
(B)
4 0 h

Fe

Sol.

3q
(C) 2 h
0

3q
(D) 4 h
0

mv 2
r

q 3q mv2

4 0 r 2
r
3 q2
mvr v
4 0
h
2

mvr

3 q2
h

v
4 0 2
3 q2
v
2 0 h

Hence (A) is correct.

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45

ATOMIC PHYSICS
SPECTRUM
Dispersed light arranging itself in a pattern of different wavelength is referred to as a spectrum. Light coming
from a source may be dispersed by a prism or by any other dispersing medium.
When white light falls on a prism and the transmitted light is collected on a white wall or white paper then a
spectrum is obtained which consists of different colours from red to violet.
Kinds of spectra :
(A) Emission spectra: When a light beam emitted by certain source is dispersed to get the spectrum, it is
called an emission spectrum.

(b) Line spectrum: The atoms and molecules can have certain
fixed energies. An atom or molecule, in an excited state, can
emit light to lower its energy. Light emitted in such a process
has certain fixed wavelengths. When such a light is dispersed,
certain sharp bright lines on a dark background is obtained.
Such a spectrum is called line emission spectrum.

Energy

An emission spectrum can be three types :

(a) Continuous spectrum: That emission spectrum which is obtained by continuously varying wavelength, is
called continuous emission spectrum. In this case, when light is dispersed, a bright spectrum continuously
distributed on a dark background is obtained. Light emitted from an electric bulb, a candle or a red hot iron
piece comes under this category.

Line spectrum
Atomic energy levels

For example, when electric discharge is passed through sodium vapour, they vapour emits light of the
wavelength 589.0 nm and 589.6 nm. When this light is dispersed by a high resolution grating , one obtains
two bright yellow lines on a dark background.

Energy

(c) Band spectrum : The wavelengths emitted by the molecular energy levels which are generally grouped into
several bunches, are also grouped; each group being well separated from the other. The spectrum looks like
separate bands of varying colours. Such a spectrum is called band emission spectrum.

Molecular energy levels

Band spectrum

(B) Absorption spectrum : When white light is passed through an absorbing material, the material may absorb
certain wavelengths selectively. When the transmitted light is dispersed, dark lines or bands at the positions
of the missing (absorbed) wavelengths are obtained. Such type of spectrum is called absorption spectrum.

White light
Absorbing material
Absorption
spectrum

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
An absorption spectrum may be of two types :
(a) Line Absorption spectrum : Light may be absorbed by atoms to take them from lower energy states to
higher energy states. In the similar way when white light is passed through a gas, the gas is found to absorb
light of certain wavelength. The absorption spectrum consists of dark lines on bright background. Such a
spectrum is called a line absorption spectrum. When light coming from the sun is dispersed, it shows certain
sharply defined dark lines. This shows that certain wavelengths are absent. There missing lines are called
Fraunhofer lines.
(b) Band Absorption spectra : If absorbing media is polyatomic such as H2, CO2 or KMnO4 solution,
instead of dark lines we get few characteristic dark bands (against coloured background) called band
absorption spectra.
Hydrogen Spectra :
If hydrogen gas enclosed in a sealed tube is heated to high temperature, it emits radiation. This radiation
consists of components of different wavelengths which deviate by different amounts. The radiation with
different amounts of deviation forms H-spectrum.
Explanation of hydrogen spectra by Bohr
(a) The electron in a H-atom if not disturbed remains in the ground state (i.e. n = 1 state). When the electron
receives energy from outside, it is elevated to any one of the higher permitted states (excited state).
(b) The electron remains only for a short interval of time (generally in the order of 108 s) in the excited state and
comes back to the ground state finally.
(c) The electron can reach the ground state from any one of the excited states in many ways. As a result, many
electron transitions take place.
(d) According to Bohr, all electron transitions terminating at a particular state give rise to a particular spectral
series.
n=
n=5
n=4
n=3

E=0

n=2

Energy
Series limit

n =1
Lyman series Balmer Paschen Brackett
series series series

1 1
2 2 n = 2, 3, 4,..........
1 n

(e) Lyman:

nf = 1:

1
E
= 1

ch

Balmer:

nf = 2:

1
E 1 1
= 1 2 2 n = 3, 4, 5, ..........

ch 2 n

Paschen: nf = 3:

1
E 1 1
= 1 2 2 n = 4, 5, 6, ..........

ch 3 n

Brackett: nf = 4:

1
E 1 1
= 1 2 2 n = 5, 6, 7, .........

ch 4 n

Pfund:

nf = 5:

1
E1 1 1
=
2 2 n = 6, 7 , 8,......

ch 5 n

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(f)

If an electron makes a jump from the nith to nfth orbit (ni > nf), the extra energy Ei Ef is emitted as a photon
of electromagnetic radiation. The corresponding wavelength is given by
1 Ei Ef
=
where c = speed of light in vacuum.

hc
According to Bohr, we can write

mZ2e4 1 1
1
= 2 3 2 2
8 0 ch n f n i
1
= RZ2

1 1
2 2
nf ni

me 4
where R =
is called the Rydberg constant.
8 02 ch 3
(g) The value of R is 1.0973 107 m1

NOTE: En =

RhcZ2
,
n2

1 rydberg = 13.6 eV,

Rhc = 13.6 eV

(i)

1
2

is called wave number ( ) of the line and

is called angular wave number of the line.

Photon energy = Ep = hv

(j)

Photon Energy
Momentum of a photon = p = speed of light

(h)

p=

Ep
c

Important points regarding H-spectra

(a) The sharply defined, discrete wavelengths exist in the emitted radiation in the H-spectrum.
(b) A hydrogen sample emits radiation with wavelengths less than those in the visible range (i.e. uv light) and
also with wavelengths more than those in the visible range (i.e. infrared).
(c) the lines may be grouped in separate series.
(d) In each series, the separation between the consecutive wavelengths decreases as we move from higher
wavelength to lower wavelength.
(e) A particular minimum wavelength in each series approach a limiting value known as series limit.
(f) The series corresponding to uv region, visible region and infrared region are known as Lyman, Balmer and
Paschen series respectively.
(g) In the Balmer series of hydrogen, the H line (3 2) is red, the H line (4 2) is blue, the H ( 5 2) and
H(6 2) lines are violet, and the other lines are in the near ultraviolet (uv).
n(n 1)
.
2
Theoretically possible no. of absorption spectral lines = (n 1)

(h) Theoretically possible no. of emission spectral lines =

(i)

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(j)

Approximate range of wavelength for different colours of visible light

Colour
Wavelength Range
Violet + Indigo
3800 to 4500
Blue
4500 to 5000
Green
5000 to 5500
Yellow
5500 to 6000
Orange
6000 to 6500
Red
6500 to 7200
Infrared rays: 720 nm to 50 mm
Ultraviolet light: 10 to 3800

Limitations of Bohrs Model

(a) It is valid only for one electron atom and hydrogen-like ions e.g. : H, He+, Li+2, Na+10 etc.
(b) Orbits were taken as circular but according to SOMMER field these are elliptical.
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.

Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.
It could not be explained the minute structure in spectrum line.
This does not explain the ZEEMAN effect (splitting up of spectral lines in magnetic field) & Stark effect
(splitting up in electric field).
(g) This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the atoms like sodium (5890 to 5896 ).
C26.

Total number of emission lines from some excited state n1 to another energy state n2(< n1) is given by

(n1 n 2 )(n1 n 2 1)
n(n 1)
. For example total number of lines from n1 = n to n2 = 1 are
.
2
2
C27. As the principal quantum number n is increased in hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms, some quantities
are decreased and some are increased. The table given below shows which quantities are increased and
which are decreased.
Table
Increased
Decreased
Radius
Speed
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Total energy
Angular speed
Time period
Angular momentum

Whenever the force obeys inverse square law F 2 , and potential energy is inversely proportional
r
to r, kinetic energy (K), potential energy (U) and total energy (E) have the following relationships.

C28.

K=

|U|
U
and E = K = .
2
2

If force is not proportional to

1
1
, the above relations do not
2 or potential energy is not proportional to
r
r

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49

ATOMIC PHYSICS
hold good. In JEE problems, this situation arises at two places, in an atom (between nucleus and electron)
and in solar system (between sun and planet).
C29. Total energy of a closed system is always negative and the modulus of this is the binding energy of the
system. For instance, suppose a system has a total energy of 100 J. It means that this system will separate
if 100 J of energy is supplied to this. Hence, binding energy of this system is 100 J. Thus, total energy of an
open system is either zero or greater than zero.
C30. Kinetic energy of a particle cant be negative, while the potential energy can be zero, positive or negative.
It basically depends on the reference point where we have taken it zero. It is customary to take zero
potential energy when the electron is at infinite distance from the nucleus. In some problem suppose we take
zero potential energy in first orbit (U1 = 0), then the modulus of actual potential energy in first orbit (when
reference point was at infinity) is added in U and E in all energy states, while K remains unchanged.
Example 33: The value of series limit in Lyman series is:
(a) 121.6 nm
(b) 91.2 nm
Sol:

1
min

1
= R 1

1
min

= R[1 0]

min

(c) 656.3 nm

(d) 365.0 nm

1
= 91.2 nm
1.097 107

C31: Find the longest wavelength present in the Balmer series of hydrogen:
Sol: In the Balmer series, nf = 2. The longest wavelength in this series corresponds to the smallest energy
difference between energy levels. Hence the initial state must be ni = 3.

1
1
1 1
1 1
1
= R n2 n2 = R 2 2 = R

2 3
4 9
f
i
1
5R
=

36
36
= 6.56 107 m
5 1.097 107
= 656 nm (near the red end of the visible spectrum)

C32: A hydrogen atom emits uv radiation of 102.5 nm. Calculate the quantum numbers of the states involved in
the transition.
Sol: The uv radiation 102.5 nm lies in the lyman region of spectrum. Thus nf = 1

1
1

= R 1 n 2

1
1
2 = 1
ni
R

1
1
1
=
1

2 = 1

9
7
ni
102.5 10 1.097 10
1.124

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
1
n i2 = 0.1
n i2 = 10
ni 3
Hence transition is from 3 1.

C33: What is the unit of reciprocal of Rydberg constant in S.I. units ?

1
1
1
= R n 2 n 2 the term in the bracket is unitless.

f
i
Now, we can write

Sol: We know that

1
=R

Hence, the unit of

1
=
R

1
will be metre i.e. m.
R

C34: How many different wavelengths may be observed in the spectrum from a hydrogen sample if the atoms
are excited to states with principal quantum number n ?
Sol: The total number of possible transitions is
n(n 1)
(n 1) + (n 2) + (n 3) + ............. + 2 + 1 =
2
C35: Consider the following two statements:
(A) Line spectra contain information about atoms only
(B) Band spectra contain information about molecules
(a) Both A and B are wrong
(b) A is correct but B is wrong
(c) B is correct but A is wrong
(d) Both A and B are correct
Sol: (c) Line spectra contain information about atoms and molecules both.
C36. Ultraviolet light of wavelength 800 and 700 when allowed to fall on hydrogen atoms in their ground
state is found to liberate electrons with kinetic energy 1.8 eV and 4.0 eV respectively. Find the value of the
Planck constant.
Sol. hv = E0 + T where E0 = ground level energy and T = kinetic energy of electron
hc
E0 T

hc

= E0 + 1.8 1.6 1019

800 1010
hc
and
= E0 + 4.0 1.6 1019
700 1010
hc 1 1
Subtracting
= 2.2 1.6 1019
108 7 8
2.2 1.6 10 27 56
or
h=
= 6.57 1034 Js
3 108

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
C37: The excitation energy of a hydrogen like ion in its first excited state is 40.8 eV. Find the energy needed to
remove the electron from the ion.
Sol: The excitation energy in the first excited state is
1 1
E = 13.6Z2 2 2
1 2
3
40.8 = (13.6 eV) Z2
4

Z=2

13.6Z2
Now, ionization energy =
= 4 (13.6 eV)
12
Eion = 54.4 eV
C38: The first ionization potential of some hydrogen like Bohr atom is x V. Then the value of the first excitation
potential for this atom will be:
x
3
(a) xV
(b) V
(c) xV
(d)
20 xV
2
4
Sol: The value of first excitation potential is given by
1
x = x 1 V
4
3x
x =
V
4
Example 34: A doubly ionised lithium atom is hydrogen like with atomic number 3. Find the wavelength of the
radiation required to excite the electron in Li++ from the first to the third Bohr orbit. (Take ionization energy
of H-atom equal 13.6 eV).
E3
n=3
Sol: For E1, Z = 3, n = 1
E
n=2
2

13.6 9
13.6Z
=
= 122.4 eV
2
1
n
For E3, Z = 3, n = 3
13.6 32

E3 =
= 13.6eV
32
We have E + E1 = E3

E = E3 E1 = 108.8 eV

E1 =

E1

n=1

hc
12400
=
= 114
E
108.8

Example 35: In Bohrs model of hydrogen atom when the electron is moving in one of the stationary orbits then:
e
(a) velocity of the electron is fixed and no emission of energy takes place
v2
v1
(b) velocity changes continuously but no emission of energy takes place
(c) energy is emitted but the velocity does not change
(d) energy is emitted and the velocity also changes.
e
e

Sol: (b) According to the second postulate of Bohr.

| v1| = | v 2 | = | v3| = | v 4 | = v
v3
e

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52

ATOMIC PHYSICS
Example 36. An electron in an unexcited hydrogen atom acquired an energy of 12.1 eV. To what energy level
did it jump? How many spectral lines may be emitted in the course of transition to lower energy levels?
Calculate the shortest wavelength.

Z2
Sol. E = E0 2
where E0 = 2.18 1018 J = 1 rydberg
n
E (energy gap between unexcited state (n = 1) and an excited state (n = m))
1
1
E 0 Z2 2 2
1 m

n=3

12.1 1.6 1019

= 2.18 1018 12(1 1/m2)

n=2

1
n=1
or
m=3
2 = 0.888
m
Three lines are emitted. The shortest wavelength corresponds to the greatest energy gap.

or

hc
1 1
=
E

E
=
E
2 2
3
1
0
min
1 3

or

min =

6.6 1034 3 108 9

= 1.02 107 m = 1020
2.18 1018 8

Example 37. A hydrogen like atom (atomic number Z) is in a higher excited state of quantum number n. The
excited atom can make a transition to the first excited state by successively emitting two photons of energy
10.2 and 17.0 eV respectively. Alternatively, the atom from the same excited state can make a transition to
the second excited state by successively emitting two photons of energies 4.25 eV and 5.95 eV respectively.
Determine the values of n and Z. (lonization energy of H atom = 13.6 eV)
Sol. From the given conditions
En E2 = (10.2 + 17) eV = 27.2 eV
...(1)
and
En E3 = (4.25 + 5.95) eV = 10.2 eV
...(1)
Equation (1) and (2) gives
E3 E2 = 17.0 eV
2
or
Z (13.6)(1/4 1/9) = 17.0

Z2 (13.6) (5/36) = 17.0

Z2 = 9

Z=3
From equation (1)
Z2 (13.6) (1.4 1/n2) = 27.2
or
(3)2(13.6) (1/4 1/n2) = 27.2
or
1/4 1/n2 = 0.222
or
1/n2 = 0.0278
or
n2 = 36

n=6

ATOMIC EXCITATION WITH THE HELP OF COLLISION

(a) An atom can be excited to an energy above its ground state by a collision with another particle in which part
of their joint kinetic energy is absorbed by the atom.
(b) An excited atom returns to its ground state in an average of 108 s by emitting one or more photons.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(c) Energy transfer is a maximum when the colliding particles have the same mass.
(d) The energy used in this process will be of discrete nature. (E = E2 E1 = hv =

hc
).

NOTE: If the joint kinetic energy of colliding particles is less than 20.4 eV (considering particles as Hatoms or one neutron and one H-(atom) then the nature of collision will be necessarily elastic.
Example 38: A neutron moving with speed v makes a head-on collision with a hydrogen atom in ground state
kept at rest. Find the minimum kinetic energy of the neutron for which inelastic (completely or partially)
collision may take place. The mass of neutron = mass of hydrogen = 1.67 1027 kg.
Sol: Let us suppose that neutron and H-atom move at speeds v1 and v2 after the collision. Suppose an energy
E is used in this way.
On the basis of conservation of linear momentum and energy, we can write
mv = mv1 + mv2
.....(i)
1
1
1
2
2
mv2 = mv1 + mv 2 + E
2
2
2
From equation (i) we have

v2 = v12 + v 22 + 2v1 v2
Now, from equation (ii)
2E
m
From equation (iii) and (iv)

v2 = v12 + v 22 +

.....(ii)

.....(iii)

.....(iv)

2E
m
2
(v1 v2) = (v1 + v2)2 4v1v2

2v1v2 =
Hence,

= v2

4E
m

Since v1 v2 is always real, v2

4E
0
m

mv2 4E
1
mv2 2E
2
The minimum kinetic energy of the neutron needed for an inelastic collision corresponds to transition from
n = 1 to n = 2

1
mv2min = 2 10.2 eV
2
Kmin = 20.4 eV

Kmin =

Example 39. Consider an excited hydrogen atom in state n moving with a velocity v (v << c). It emits a photon
in the direction of its motion and changes its state to a lowr state m. Apply momentum and energy conservation
principle to calculate the frequency v of the emitted radiation. Compare this with the frequency v0 emitted if
the atom were at rest.
Sol. Let En and Em be the energies of electron in nth and mth states. Then

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
En Em = hv0
...(1)
In the second case when the atom is moving with a velocity v. Let v be the velocity of atom after emitting
the photon. Applying conservation of linear momentum,
m

m
v

hv
c

mv = mv +
or

(m = mass of hydrogen atom)

hv

v = v

mc

...(2)

Applying conservation of energy

En +
or

1
1
mv2 = Em + mv2 + hv
2
2

hv = (En Em) +

1
m(v2 v2)
2

2
h
1 2
hv = hv0 + m v v mc
2

h 2 2 2hv
1 2
2
v

hv = hv0 + m
m2c2
mc
2
h v h 2 2

hv = hv0 +
c
2mc2
h 2 2
Here the term is
is very small. So, can be neglected
2mc 2
h v h v

c
c

hv = hv0 +

or

v
v 1 v 0
c

or

v
v = v0 1
c

v v0 1 as
c

v<<c

Example 40: The wavelength of D1 and D2 lines of sodium are 5890 and 5896 respectively, if their mean
wavelength is 6000 then find the difference of excited energy states.
Sol:

E=

hc

E =

hc

6.62 1034 3 108 6 1010

E =
6000 6000 1020
E = 3.31 1022 J
3.311022
E =
,
2 103 eV
1.6 1019

C39: A lithium atom has three electrons. Assume the following simple picture of the atom. Two electrons move

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
close to the nucleus making up a spherical cloud around it and the third moves outside this cloud in a circular
orbit. Bohrs model can be used for the motion of this third electron but n = 1 states are not available to it.
Calculate the ionization energy of lithium in ground state using the above picture.
Sol: In this picture, the third electron moves in the field of a total charge +3e 2e = +e. Thus, the energy are the
same as that of hydrogen atoms. The lowest energy is
E1
13.6eV
=
= 3.4 eV
4
4
Thus , the ionization energy of the atom in this picture is 3.4 eV.

E2 =

Example 41: Find the wavelengths in a hydrogen spectrum between the range 500 nm to 700 nm.
Sol: The energy of a photon of wavelength 500 nm is
hc 1242 eV nm
=
= 2.44 eV

500nm
The energy of a photon of wavelength 700 nm is
hc 1242 eV nm
=
= 1.77 eV

700nm
The energy difference between the states involved in the transition should, therefore, be between 1.77 eV
and 2.44 eV.
Figure shows some of the energies of hydrogen states. It is clear that only those transitions which and at n
= 2 may emit photons of energy between 1.77 eV and 2.44 eV. Out of these only n = 3 to n = 2 falls in the

proper range. The energy of the photon emitted in the transition n = 3 to n = 2 is E = (3.4 1.5)eV = 1.9

eV. The wavelength is

=
=

hc
E
1242eV nm
= 654 nm.
1.9eV

Example 42: Calculate the (a) velocity, (b) energy, and (c) frequency of the electron in first Bohr orbit of
hydrogen atom.
Ze 2
Sol. (a)We have, vn =
; but here Z = 1 and n = 1
2 0 nh

e2
v1 =
2 0 nh

(1.6 1019 ) 2 1 36109

2 1 6.62 1034
= 2.18 106 m/sec
=

me4 Z2
(b) We have, En = 2 2 2
8 0 n h
Again here, z = 1 and n = 1

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

9.11031 (1.6 1019 ) 4 12 (4 9 109 )2

E1 =
8 12 (6.62 1034 )2
= 21.758 1019 joule

21.758 1019
1.6 1019
= 13.6 eV
(c) We have,
=

Z2 me 4
v =
; here also n = 1 and Z = 1
4 02 n 3 h 3
me 4
=
= 6.57 1015 Hz.
4 02 h 3
C40: Find out the radius of the hydrogen atom in ground state.
Sol. We have, rn =

h 2 n 2 0
; here Z = 1 and n = 1
mZe2

(6.62 1034 )2 1
r1 =
4 9 109 1 (1.6 1019 )2 (9.11031 )
r1 = 0.53
Example 43: If the wavelength of the first member of the Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum is 6562 , then
calculate the wavelength of first member of Lymen series in the same spectrum.
Sol. We have, for the first member of the Balmer series
1 1
5
v1 = R 2 2 =
R
2 3 36
and for the first member of Lyman series,
1 1 3R
v2 = R 2 2 =
4
1 2

5R
4
5
1

= 1 =

=
36
3R
27
2
2

2 =

51
5 6552
=
= 1215.18
27
27

Example 44. The hydrogen atom in its ground state is excited by means of monochromatic radiations of wavelength
975 . How many different lines are possible in the resulting spectrum? Calculate the longest wavgelength
among them. You may assume the ionization energy for hydrogen atom to be 13.6 eV, the Planck constant
= 6.63 1034 Js.
Sol. En = E0Z2/n2. The energy required to take the electron from n = 1 to infinity is the ionization energy of the
hydrogen atom.

13.6 = E0(1/12 1/)

or
E0 = 13.6 eV

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Therefore, for hydrogen En = 13.6/n2 eV
The energy of the photon incident on hydrogen is

hc 6.63 1034 3 108

E h

2.04 1018 J
10

975 10
Let the electron jump from n = 1 to n = m after absorbing the incident photon.
Then
E = Em E1 = 13.6(1/12 1/m2)eV
= 13.6(1 1/m2) 1.6 1019 J

13.6(1 1/m2) 1.6 1019 = 2.04 1018

(1 1/m2) = 0.9375 or
m=4
The resulting transitions are shown in the figure. So there are six possible lines. The longest wavelength
corresponds to the minimum energy gap. Hence longest wavelength corresponds to transition from m = 4 to
m=3
1 1
h E 0 2 2
3 4

m=4

hc
1 1
E0
9 16

m=2

m=3

hc 144
7E 0

E0

m=1

6.63 1034 3 108 144

7 13.6 1.6 1019
= 1.88 106 m = 18800 .

Example 45: The energy of an excited hydrogen atom is 3.4 eV. Calculate the angular momentum of the
electron according to Bohrs theory.
Ans: 2.11 102 joule sec.
Since the energy of an electron in nth level in hydrogen atom is
RCh
13.6
or, 3.4 = 2
2
n
n

RCh = 13.6 eV

n=2
h
From Bohrs theory, L = n
2
0.6 1034

L=2
= 2.11 103 joule sec.
2 3.14

En =

REDUCED MASS
.In our earlier discussion we have assumed that the nucleus (a proton in case of hydrogen atom) remains at
rest. With this assumption the values of the Rydberg constant R and the ionization energy of hydrogen
predicted by Bohrs analysis are within 0.1% of the measured values.
Rather the proton and electron both revolve in circular orbits about their common centre of mass. We can

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
take the motion of the nucleus into account simply by replacing the mass of electron m by the reduced mass
of the electron and nucleus.
Mm
.....(i)
Mm
where M = mass of nucleus. The reduced mass can also be written as,

Here

m
= 1 m
M
m
0 or
m
M
For ordinary hydrogen we let M = 1836.2 m. Substituting in
v
equation (i), we get = 0.99946 m when this value is used instead
of the electron mass m in the Bohr equations, the predicted values
are well within 0.1% of the measured values.
m
m+
cm
The concept of reduced mass has other applications. A positron
v
has the same rest mass as an electron but a charge +e.
A positronium atom consists of an electron and a positron, each
Separation r
with mass m, in orbit around their common centre of mass. This
6
Applying
the
Bohr model to positronium.
structure lasts only about 10 s before two particles annihilate The electron and
the positron revolve about
(combine) one another and disappear, but this is enough time to their common centre of mass, which is located
midway between them because they have equal mass
study the positronium spectrum. The reduced mass is m/2, so the
energy levels and photon frequencies have exactly half the values
for the simple Bohr model with infinite proton mass.
Now, let us prove why m is replaced by the reduced mass when
motion of nucleus (proton) is also to be considered.
r1
r2
m
M
In figure both the nucleus (mass = M, charge = e) and electron
CM
(mass = m, charge =e ) revolve about their centre of mass (CM)
with same angular velocity () but different linear speeds. Let r1
and r2 be the distance of CM from proton and electron.
Let r be the distance between the proton and the electron. Then,
Mr1 = mr2
.....(ii)
r1 + r2 = r
.....(iii)

Now, when M > > m,

mr
Mr
and r2 =
.....(iv)
Mm
Mm
Centripetal force to the electron is provided by the electrostatic force. So,

r1 =

1 e2
mr2 =
40 r 2
2

or

1 e2
Mr 2
.
m
=
40 r 2
Mr

or

e2
Mm 3 2

r =
4 0
Mm

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
e2
r =
4 0
3

or

.....(v)

Mm
=
Mm
Moment of inertia of atom about CM,

where

Mm 2
I = Mr12 mr22 =
r = r2
MM
According to Bohrs theory,
nh
nh
= I
r2=
2
2
Solving equations (v) and (vii) for r, we get

.....(vi)

.....(vii)

0 n 2 h 2
r =
e 2

.....(viii)

Electrical potential energy of the system,

e2
U =
4 0 r
and kinetic energy, K =

1 2 1 2 2
I = r
2
2

e2
From equation (v), =
,
40 r3
2

Total energy of the system,

e2
K=
8 0 r

e2
E= K+U=
8 0 r

Substituting value of r from equation (viii), we have

e4
E = 2 2 2
80 n h

.....(ix)

me 4
The expression for En without considering the motion of proton is En = 2 2 2 , i.e., m is replaced by
80 n h
while considering the motion of proton.
NOTE :(i) Variation of rn, vn and En with mass of election is as under,
1
,
vn = independent of m and En m
m
Sometimes the electron is replaced by some another particle which has a charge e but mass different
from the mass of electron. Here, two cases are possible.
Case 1: Let say mass of the replaced particle is x times the mass of the electron and nucleus is still very
heavy compared to the replaced particle, i.e., the motion of the nucleus is not to be considered. In this case

rn

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
1
times, vn will remain unchanged and En becomes x times.
x
Case 2: In this case motion of nucleus is also to be considered, i.e., mass of the replaced particle is
comparable to the mass of the nucleus. In this case the mass of the electron is replaced by the reduced mass
of the nucleus and the replaced particle. Let say the reduced mass is y time the mass of the electron.

rn will become

Then, rn will become

1
times, vn remains unchanged and En becomes y-times.
y

m1m 2
(ii) Reduced mass m = m m of m1 and m2 is less than both the masses.
1
2

C41: A positronium atom is a system that consist of a positron and an electron that orbit each other. Compare
the wavelengths of the spectral lines of positronium with those of ordinary hydrogen.
Sol: In this case reduced mass will be given by
mM
m
m2
=
=
mM
2
2m
where m = mass of the electron.
Hence, the energy levels of a positronium atom are

m =

m' E
E
En = 21 = 12
2n
mn
It means that the Rydberg constant for positronium is half as large as it is for H-atom. As a result the
wavelength in the positronium spectral lines are all twice those of the corresponding lines in the H-spectrum.

Example 46: Bohrs theory assumes that nucleus is of infinite mass and so electron rotates round the stationary
nucleus. Assuming the nucleus to be of finite mass MH, the value of correct Rydberg constant will be
(consider hydrogen atom)

mM H e 4
(a) M m 8 2 ch 3
H
0

MH m
e4
(b) mM 8 2 c 2 h 3

H
0

mM H e4
e4
(c) M m 8 2 ch 3
(d)
8 02 ch 3
H
0
Sol: (c) In this case both electron and nucleus will rotate about a common centre of mass, say O. Suppose that
the radii of the electron and nucleus orbits are re and rn respectively then by definition of centre of mass; the
electron, the centre of mass O and the nucleus are always in a straight line.

MHrn = mre when m is the mass of electron

m
rn
=
re rn
m MH

mr
MH r
Let r = re + rn then rn = m M and re = m M
H
H

From Bohrs quantization rule, we have

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
nh
2
Putting the values of rn and re, we get
mre2 M H rn2 =

[ is the angular velocity about the centre of mass]

mM H
nh

r2 =
m

M
2

H
The above equation can be compared with mr2 =

nh
2

The Rydberg constant will be given by

mM H
e4
R = mM
2
3

H 8 0 ch
mM H
Obviously the reduced mass of the electron is m M

Example 47. A positromium atom is a bound system of an electron (e) and its antiparticle positron (e+) revolving
about their centre of mass. Find the wavelength of the radiation when the system de-excites from its first
excited state to the ground state.
Sol. This problem can be solved by Bohrs theory of the hydrogen atom by replacing the mass of the electron by
its reduced mass.

me me
m
e
me m e 2

m
Z2e4 e
2

En
2 2 2
80h n
e4me Z2
En 2 2 2
80 h 2n

En = 2.18 1018(12/2n2)
( e4me/802h2 = 2.18 1018)
When n = 1,
E1 = 2.18 1018/2
When n = 2,
E1 = 2.18 1018/8

E = E1 E2 = 2.18 1018(1/2 1/8)

= 2.18 1018 3/8

E = hc/ = 2.18 1018 0.375

6.63 10

2.18 10

34

18

,
0.375

3 108

= 1.2165 107 m = 2433

Example 48: The mass of muon ( ) is 207 times that of the electron and charge = 1.6 1019 C. A muon can
be captured by a nucleus to form a muonic atom. Calculate the value of ionization energy of the muonic
atom.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sol: The ionization energy of the muonic atom is obtained by replacing me in H-atom formula by the reduced
mass m of the proton-muon system. This reduced mass is
m p m
m = m m
p

1836me 207m e
= 1836m 207m
e
e
186 me
Thus the ground state energy is (n = 1, Z = 1).

E1

2 2 mk 2 e 4
h2

m 2 2 m e k 2 e 4

me
h2
E1 = 186 13.6 eV
The ionization energy
= E1 = 186 13.6 eV = 2.53 KeV
E1

PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
X-rays were accidentally discovered by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895 during the course of some experiments
with a discharge tube. At present, it is well known that these rays are produced whenever fast moving
electrons strike a high atomic weight solid like tungsten kept in vacuum.
(a) X-ray Tube:
The essential elements of a modern Coolidge X-ray vacuum tube which is widely used for commercial and
medical purposes are shown in figure. Electrons are produced thermionically from a tungsten filamentary
cathode F which is heated to incandescence either by a storage battery or by a low-voltage alternating
current from a stepdown transformer T2. These electrons are focussed on the target T with the help of a
cylindrical shield S which surrounds F and is maintained at a negative potential. The electrons are accelerated
to very high speeds (upto 10% of velocity of light) by the d.c. potential difference (of about 50 kV - 100
kV) applied between F and the anode (also called anticathode). This high d.c. potential is obtained from a
step-up transformer T1 whose output is converted into direct current by full-wave rectifier and a suitable
filter.
+
50 kV
Electrons
S
F

A
T

Tube

Cooling
Fins

R
X-rays

The target T usually employed in X-ray tubes is a massive block of tungsten or in many cases, a molybdenum

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
plug embedded in the face of a solid copper anode. The face of the copper anode is sloped at about 45 to
the electron beam. Being very good conductor of heat, copper helps to conduct heat efficiently to the
external cooling fins or the water-cooling system. Under the terrific bombardment of the target by so many
electrons, most metals will melt. That is why metals like tungsten, platinum and molybdenum etc. are used
which have high melting points and also have a high atomic weight (which is essential for abundant production
of X-rays).
When the electrons strike the tungsten target, they give up their kinetic energy and thereby produce X-rays.
Tube

Rectifier
T1
T2

S
F

A
T
Cooling
Water

R
X-rays

(b) Control of Intensity and Quality

The intensity of X-rays depends on the number of electrons striking the target. This number is determined
by the temperature of the electron-emitting filament which itself is proportional to the heater current. Hence
by controlling the filament current with the help of a rheostat R, thermionic emission and hence intensity of
X-rays can be controlled.
The quality of X-rays is measured in terms of their penetrating power which is dependent on the potential
difference between filamentary cathode and the anode. Greater this accelerating voltage, higher the speed
of the striking electrons and consequently, more penetrating the X-rays produced. It is customary to refer to
highly penetrating X-rays (i.e. those possessing high frequency) as hard X-rays and to those less penetrating
(i.e. of low frequency) as soft X-rays. Obviously, the quality or penetrating power of X-rays can be controlled
by varying the potential difference between the cathode and anode.
It will be noticed from above explanation that in coolidge X-ray tube, it is possible to achieve separate
control of the intensity and quality of X-rays independent of each other.
It has been found that apart from the intensity and quality of X-rays, their abundance depends on the atomic
weight of the target material. Target materials of higher atomic weights yield a greater abundance of X-rays
than those of lower atomic weights.
ORIGIN OF X-RAYS
X-rays are produced when high-speed electrons strike some material object. However, majority of the
electrons that strike a solid target, do nothing spectacular at all. Most of them undergo glancing collisions
with the matter particles, lose their energy a little bit at a time and thus merely increase the average kinetic
energy of the particles of the target material. It is found that nearly 99.8 percent of the energy of the electron
beam goes into heating the target.
But a small number of the bombarding electrons produce X-rays by losing their kinetic energy in the following
two ways:
(i) Some of the high-velocity electrons penetrate the interior of the atoms of the target material and are attracted

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
by the positive charge of their nuclei. As an electron passes close to the positive nucleus, it is deflected from
its path as shown in figure. The electron experiences deacceleration during its deflection in the strong field of
the nucleus. The energy lost during this de-acceleration is given off in the form of X-rays of continuously
varying wavelength (and hence frequency). These X-rays produce continuous spectrum when analysed by
Bragg spectrometer. This spectrum has a sharply defined short-wavelength limit min (or high-frequency limit
fmax) which corresponds to the maximum energy of the incident electron.
v

X-Ray

+ +
+ +

X-Ray

1 mv2
2

Continuous
spectrum

1 mv2
2

X-Ray

If, as shown in figure, the striking electron has its velocity reduced from v to v during its passage through the
1
1
atom of the target material, then its loss of energy is = ( mv2 mv2 ). This must equal the energy of the
2
2
X-ray photons emitted.
1
m(v2 v2) = hv
2
The highest or maximum frequency of the emitted X-rays corresponds to the case when the electron is
completely stopped i.e. when v = 0. In that case
1
mv2 = hvmax
.....(i)
2
If the electron is accelerated through a potential of V volts, then
1
mv2 = eV
.....(ii)
2
From (i) and (ii), we get
hvmax = eV; vmax = eV/h
Now,
hvmax = hc/min
[ c = v .]

hc/min = eV or min = hc/eV

Substituting the values of e = 1.602 1019 C

h = 6.62 1034 J-s and c = 3 108 m/s, we get
6.62 1034 3 108 1.24 106
min =
=
m
1.602 1019 V
V
12400
or
min =
[1 = 1010 m]
V
Such X-rays are very aptly called braking radiations because they are due to braking or slowing down of
high-velocity electrons is the positive field of a nucleus. These radiations constitute, as said earlier, the
continuous spectrum of the X-rays because they consist of a series of uninterrupted wavelengths having a
sharplydefined short-wavelength limit min. These X-rays are independent of the nature of the target material
but are determined by the potential difference between the cathode and anode of the X-ray tube.
(ii) Some of the high-velocity electrons while penetrating the interior of the atoms of the target material, knock

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
off the tightly bound electrons in the innermost shells (like K, L-shells etc) of the atoms. When electrons
from outer orbits jump to fill up the vacancy so produce, the energy difference is given out in the form of Xrays of definite wavelength (and frequency). These wavelengths constitute the line spectrum which is
characteristic of the material of the target.
e

X-Ray

K-line
K

(a)

(b)

Figure (a) shows the case when the high-velocity incident electron knocks off one electron from the Kshell. As shown in figure (b), this vacancy in K-shell is filled by a nearby electron in the L-shell. During the
jump an X-ray radiation is emitted whose frequency is given by
Ek E = hv
where Ek is the energy required to dislodge an electron form the K-shell and El is that required for L-shell.
Since this energy difference is comparatively very large, the X-rays emitted have very large energy content
and hence are highly penetrating.
If, however, this vacancy in K-shell is filled up by an electron jumping from M-shell, the X-rays emitted
would be still more energetic and would consequently possess still higher frequency because E = (Ek Em)
is more than E = (Ek EL). Such X-rays arising from millions of atoms produce the K-lines as shown in
figure. Usually, two lines K and K of this series are detected although there are many more.
Similarly, when the incident electron carries some what lesser amount of energy, it dislodges an electron
from the L-orbit and an electron either from M-orbit or other outer orbits takes its place so that X-rays of
frequency lower than that of the K-series are produced. This gives the L-series of the X-ray spectrum as
shown by K, L and L lines in figure (a).
Energy in eV
E=0
2
20

K
K

K
L
M
N
O
(a)

L
L

200

M
M

2000

SHELL

O
N
M
L

20,000

K
(b)

Spectral lines of M-series are produced in a similar way as shown in the energy-level diagram of figure (b).
As stated earlier, these K, L and M series constitute the line spectra of the X-rays which are characteristic
of the material used as target in the X-ray tube.
Hence, the X-rays produced by an X-ray tube consist of two parts:
(i) one part consists of a series of uninterrupted wavelengths having a short cut-off wavelength min. This

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
constitute the continuous spectrum and
(ii) the other part consists of a number of distinct and discrets wavelengths which constitute the line or
discontinues spectrum of the X-rays.
X-ray Spectrum
As explained in X-ray spectrum consists of
(i) continues spectrum and (ii) line spectrum. These two are shown in figure.
(a) Continuous Spectrum
(i)It is produced due to the de-acceleration of high-velocity electrons when they are deflected while passing
near the positively, charged nucleus of an atom of the target material.
K

Intensity

Continuous
Spectrum
K K
L L L

Continuous
Spectrum
min

(a)

(ii) It has a sharply-defined short wavelength limit given by

min =

12.400
12, 400
1010 m or

V
V

(iii) The cut-off wavelength min is independent of the nature of the target material but is inversely proportional
to the potential difference between the cathode and anode of an X-ray tube. The value of min decreases as
this potential difference is increased.
(iv) The intensity of the continuous spectrum (given by the area
enclosed by the curve of figure (b) is found very nearly proportional
to the square of the applied voltage for a given target and to the
atomic number of the target material when a constant potential
difference is applied.

K
K
X-ray Intensity

(v) There is a shift of the maximum intensity position towards the

short wavelength side as voltage is increased.

Tungsten
Target
25 kV L

L L

20 kV
15 kV

(b) Line Spectrum

10 kV
(i) It is produced when electrons are dislodged from the innermost
5 kV
orbits of the atoms of the target material followed by electron jumps
from outer orbits.
4.0
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
Wave length(A.U.)
(ii) It consists of discrete spectral lines which constitute K-series, L-series
and M-series etc. K-series consists of those lines for which electron jumps end at K-level. (b)
(iii) K-series being most energetic constitute the hard X-rays whereas L- and M-series form the soft Xrays.
(iv) Line spectrum is characteristic of the target material used. In

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

2
1
(Z1 1) 2
1 = 2 = (Z2 1)2

K K

Cr
Cu
Mo
Sn
Au
Cf

24
28
42
50
79

Mass No. (Z)

fact, X-rays constituting the line spectrum are known as

characteristic X-rays. The number of lines present in the spectrum
depends both on the nature of target material and the excitation
voltage.
(v) There is a regular shift towards shorter wavelength in the Kspectrum as the atomic number of the target is increased figure (c).
The exact relationship, as found by Moseley, is

90

(c)

where v1 is the frequency of the K line for a target material having an atomic number of Z1 and v2 and Z2
are similar quantities for some different target material.
C42: An X-ray tube works on 60,000 V. What will be the wavelength of X-ray emitted in it.
12, 400

V
Here, V = 60,000 V

min =

Sol:

12, 400
60, 000
= 0.2
C43: If the potential difference applied across an X-ray tube is 12.4 kV and the current through it is 2 mA,
calculate:
(i) the number of electrons striking the target per second
(ii) the speed with which they strike it
(iii) the shortest wavelength emitted
Take e = 1.6 1019 C and m = 9.1 1031 kg
Sol: (i) If n is the number of electrons striking the anode per second, then I = ne

min =

n=

(ii)

I
2 10 3
=
= 1.25 1016 s1
e 1.6 1019

2eV
5.93 105 V
m

v = 5.93 105 v = 5.93 105 12, 400

= 6.6 107 m/s
(iii) min =

12, 400 12400

=
= 1
V
12400

C44: Calculate the minimum applied potential required to produce X-rays of 1 wavelength.
Sol: min =

12400

12400 12400
V=
=
= 12.4 kV
1
min
C45: An X-ray tube passes 5 mA at a potential difference of 100 kV. Calculate the maximum speed of the

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
electrons striking the target and the rate of production of heat at the target if only 0.1 percent of the incident
energy is converted into X-radiations. Take e/m = 1.76 1011 C/kg and J = 4.18 joules/cal.

Sol:

2eV
5.93 105 V
m

v = 5.93 105 100, 000 = 1.88 108 m/s

Incident power = 100,000 5 103 = 500 W
Power converted into heat = 99.9% of 500 = 499.5 W

5 mA

+
499.5
= 119 cal/s.
100 kv
4.18
C46: An X-ray tube operated at 30 kV emits a continuous X-ray spectrum with a short wavelength limit
min = 0.414 . Calculate Plancks constant h if e = 1.602 1019 C and c = 3 108 m/s.

Heat produced / second =

min =

Sol:

ch
eV
eV min
c

1.602 1019 30 103 0.414 1019

=
3 108
= 6.63 1034 J-s
MOSELEYS LAW
In 1913-14, Moseley carried out a systematic study of the characteristic X-ray spectra of various elements
used as targets in an X-ray tube. By using Braggs spectrometer for the purpose, the remarkably similar to
each other in the sense that each consists of K-L and M-series. However, there is one very important
difference. The frequency of lines (in every series) produced from an element of higher atomic number is
greater than that produced by an element of lower atomic number. It is due to the fact that binding energy of
electrons increases as we go from one element to another of higher atomic number. Because there is greater
positive charge on the nucleus of an element of higher atomic number, larger amount of energy is required to
liberte an electron from the K, L and M shells of that element.
Consider the K line of the characteristic X-ray spectrum of any element. It is found that higher the atomic
number of the target material, higher is the frequency of the K line produced by it. The exact mathematical
relationship between frequency and atomic number is given by
v (Z b)2
or

(Z b)

or
= a(Z b)
where Z is the atomic number of the element and a and b are constants for a particular series but vary from
one series to another i.e. their values for K-series are different from those for L-series etc. The constant b
is known as nuclear screening constant. For lines of K-series, b = 1. Its values for lines of L-series is more.
The above relation is known as Moseley law for the characteristic or line X-ray spectrum. It may be stated
as follows:
The frequency of a spectral line in the characteristic X-ray spectrum varies directly as the square of the
atomic number of the element emitting it.
Figure shows Moseley diagram for K and K lines which is

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
obtained by plotting versus atomic number of different
elements of the periodic table. As expected, the graph is linear.
An exact form of Moseleys law is

Atomic number

Sn-50
Ze-40

K
K

Zn-30
Ca-20

1
1
1
Al-13
= R(Z )2 n 2 n 2
10

1
2
5
20 25 10
10
15
where R is Rydbergs constant, Z the atomic number, a correction
Frequency
factor and n1 and n2 the principal quantum numbers of the energy levels between which the transition
occurs.
8

Importance of Moseley law

The great significance of Moseley law lies in the fact that it proves for the first time that it is the atomic
number and not the atomic weight of an element which determines its characteristic properties (both physical
and chemical). It provides the proper guideline that elements must be arranged in the periodic table according
to their atomic numbers and not their atomic weights.
Accordingly, Moseley law has been used to place elements in their proper sequence in the periodic table in
certain questionable cases. For example, if we go by the atomic weight, potassium (19K39) should come
before argon (18A40) and similarly, nickel (28Ni58.7) should precede cobalt (27Co58.9). But Mosely law dictates
that as per their atomic numbers, their order should be just opposite of the above. This fact is further
supported by the chemical properties of these elements.
Moseley law has led to the discovery of new elements like hafnium (72), promethium (61), technetium (43)
and rhenium (75) etc. by the indication of gaps in Mosely diagram. This law has been also helpful in determining
the atomic number of rare earths thereby fixing their position in the periodic table.
It can be shown that Moseley law is in accordance with Bohrs theory of spectral emission from atoms. As
shown in when an electron jumps from an orbit n2 to the orbit n1, the frequency of the radiation given out is,

1
1
me 4
2
2
v=
2
3 .Z 2
8 0 h
n1 n 2
This may be put as

or

me 4 1
1
v = 8 2 h 3 n 2 n 2 Z2
2
0 1
2
vZ

Z
or
Bohr did not take into account the screening effect of electrons whereas Moseley did. That is why the
expression becomes
(Z b)

Formulae for K- and L-series of X-ray Spectrum

The frequencies of the various lines in the K- and L-series of the X-ray line spectrum are given by the
following empirical formulae.
K-series: The general formula is
1

1
= R(Z 1)2 1 2 where n = 2, 3 etc

n
Here, the nuclear screening constant is unity.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(i) For K line, n = 2.
1
3R
1
= R(Z 1)2 1 =
(Z 1)2
4
4

(ii) For K line, n = 3

1 8R
1
= R(Z 1)2 1 =
(Z 1)2
9
9

L-Series: The general formula is

1 1
1
= R(Z 7.4)2 2 where n = 3, 4 etc.

4 n
Here, screening constant is 7.4.
(i) For H line, n = 3
1 1 5R
1
= R(Z 7.4)2 =
(Z 7.4)2

4 9 36
(ii) For H line, n = 4

1
= R(Z 7.4)2

1 1 3R
(Z 7.4)2
=
4 16 16

C47: Find the nuclear screening constant for the L-series of X-rays if it is known that X-rays with a wavelength
of = 1.43 are emitted when an electron in a tungsten atom (Z = 74) is transferred from the M-level to
L-level. Take Rydberg constant = 10.97 106 m1.
Sol: When electron jumps from M to L-level, the first member of the L-series i.e. L line is given out. Its
wavelength as given by Moseleys law is
1 1 5R
1
= R(Z b)2 2 2 =
(Z b)2

36
2 3
Substituting the given values, we have

5
1010
= 10.97 106
(74 b)2
36
1.43
(74 b)2 = 4589.8; (74 b) = 67.75 ; b = 6.25.

Example 49: The K and L absorption edges of copper occur at wavelengths 1.380 and 11.288
respectively. Calculate the atomic number of copper.
Sol: It should be remembered that absorption ages are found in the absorption spectrum of X-rays. The absorption
edge of each series (of line spectrum) represents the limit of that series. In other words, the short-wavelength
limit of each series is called its absorption edge and is written as . It may be obtained by putting n = in
the formulae. Moreover, for K-series, the value of screening constant for K member is 3.3 (instead of 1 for
other members). Corresponding value for L-series is 11(instead of 7.4).
1
1

K-Series: = R(Z 3.3)2 1 2 = R(Z 3.3)2

10
10

= (Z 3.3)2
1.38
1
1 1 R
L-Series: = R(Z 11)2 2 = (Z 11)
1)2
4
4

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

R
1010
= (Z 11)
1)2
4
11.288
Dividing one by the other, we get

(Z 3.3)2
11.288
= 2.045
2 =
(Z 11)
4 1.38
or
or

(Z 3.3)
= 1.43
(Z 11)
Z = 29

Example 50: An impure tungsten target emits a strong K line of = 0.21 and a weak K line of = 1.537
. Can you identify the impurity taking the nuclear screening constant as unity. Given for tungsten, Z = 74,
for Ni = 28.
Sol: The wavelength for K line is given by the relation
1
= R(Z 1)2

For tungsten

1 3
1 = R(Z 1)2
4 4

1
3
R(74 1)2
10 =
0.21 10
4

15,987R
4

For impurity
1
3
R(Z 1)2
10 =
1.537 10
4
Dividing one by the other, we get

5329
1.537
=
; Z = 28
(Z 1) 2
0.21
Obviously, impurity is nickel whose atomic mass number is 28.
Absorption of X-rays
When a narrow and monochromatic beam of X-rays passes through matter, part of it is absorbed and the
remaining part is transmitted. Absorption of x-rays can be studied with the help of the apparatus shown in
figure. The X-rays produced by an X-ray tube are first made into a well defined narrow beam by passing
them through two fine slits S1 and S2 in the two lead plates. The beam is then monochromatised by Bragg
reflection from a crystal (not shown in the figure) and allowed to enter the ionization chamber which measures
the ionization current. The strength of the ionization current is a measure of the intensity of the X-ray.
Next, a sheet of the absorbing material is interposed in the path of the X-ray beam before it enters the
ionization chamber. It is found that the ionization current and hence the intensity of X-rays is reduced by
I
their passage through the absorber sheet. The ratio I of the two ionization currents can be used to
0

measure the absorption coefficient of the material.

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
L1

L2

Absorber
S1

Ionization
Chamber

S2

Let I0 be the initial intensity of a homogeneous X-ray beam incident normally on an absorber sheet and I the
intensity after the beam has travelled a thickness x of the absorber.
If dI is the further decrease in intensity over a thickness dx of the absorber
I0

dI
figure, then
gives the rate of decrease of intensity with thickness.
dx
Assuming that this rate is proportional to the intensity I, we have

dI
I
dx

(I dI)
dx

dI
or
= I
dx
where is a constant of proportionality and is called the linear absorption coefficient of the absorber (it is
also known as macroscopic absorption coefficient or linear attenuation coefficient).
dI
= .dx
.....(i)
I
Integrating both sides of the above equation, we get

Now,

dI / I = dx

logeI = x + K
.....(ii)
The value of the integration constant K can be found from the known initial conditions which are that when
z = 0, I = I0. Substituting these values in equation (ii) above, we have
I0
logeI0 = K
Hence, equation (ii) becomes
I
logeI = x + logeI0
or
or

log e I
I0 = x

I
x
I0 = e

or
I = I0ex
.....(iii)
It is seen that intensity of the X-ray beam decreases exponentially with the thickness of the absorbing
material as shown in figure.
BRAGGS LAW
Figure gives a 3-dimensional view of how a beam of
monochromatic X-rays undergoes Braggs reflection from
different planes in a NaCl crystal. Figure gives a

A
Q

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E

R73

H
M
F

N
B

ATOMIC PHYSICS
2-dimensional view of the same diagram. It shows a beam
of monochromatic X-rays incident at a glancing angle on a
set of parallel planes of NaCl crystal. The beam is partically
reflected at the successive layers rich in atoms Ray no.1 is
reflected from atom A in plane 1 whereas ray no. 2 is reflected
from atom B lying plane 2 immediately below atom A.
Whether two reflected rays will be in phase or antiphase
with each other will depend on their path difference.
This path difference can be found by drawing perpendiculars AM and AN on ray No. 2. Since the two rays
travel the same distance from points A and N onwards, it is obvious that ray no. 2 travels an extra distance
1
1
= MB + BN
2
2
Hence, the path difference between the two reflected beams is
A

Plane 1
M N
d
= MB + BN
3
Plane 2
B
d
= d sin + d sin = 2d sin
Plane 3
where d is the interplanar spacing i.e. vertical distance between two adjacent planes belonging to the same
set.
The two reflected beams will be in phase with each other if this path difference equals an integral multiple of
la dn will be antiphase if it equals an odd multiple of /2.
Hence, the condition for producing maxima becomes
2d sin = n
where n = 1, 2, 3 etc., for the first order, second order and third order maxima respectively. This equation
is known as Braggs Law.
PROPERTIES OF X-RAYS
Main properties of X-rays may be summarised as under:
(i) Like visible light, X-rays consist of electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength (or of very high frequency)
and show reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation etc.
(ii) They are not deflected by electric and magnetic field.
(iii) They posses high penetrating power and can pass through many solids which are opaque to visible light.
The transparency depends on the density of the material. Higher the density of the substance, the less
transparent it is to the X-rays. For example, sheet of lead 1 cm thick can absorb X-rays whereas aluminium
sheet of same thickness cannot.
The penetrating power of X-rays depends upon (a) the voltage applied across the cathode and anode of
the X-ray tube and (b) the atomic number of the material of the cathode. Greater the accelerating potential
of the X-ray tube and higher the atomic number of its target material, the more penetrating the X-rays
produced.
(iv) They ionize a gas and also eject electrons from metals on which they fall.
(v) They cause fluorescence in many substances like barium, cadmium, tungstate and zinc sulphide etc.
(vi) They suffer compton scattering.
(vii) They have a destructive effect on living tissue. Exposure of human body of X-rays causes the reddening of
skin and surface sores.
Practical Applications of X-rays
On account of their diverse and distinctive properties, X-rays have been put to many uses in different fields
of our daily life i.e. in industry, medicine and research.
(a) Industrial applications: Some of these applications are as under:

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ATOMIC PHYSICS
(i)

to detect and photograph defects within a body i.e. in its internal structure such as metals, machine parts
intended for with standing high pressures, cracks in wood, porcelain and other insulators, defects in diamonds
and other precious stones, in moulds, forgings and castings etc.
(ii) to analyses the structure of alloys and other rcomposite bodies by determining the crystal form in an ingot
with the help of diffraction of X-rays. In this way, alloys like cobalt-nickel, steel, bronze, duraluminium,
artificial pearls and old paintings have been analysed.
(iii) to study the structure of rubber, cellulose and plastics. The diffraction of X-rays by these substances leads
to valuable information about their molecular grouping.
(b)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Applications for pure scientific research:

for investigating the structure of the atom.
for studying the structure of the crytalline solids and alloys (X-ray crystallography).
for identification of chemical elements including determination of their atomic numbers.
for analysing the structure of coraplex organic molecules by examining their X-ray diffraction patterns.

(c) Medical Applications: These can be broadly divided into two classes; one for diagnosis purposes
(radiography) and the other for curative purposes (X-ray therapy).
(i) Radiography:
X-rays are being widely used for detecting fractures, tumours, the presence of foreign matter like bullets
etc. in the human body as well as diseased organs of the boy. It is due to differential absorption of X-rays
between bones, tissues and metals. Radiographs or X-ray photos are used for this purpose. Since bones
are more dense and hence more opaque to X-rays then flesh, a contrasting radiograph of human body can
be obtained for leisurely study by interposing it between the X-ray tube and photo film. Where the organs
do not provide contrast as, for example, the intestines or other fleshy parts of the human body, a artificial
means are adopted to create sufficient contrast between them. In such cases, before taking radiograph,
barium or bismuth meal is given to the patient. This meal consists of milk to which some amount of barium
sulphate or bismuth carbonate has been added. A few hours after the meal has been taken, these powders
settle in the gastrointestinal tract and if a radiograph is taken at that item, the intestines stand out in sharp
contrast to the surrounding tissues due to the fact that absorption coefficient of barium is greater on account
of its high atomic number. In this way, pepticulcers and ruptures etc. in the internal organs of the human body
can be accurately located. Similarly, radiographs are routinely used for the diagnosis of tuberculosis, stones
in kidneys and gall-bladders etc.
(ii) X-ray or Rontgen Therapy
Many types of skin diseases, malignant sores, cancers and tumours have been cured by controlled exposure
to X-rays of suitable quality. This curative power of X-rays is due to the fortunate fact that diseased tissue
is more susceptible to destruction than the surrounding healthy tissue. Unnecessary long exposure of human
body to X-rays produces many injurious effects including the loss of white cells in the blood, sterility and
harmful genetic changes.
X-rays have been used for the identification of different types of cells and tissues and for bringing about
genetic mutations.

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MODERN PHYSICS

THINKING PROBLEMS
X-rays
1. What leads you do believe that X-rays are electromagnetic waves ?
2. The occurrence of a lower bound of wavelengths of X-rays produced in an X-ray tube lends support to the
quantum concept of radiation. Explain how.
3. If Youngs experiment is repeated with electron beams interference is observed. Does this mean that an
electron gets divided into two while passing through the slits ?
4. Water irradiated with X-rays is unsafe for drinking. Is this true or false ?
5. An electron moves through a gas-filled region in the presence of a transverse magnetic field. Describe its
motion.
6. Fluerescence is produced by ultraviolet rays but never by infrared rays. Explain why.
7. A neutron, a proton, an electron and an alpha particle enter a region of constant
magnetic field with equal velocities. The magnetic field is along the inward normal
to the place of the paper. The tracks of the particles are labelled in the figure.
Which tracks do the electron and alpha particle follow ?
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23.

A charged and an uncharged particle have the same momentum. Will they have the same de Broglie wavelength?
The electrical conductivity of a gas increases when X-rays or -rays pass through it. Explain this phenomenon.
Why are tungsten or platinum widely used as the target the X-ray tubes ?
A uniform electric field acts normally on a moving charge. Can the charge be deflected through 90 ?
A uniform electric field acts normally on a moving charge. Is work done by the field on the charge (a) as it
enters the field, (b) later ?
Does the speed of a charged particle change when (a) a magnetic field, (b) an electric field, acts on it for
some time ?
Parallel electric and magnetic fields act on on a charged particle moving perpendicular to these fields.
Describe its subsequent motion.
How do you conclude that cathode rays are fast moving negatively charged particles ?
Magnetic mirror is a term for the region of a magnetic field in which there is an
intense concentration of lines of induction as shown in the figure. Suppose a charged
particle approaches a magnetic mirror. What will happen to it ?
How is a monoenergetic, slightly diverging beam of charged particles focussed by a magnetic field ?
X-rays are produced when a fast electron hits a proper target. What happens to the electron ?
Why does the target in an X-ray tube become hot ?
X-rays can be produced in cathode ray tubes and also in Coolidge tubes. Why are the latter preferred in
actual use ?
Why is the wave nature of matter not apparent in our daily lives ?
A neutral pion decays into two gamma photons.
0
Why cannot a single photon be born? What conservation law is in contradiction with it ?
2
1
Quarks inside protons and neutrons are thought to carry fractional charges e, e . Why are they not
3
3
evidenced in Millikans oil drop experiment ?

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MODERN PHYSICS

Atomic Structure, Radioactivity, Nuclear Fassion and Fusion

1. Distinguish between excitation and ionization by collision.
2. According to the theory of electron transitions, the spectral lines from a glowing gas should be sharp i.e.,
of one particular wavelength each. In practice, they are found to be somewhat diffuse, i.e., spread over a
small range of wavelengths. Suggest a reason for this.
3. Can it be concluded from -decay that electrons exist inside the nucleus ?
4. Why are -rays emitted only in nuclear processes and not in orbital electron transitions ?
5. What are the principles that are obeyed in filling the orbits of an atom ?
6. How is the radioactivity of an element affected when it forms chemical compounds ?
7. How can Becquerel ray, i.e., the combination of -, - and -rays, be separated ?
8. When a nucleus undergoes -dcay, is the product atom electrically neutral ? In -decay ?
9. Do -decay and -decay cause a change of element, called transmutation ?
10. Experimental results in radioactivity show small variations from the results predicted by theory. Explain this.
11. Does the relation E = mc2 suggest that mass can be converted to energy only when it is in motion ?
12. What is a thermal neutron ?
13. Does a nucleus have to be bombarded with fast or show neutrons in order for it to undergo fission ?
14. Why has it not been possible so far to control the fusion process and obtain usable energy from it ?
15. An atom has a continuous distribution of mass in..... (Thomson model, Rutherford model) but has a highly
non-uniform distribution in ..... (Thomson model, Rutherford model).
16. Which level of the doubly-ionized lithium (Li++)ion has the same energy as the ground state energy of the
hydrogen atom ?
17. If the a-decay of U238 is allowed from the point of view of energy (the decay products have a total mass less
than the mass of U238) what prevents U238 from decaying all at once ? Why is its half-life so large ?
18. Can a spectral line belong to both the Lyman and Balmer series ?
19. Although the Lyman series involves transitions to the ground level, and the Balmer series to the second orbit,
the latter was discovered earlier. Why ?
20. Bohrs principle of quantization of angular momentum is not a postulate but an essential condition. Explain
how.
21. Why are -particle tracks as observed in a cloud chamber much shorter than -particle tracks though they
emerge from a radioactive sample with almost the same speed ?
22. Cathode rays and -particles are streams of electrons. In what respect do they then differ from each other?
23. When a radioactive substance emits an -particle its position in the periodic table is lowered by two places.
Is this true or false ?
24. When Rutherford bombarded a thin foil of gold by -particles, he found that 1 in 2500 are deflected
through very large angles. What inference did he draw from this result ?
25. A uranium nucleus (atomic number 92, mass number 238) emits an -particle and the resultant nucleus
emits a -particle. What are the atomic and mass numbers of the final nucleus ?
26. Among -particles, -particles, protons and neutrons which have the greatest penetrating power through
matter and why ?
The isotope of hydrogen H13 (tritium) is radioactive. What would be its decay process and the product?
What is meant by the disposal of radioactive waste in a nuclear reactor ?
- and -particles suffer equal and opposite deflections in an external electric field. Is this true or false?
It requires infinite time for all the atoms in a radioactive sample to decay, whatever be the half-life of the
material. Is this true or false ?
31. What is mean by enrichment of uranium ?
32. Which yields greater energy per atom fission or fussion ? .... per unit mass ?
33. Explain the statement The moderator in a nuclear reactor thermalizes the neutrons.
27.
28.
29.
30.

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MODERN PHYSICS
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.

When is a chain reaction said to be critical ?

If a nucleus emits only a -ray photon, does its mass number change? Does its mass change ?
A classical atom based on ..... (Thomson model, Rutherford model) is doomed to collapse. Why ?
What is Bohrs correspondence principle ?
Bohrs quantization principle, i.e., angular momentum = nh/2 is a basic law in nature. Why do we never
speak of quantization of the angular momentum of a planet, around the sun ?
39. A photon is emitted by a dense star. Scientists say there is a change in the frequency of the photon as it
moves away from the star and call the difference in frequcney gravitational shift. Can you explain this?

SOLUTION OF THINKING PROBLEMS

X-rays
1. X-rays cannot be deflected by electric and magnetic fields. They are reflected, refracted, diffracted like
ordinary light waves. All these facts lead us to believe that X-rays are electromagnetic waves.
2. The quantum theory predicts a lower bound (hv = Ve) of wavelengths of X-rays produced in an X-rays
tube. This is found to be in good agreement with experimental observations. So this supports the quantum
theory of light.
3. No. In fact electrons have associated waves. At the accelerating voltage of the experiment the wave behaviour
of electrons becomes quite prominent and interference fringes are observed.
4. False, X-rays damage living cells and hence kill the bacteria present in water. Hence, the water actually
becomes safer for drinking.
5. The electron loses energy due to collisions with the gas atoms. It therefore describes a circle with decreasing
radius, i.e., it spirals inwards.
6. The phenomenon of fluorescence consists of absorption of higher energy photons and re-radiation of lower
energy visible light. This is possible with ultraviolet rays as these have greater photon energy than visible
light. Infrared rays have lower photon energy, so fluorescence cannot occur.
7. D, B. Alpha particles are heavy and positively charged, and so they are deflected the least to the left
according to Flemings left-hand rule. The electrons are deflected to the right.
8. Yes. The de Broglie wavelength does not depend on charge, only on momentum.
9. X-rays or -rays cause ionization by collision in the gas atoms. The free electron and ion pairs produced can
now move and conduct electricity. Thus, the gas becomes more conducting.
10. They have large atomic numbers and high melting points.
11. No. The electric field will not affect the initial velocity. It will only produce an additional accelerated motion
perpendicular to the initial velociyt. A 90 deflection requires that the initial velocity be reduced to zero.
12. (a) No work is done, since the displacement due to the motion is perpendicular to the field. (b) Work iis
done, as the displacement how has a component parallel to the force.
13. (a) The speed does not change since the force is perpendicular to the displacement at every point. The field
does no work on the particle. The energy and speed of the particle remain unchanged.
(b) When an electric field acts for some time, the particle will acquire a displacement parallel to the force.
Work is done by the field on the particle. The energy and speed of the particle will change.
14. Due to the magnetic field, the particle will move in a circle with the field as axis. Due to the electric field, a
force will act along this axis, producing an accelerated motion perpendicular to the plane of the circle. The
result will be a helical path of gradually increasing pitch.
15. Their negatively charged character is shown by the direction of deflection in an electric field. Their streaming
character is shown by deflection in a magnetic field because a magnetic field can produce deflection only
when charged particles are in motion.

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MODERN PHYSICS
16. The charged particle will move along a helix winding around the lines of
induction. Let us resolve the velocity along the field and perpendicular to
it. The resolved part along the field vII is called orbital velocity. Since the
magnetic moment due to the orbital motion is opposite to the magnetic field
is tends to push the charged particle out of the field, i.e., the charged particle is strongly decelerated and so
its drift velocity decreases, becoming zero in the case of a sufficiently high field gradient. From this place it
begings to move in the opposite direction.
17. The charged particles follow a helical path of period T = 2m/Bq which is independent of the velocity of the
particles and pitch p = (2m/Bq) v cos = (2mv)/Bq when small. Thus after a path of length p all the
particles come down to the same point whatever be the angle of inclination of their initial motion with the
field.
18. It is absorbed by the target, which is also the anode of the X-ray tube. Subsequently, the electron returns to
the cathode via the external voltage circuit.
19. Less than 1% of the incident electron energy is actually converted to X-rays. The balance is lost in inelastic
collisions be between the electrons and the target atoms. This energy appears as heat in the target.
20. In a Coolide tube, the hardness and intensity of the X-rays can be controlled independently. The hardness
is controlled by the applied voltage. The intensity is controlled by the filament temperature, i.e., by the
filament current. Such independent control is not possible in the cathode ray tube.
21. The wavelength of a matter wave is given by = h/p. The momentum of ordinary material bodies at ordinary
speeds is very large and so the associated wavelength is extremely small because of the very small value of
h = 6.6 1034 Js. This is why the wave nature of matter is not apparent in our daily lives.
22. A single photon cannot be born because the principle of conservation of momentum would then be violated.
The meson is at rest and so if a single photon is created, that photon must also be at rest to conserve
momentum. But it is not possible for a photon to be at rest. This is why two photons are born which move
in opposite directions after creation, in conformity with the principle of conservation of momentum.
23. Because they are held together by a strong force, they are not exhibited separately.

Atomic Structure, Radioactivity, Nuclear Fission and Fusion

1. When a moving electron collides with an atom, one orbital electron in the atom absorbs part or all of the
kinetic energy of the incident electron. As a result, the orbital electron may move to an outer orbit, of higher
energy (excitation), or become completely free from the attractive field of the nucleus (ionization).
2. The gas atoms emitting light due to electron transitions are in motion. They behave like fixed frequency
sources in motion. Due to Doppler effect, the observed frequency (and hence wavelength) becomes different
from the emitted frequency. This difference depends on the velocity of the atom, causing the small spread of
the spectral line.
3. No. The -particle, although an electron, is actually created at the instant of -decay and ejected at once.
It cannot exist inside the nucleus as its de Broglie wavelength is much larger than the dimensions of the
nucleus.
4. The energy of a -ray photon is of the order of MeV. Energies of this magnitude occur in nuclear processes
but not in orbital electron transitions.
5. The universal principle of stability of a system, that is, a system lies in stable equilibrium when its energy is
at the lowest possibel value and Paulis exclusion principle, i.e., no two electrons can have all their quantum
numbers identical.
6. In no way. Chemical bonds involve only orbital electrons, whereas radioactivity is a nuclear process.
7. By passing them through transverse electric or magnetic fields.
8. No. In -decay, the atomic number decreases by 2, hence the atom is left with two extra orbital electrons.
It therefore has a double negative charge. In -decay, the atom is left with a net single positive charge.

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9. Yes. In -decay, the element moves back two places on the periodic table. In -decay, the element moves
forward one place on the periodic table.
10. The law of radioactive decay is statistical in nature. Hence, individial experimental results will show slight
variations. The averages over a large number of experimental results conform exactly with the theory.
11. No. Here c2 appears only as a constant and does not suggest motion.
12. This is a neutron with energy of the order of (3/2) kT, where T is the absolute temperature of the surroundings
and k is Boltzmanns constant. This follows from comparison with the law of equipartition of energy as
applied to gas molecules. Thermalisation of a neutron brings down its energy from a high value of about
(3/2) kT.
13. For fission, the neutron must be absorbed by the fissionable nucleus. This is possible only with slow neutrons.
14. Fusion occurs only at temperatures of the order of 106 K. This makes it extremely difficult to control fusion
processes.
15. Thomson model, Rutherford model.
16. E Z 2 / n 2 . When E is constant, Z2 n 2 Z n
3/1 = n/1 n = 3

17. The emission of a-particles is caused by quantum mechanical tunnelling through the repulsive Coulomb
barrier. They bounce to and fro in the potential well bounded by the barrier before tunnelling through it.
Hence the probability of escape is not the same for all the a-particles because all are not born inside the
nucleus at the same time.
18. Spectral lines from hydrogen arise from the relation hv = E0(1/n2 1/m2) with m > n. For the Lyman series
n = 1, m = 2, ...., .
(hv)max = E0 and (hv)min = (3/4) E0

3
E /h < v < E0/h
4 0
For the Balmer series, n = 2, m = 3, ....., .
(hv)max = E0/4 and (hv)min = 5E0 /36

or 5E0/36h < v < E0/4h. Clearly, the same value of v cannot satisfy both the series. Hence, a spectral line
cannot belong to both series.
Because the Balmer series lies in the visible region and the Lyman series in the ultraviolet region.
Bohrs principle of quantization of angular momentum is seen to be an essential condition while considering
de Broglies matterwave principle, that is, in nature all moving bodies have an associated wave. We have p
= h/. In the stationary orbits the waves associated with the particle must form a stationary wave. If r is the
radius of the stationary orbit, its circumference (equal to 2r) must be in multiples of wavelength . Therefore,
2r = n or 2r = n . h/p or pr = nh/2. Moment of momentum is angular momentum. Hence pr is the
angular momentum (L) of the electron. Thus finally we find that I = nh/2.
-particles have greater ionizing power than -particles and so they lose their energy much earlier than
-particles because of collisions. This is why their track lengths are shorter than those of -particles.
They differ in respect of their origin. -particles originate in the nucleus when a neutron is converted into a
proton, whereas electrons in cathode rays are orbital electrons.
Yes. Since -particles are helium atoms, their emission lowers the atomic number by 2 and mass number by
4. Elements are arranged in the periodic table according to their atomic number. So emittion of -particles
lowers the position of the element by two places in the periodic table.
An atom consists of a small centralized mass containing positively charged particles. Otherwise the atom as
a whole in empty.
92 and 234.
U238 2He4 2 1e0 92U234
92

or

19.
20.

21.
22.
23.

24.
25.

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26. Neutrons, because they are electrically neutral and so they do not interact with matter electrically.
27. The only possible decay process is -decay. The decay product would be 2He3.
28. In nuclear fission, two nuclides with Z of the order of 40 to 50 are created. These are highly radioactive,
with half-lives or thousands of years. These are called radioactive waste. They have to be disposed of in
sealed containers which can contain their radioactive emissions.
29. False. -particles are deflected more due to their larger specific charge.
30. True. This follows from the exponential nature of the decay. In
N = N0et, for N = 0, t =
31. Natural uranium contains less than 1% of U235 mixed with U238. The latter is not fissionable, while the former
is fissionable. The proportion of U235 must be increased artificially for the uranium to be used in fission. This
is called enrichment of uranium.
32. Fission yields greater energy per atom. Fusion yields greater energy per unit mass.
33. The neutrons emitted in fission must be slowed down in order to cause further fission in other nuclei. This is
called thermalization, and is performed by the moderator.
34. When exactly one neutron, of the several produced by the fission of one nucleus, is permitted to cause
further fission. This happens in a controlled chain reaction, e.g., in a nuclear reactor.
35. The mass number does not change. The mass is reduced.
36. Thomsons model.
37. For large quantum numbers, quantum mechanical results reduce to classical results.
38. Because large n corresponds to a very large value at which classical and quantum results are identical by
Bohrs correspondence principle.
39. As the photon moves out against strong gravitational attraction its energy decreases and so its frequency is
expected to decrease. This is gravitational shift.

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ASSERTION-REASON
(A) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; Statement-2 is a correct explanation for Statement-1
(B) Statement-1 is True, Statement-2 is True; Statement-2 is NOT a correct explanation for Statement-1
(C) Statment-1 is True, Statement-2 is False
(D) Statement-1 is False, Statement-2 is True

1.

Statement-1 : Electron capture occurs more often than positron emission in heavy elements.
Statement-2 : Heavy elements exhibit radioactivity.

2.

Statement-1 : In a hydrogen atom energy of emitted photon corresponding to transition from n = 2 to

n = 1 is much greater as compared to transition from n = to n = 2.
Statement-2 : Wavelength of photon is directly proportional to the energy of emitted photon

3.

Statement-1 : Ionisation energy of atomic hydrogen is greater than atomic deuterium.

Statement-2 : Ionisation energy is directly proportional to reduced mass

4.

Statement-1 : For pair production, energy of ray is greater than 1.02 MeV.
Statement-2 : In pair production, energy is converted into mass.

5.

Statement-1 : The ratio of rate of production (R) of neutrons to the rate of leakage of neutron from a
spherical body of 92U235 is directly proportional to radius (r)
Statement-2 : Rate of production of neutron is directly proportional to volume but rate of leakage of
neutrons is directly proportional to area.

6. Statement-1 : The nuclear energy can be obtained by the nuclear fission of heavier nuclei as well as nuclear
fusion of lighter nuclei.
Statement-2 : The binding energy per nucleon with increase in atomic number first increases and then
decreases.
7. Statement-1 : A small metal ball is suspended in a uniform electric field with an insulated thread. If high
energy X-ray beam falls on the ball, the ball will be deflected in the direction of electric field.
Statement-2 : Wavelength of L X-ray must be greater then the wavelength of K X-ray for the same
material.
8. Statement-1 : The difference in the frequencies of series limit of Lyman series and Balmer series is equal to
the frequency of the first line of the Lyman series.
Statement-2 : Difference in energy of two atomic levels is proportional to the energy of emitted or absorbed
photon.
9. Statement-1 : Work function of aluminium is 4.2 eV. If two photons of each of energy 2.5 eV strike on an
electron of aluminium, the electron is not emitted.
Statement-2 : In photoelectric effect, electron is emitted only if energy of each of incident photon is greater
than the work function.
10. Statement-1 : If the accelerating potential in an X-ray tube is increased, the wavelengths of the characteristic
X-rays do not change.
Statement-2 : When an electron beam strikes the target in an X-ray tube, part of the kinetic energy is
converted into X-ray energy.
[JEE, 07]

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Match the Column

1.

Column I
(A) Work function of copper is 4 eV. If two
photons each of energy 2.5 eV strike an
electron of copper emission of electrons

Column II
(P) 13.6 Z2/n2eV

(B) Cathode rays get deflected by

(Q) 13.6 Z 2

(C) Ionisation energy of H like atom is

(R) both electric and magnetic field

(S) 1H1
(T) 1H3
(U) Not possible
(V) Possible
Column II
(P) Increase

1 1
2 eV
2
n1 n 2

(D) Greater wavelength in transition from n = 2

to n = 1 is for
2.

3.

4.

Column I
(A) Radius of orbit depend on principal quantum
number as
(B) Due to orbital motion of electron,
Magnetic field arises at the centre of Nucleus
is proportional to principal quantum no. as
(C) If electron is going from lower energy level to
higher energy level then velocity of electron will
(D) If electron is going from lower energy level to
higher energy level, then total energy of
electron will
Column I
(A) Rate of disintegration, i.e. dN/dt is
proportional to
(B) Mean life of radioactive substance is
(C) Intensity I of ray of initial intensity I 0 after
transversing the thickness of x of the absorber is
(related as)
(D) The radioactive decay rate is not affected by

Column I
(A) Binding energy per nucleon for middle order
or elements is
(B) Nuclear force depends on

(Q) decrease
(R) is proportional to 1/n2
(S) is proportional to n2
(T) is proportional to 1/n5
Column II
(P) Greater than Half life
(Q) Less than Half life
(R) Number of atoms of parent radioactive
substance still undecayed at time t
(S) I = I 0/x
(T) I = I 0ex
(U) Temperature, pressure, volume
Column II
(P) Optical Model
(Q) Shell model

(C) For nuclear fission

Z
is
A

(R) 8.8 MeV

(D) Magic numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126

explained by

5.

(S) 2.5 eV

Column I
(A) Radius of orbit is related with atomic number (Z)
(B) Current associated due to orbital motion
electron with atomic number (Z)
(C) Magnetic field at the centre due to orbital
motion of electron related with Z.
(D) Velocity of an electron related with atomic
number (Z)

(T) Charges of Nucleons

(U) Spin of Nucleons
(V) Greater than 15
(W) Less than 15
Column II
(P) is proportional to Z
(Q) is inversely proportion to Z
(R) is proportional to Z 2
(S) is proportional to Z 3

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6.

7.

8.

9.

Match the following Columns

[JEE, 06]
Column I
Column II
(A) Nuclear fusion
(P) Converts some matter into energy
(B) Nuclear fission
(Q) Generally occurs for nuclei with low atomic number
(C) -decay
(R) Generally occurs for nuclei with higher atomic number
(D) Exothermic nuclear reaction
(S) Essentially proceeds by week nuclear forces
In the following, column I lists some physical quantities & the column II gives approx, energy values
associated with some of them. Choose the appropriate value of energy from column II for each of the
physical quantities in column I and write the corresponding letter A, B, C etc. against the number (i), (ii),
(iii), etc. of the physical quantity in the answer book. In your answer, the sequence of column I should be
maintained.
Column I
Column II
[JEE, 97]
(A) Energy of thermal neutrons
(P) 0.025 eV
(B) Energy of X-rays
(Q) 0.5 eV
(C) Binding energy per nucleon
(R) 3 eV
(D) Photoelectric threshold of metal
(S) 20 eV
(T) 10 keV
(U) 8 MeV
Some laws/processes are given in Column I. Match these with the physical phenomena given in Column II.
Column I
Column II
(A) Transition between two atomic energy levels
(P) Characteristic X-rays
[JEE, 07]
(B) electron emission from a material
(Q) Photoelectric effect
(C) Mosleys law
(R) Hydrogen spectrum
(D) Change of photon energy into kinetic
(S) -decay
energy of electrons.
Column - II gives certain systems undergoing a process. Column-I suggests changes in some of the parameters
related to the system. Match the statements in Column I to the appropriate process(es) from Column-II.
Column I
Column II
[JEE, 09]
(A) The energy of the system is increased
(P) System : A capacitor, initially uncharged
(B) Mechanical energy is provided to the system,
Process : It is connected to a battery
which is converted into energy of random
(Q) System : A gas in an adiabatic container fitted
motion of its parts
with an adiabatic piston
(C) Internal energy of the system is converted into
Process : The gas is compressed by pushing
its mechanical energy.
the piston
(D) Mass of the system is decreased
(R) System : A gas in a girid container
Process : The gas gets cooled due to colder
atmosphere surrounding it
(S) System : A heavy nucleus, initially at rest
Process : The nucleus fissions into two fragments
of nearly equal masses and some
neutrons are emitted.
(T) System : A resistive wire loop
Process : The loop is placed in a time varrying
magnetic field perpendicular to its plane

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Level 1
1.

An energy of 24.6 eV is required to remove one of the electrons from the neutral helium atom. The energy
(in eV) required to remove both the electron from a neutral helium atom is
(a) 38.2
(b) 49.2
(c) 51.8
(d) 79.0

2.

The K X ray emission line of tungsten occurs at = 0.021 nm. The energy difference between K and
L levels in this atom is about
(a) 0.51 MeV
(b) 1.2 MeV
(c) 59 keV
(c) 136 eV

3.

The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition n1 n 2 where n1 and n2 are the principal quantum
numbers of the two states. Assume the Bohr model to be valid. The time period of the electron in the
initial state is 8 times that in the final state. The possible values of n1 and n2 are
(a) n1 = 4, n2 = 1

4.

(b) n1 = 8, n2 = 2

(d) n1 = 6, n2 = 3

X-rays are produced in an X-ray tube operating at a given accelerating voltage. The wavelength of the
continuous X-rays has values from
(a) 0 to
(b) min to where min > 0
(c) 0 to max where max <

5.

(c) n1 = 8, n2 = 1

(d) min to max where 0 < min < max <

A particle of mass M at rest decays into two particles of masses m 1 and m 2, having non zero velocities.
The ratio of the de Broglie wavelengths of the particles, 1 2 , is
m1
(a) m
2

m2
(b) m
1

(c) 1.0

m2
m1

(d)

6.

The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from an excited state to the ground state. Which of
the following statements is true ?
(a) Its kinetic energy increases and its potential and total energies decrease.
(b) Its kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases and its total energy remains the same.
(c) Its kinetic and total energies decrease and its potential energy increases.
(d) Its kinetic, potential and total energies decrease.

7.

Imagine an atom made up of a proton and a hypothetical particle of double the mass of the electron but
having the same charge as the electron. Apply the Bohr atom model and consider all possible transitions
of this hypothetical particle to the first excited level. The longest wavelength photon that will be emitted
has wavelength (given in terms of the Rydberg constant R for the hydrogen atom) equal to
(a) 9/5R
(b) 36/5R
(c) 18/5R
(d) 4/R

8.

Electrons with energy 80 keV are incident on the tungsten target of an X-ray tube. K shell electrons of
tungsten have 72.5 keV energy. X-rays emitted by the tube contain

(a) a continuous X-ray spectrum (Bresmsstrahlung) with a minimum wavelength of about 0.155 A
(b) a continuous X-ray spectrum (Bremsstrahlung) with all wave-lengths
(c) the characteristic X-ray spectrum of tungsten
and the
(d) a continuous X-ray spectrum (Bremsstrahlung) with a minimum wavelength of about 0.155 A
characteristics X-rays spectrum of tungsten.

9.

For a photoelectric cell, the graph in Figure. showing the variation of the cut-off voltage V0 with frequency
(v) of incident light is

V0

V0

O
(a)

V0

O
(b)

V0

O
(c)

O
(d)

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10.

Monochromatic light of frequency v 1 irradiates a photocell and the stopping potential is found to be V1.
What is the new stopping potential of the cell if it is irradiated by monochromatic light of frequency v 2?
h
h
h
h
(a) V1 v 2 v 1
(b) V1 v 2 v 1
(c) V1 v 1 v 2
(d) V1 v 1 v 2
e
e
e
e

11.

When a certain photosensitive surface is illuminated with monochromatic light of frequency v, the stopping potential for photoelectric current is V0/2. When the same surface is illuminated by monochromatic
high of frequency v/2, the stopping potential is V0. The threshold frequency for photoelectric emission is
(a)

12.

2v
3

(b)

(c)

3v
5

(d)

5v
3

The energy of a photon of frequency v is E = hv and the momentum of a photon of wavelength is p = h

/ . From this statement one may conclude that the wave velocity of light is equal to
8

(a) 3 x 10 ms
13.

3v
2

(b)

(d)
p

(c) p

When a centimeter thick surface is illuminated with light of wavelength , the stopping potential is V..
When the same surface is illuminated by light of wavelength 2 , the stopping potential is V/3. The
threshold wavelength for the surface is
(a)

4
3

(b) 4

(c) 6

(d)

8
3

14.

A star of mass M0, radius R0 contracts to radius R. Energy radiated by the star assuming uniform density
in each case while temperature remains unchanged is
R 2
R 3
R

c
1

c
1

(a) 0 c
(b) 0
(c) 0
(d) 0
R
R 0
R 0
0

15.

A sensor is exposed for time t to a lamp of power P placed at a distance . The sensor has an opening
that is 4d in diameter. Assuming all energy of the lamp is given off as light, the number of photons
entering the sensor if the wavelength of light is is (l >> d)
(a) N

16.

P d2 t
h c 2

(c) N

P d2 t
4 hc 2

(d) N

P d2 t
16 h c 2

n n 1

(b)
2

(c)

1
n n 1 2n 1
6

(d)

1
n n 1 2n 1
3

An electron is lying initially in the n = 4 excited state. the electron de-excites itself to go to n = 1 state
directly emitting a photon of frequency v 41 . If the same electron first de-excites to n = 3 state by emitting
a photon of frequency v 43 and then goes from n = 3 to n = 1 state by emitting a photon of frequency v 31 ,
then
(a) 41 43 31

18.

4 P d2 t
h c 2

If elements of quantum number greater than n were not allowed, the number of possible elements in
nature would have been
1
(a) n n 1
2

17.

(b) N

(b) 41 43 31

(c) 41 43 2 31

(d) Data Insufficient

A photon of energy 10.2 eV corresponds to light of wavelength 0 . Due to an electron transition from n =
2 to n = 1 in a hydrogen atom, light of wavelength is emitted. If we take into account the recoil of the
atom when the photon is emitted,
(a) = 0

(b) 0

(c) 0

(d) the data is not sufficient to reach a conclusion.

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19.

When an electron moving at a high speed strikes a metal surface, which of the following are possible?
(a) The entire energy of the electron may be converted into an X-ray photon.
(b) Any fraction of the energy of the electron may be converted into an X-ray photon.
(c) The entire energy of the electron may get converted to heat.
(d) The electron may undergo elastic collision with the metal surface.

20.

A star converts all of its 2He4 nuclei completely into oxygen nuclei. The energy released per oxygen
nuclei is (given mass of nucleus = 4.0026 amu, mass of oxygen nucleus = 15.994 amu)
(a) 7.26 MeV
(b) 7 MeV
(c) 15.252 MeV
(d) 23.9 MeV

21.

The graph showing the energy spectrum of particles is :

Y

(a)

(b)

n(E)
E

(c)

n(E)

(d) n(E)

n(E)
E

22.

Binding energy per nucleon of 1H2 and 2He4 are 1.1 eV and 7.0 MeV respectively. Energy released in
the process 1H2 + 1H2 = 2He4 is :
(a) 20.8 MeV
(b) 16.6 MeV
(c) 25.2 MeV
(d) 23.6 MeV

23.

Two electrons are moving with the same speed V. One electron enters a region of uniform electric field
while the other enters a region of uniform magnetic field . After sometime if the de Broglie wavelength of
the two are 1 and 2 then :
(a) 1 = 2
(b) 1 > 2
(c) 1 > 2
(d) 1 > 2 or 1 < 2

24.

In a characteristic X-ray spectra of some atom superimposed on a continuous X-ray spectra :

P
Relation
intensity

min

(a) P represents K line

(b) Q represents K line
(c) Q and P represents K and K lines respectively
(d) Position of K and K depend on the particular atom
25.

Difference between nth and (n + 1)th Bohrs radius of H atom is equal to its (n 1)th Bohrs radius. The
value of n is
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4

26.

A hydrogen atom is in an excited state of principal quantum number n. It emits a photon of wavelength
while returning to the ground state. The value of n is :
(a)

R(R 1)

(b)

(R 1)
R

(c)

R
R 1

(d)

(R 1)

27.

The binding energies of nuclei X and Y are E1 and E2 respectively. Two atoms of X fuse to give one atom
of Y and an energy Q is released. Then :
(a) Q = 2E1 E2
(b) Q = E2 E1
(c) Q < 2E1 E2
(d) Q > E2 2E1

28.

Two radioactive materials x1 and x2 have decay constant 10 and respectively. Initially they have the
same number of nuclei. The ratio of the number of nuclei x 1 to that of x 2 will be 1/e after time :
(a) 1/10
(b) 1/11
(c) 11/10
(d) 1/9

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29.

At t = 0 activity of radioactive substance is 1600 Bq and t = 8 sec activity remains 100 Bq. The activity
at t = 2 sec is :
(a) 200 Bq
(b) 400 Bq
(c) 600 Bq
(d) 800 Bq

30.

There is a stream of neutrons with a kinetic energy of 0.0327 eV. If the half life of neutrons is 700 s. The
fraction of neutrons will decay before they travel a distance 10 m. m n = 1.675 1027 kg :
(a) 3.96 105
(b) 3.96 106
(c) 2.96 104
(d) None

31.

The count rate for 10 gram radioactive material was measured

time (hrs) at different times and this had been shown in figure
scale given. The half life of material and the total count in the
first half value period respectively are :
(a) 4 hrs. and 9000 approximately
(b) 3 hrs and 14100 approximately
(c) 3 hrs and 235 approximately
(d) 10 hrs and 157 approximately

100
75
50
25
12.5

9 time in hr.

32.

Assuming that about 200 MeV energy is released per fission of 92U235 nuclei. What would be mass of
U235 consumed per day in the fission of reactor of power 1 MW approximately ?
92
(a) 10 kg
(b) 100 kg
(c) 1 gram
(d) 102 gm

33.

The energy, the magnitude of linear momentum and orbital radius of an electron in a hydrogen atom
corresponding to the quantum number n are E, P and r, according to the Bohrs theory of hydrogen
atom:
(a) EPr is proportional to 1/n
(b) P/E is proportional to n0
(c) Er is not constant for all orbits
(d) Pr is proportional to n.

34.

An electron is excited from a lower energy state to a higher energy state in a hydrogen atom. Which of
the following quantities decrease in the excitation.
(a) Potential enrgy
(b) Angular speed
(c) Kinetic energy
(d) Angular momentum

35.

The correct statement is l are :

(a) density of nucleus is independent of mass number (A)
(b) Radius of nucleus increases with mass number (A)
(c) Mass of nucleus is directly proportional to mass number (A).
(d) Density of nucleus is directly proportional to mass number.

36.

A hydrogen like atom of atomic number Z is an excited state of quantum number 2n. It can emit a
maximum energy photon of 204. eV. It makes a transition to quantum state n, a photon of energy 40.8
eV is emitted, then
(a) Z = 2
(b) Z = 4
(c) n = 1
(d) n = 2

37.

An electron with kinetic energy varying from 5 eV to 50 eV is incident on a hydrogen atom in its ground
state. The collision :
(a) may be elastic
(b) may be partially elastic
(c) must be completely inelastic (d) from zero to 13.6 eV be elastic and more than 27.2 eV be
inelastic.

38.

The wavelength of first Balmer line for 1H1 , 1H2 and 2He4 and 1, 2 and 3 respectively. The correct
statements are
(a) 2 1
(b) 3 2
(c) 1 2
(d) 1 2 > 3

39.

Regarding X ray spectrum which of the following statement

(a) The characteristic X ray spectrum is emitted due to excitation of inner electrons of atom
(b) Wavelength of characteristic spectrum depend on the potential difference across the tube.
(c) Wavelength of continuous spectrum is dependent on the potential difference across tube
(d) None of these

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40.

If the wavelength of light in an experiment on photo electric effect is doubled :

(a) The photoelectric emission will not take place.
(b) The photoemission may or may not take place.
(c) The stopping potential will increase
(d) The stopping potential will decrease under the condition that energy of photon of doubled. Wavelength
is more than work function of metal.

41.

the binding energy per nucleon is :

(a) Maximum for middle order element
(b) Minimum for lighter elements
(c) Binding energy per nucleon suddenly increases for some mass number called magic numbers.
(d) Binding energy per nucleon is minimum for middle order elements

42.

When Z is doubled in an atom, which of the following statement are consistent with Bohrs theory :
(a) Energy of a state is double.
(b) Radius of an orbit is double.
(c) Velocity of electrons in an orbit is doubled
(d) Radius of orbit is halved.

43.

Photons of wavelength 6620 are incident normally on a perfectly reflecting screen. Calculate the
number of photons per second falling on the screen as total power of photons such that the exerted
force is 1N :
(a) 5 1026
(b) 5 1025
(c) 1.5 108
(d) None of these

44.

The energy of particles emitted by 210Po is 5.3 MeV. What mass 210Po is needed to power a
thermoelectric cell of 13 watt output, What would be power output after 1 year : (The half life of 210Po is
138 days)
(a) 8.85 102 gram
(b) 0.159 watt
(c) 0.179 watt
(d) 8.85 104 gram

45.

The atomic masses of 7N15, 8O15 and 8O16 are respectively 15.0001 a.m.u., 15.0030 a.m.u. and 15.9949
a.m.u. Then :
(a) Binding energy per nucleon in 8O 16 is 7.97 MeV
(b) Energy is needed to remove one proton 8O 16 is 12.13 MeV
(c) Energy needed to remove one proton from 8O 16 is 15.61 MeV.
(d) All the above

46.

A sample contains 102 kg each of two substances A and B with half lives 4 sec and 8 sec respectively.
Their weights are in the ratio of 1 : 2. The amounts of a and B after an interval of 16 sec.
(a) 6.25 104 kg
(b) 12.5 104 kg
(c) 2.5 103 kg
(d) 1.25 105 kg

47.

The wavelength and frequency of photons in transition 1,2 and 3 for H like atom are 1, 2, 3 and 1, 2,
3. then :
1

C
1
B

2
2

3
A

(a) 3 = 1 + 2

(c) 3

(b) 3 = 1 + 2

1 2
1 2

(d) 3

48.

Which of the following pair constitute very similar radiations ?

(a) Hard U.V. ray and soft X ray.
(b) Soft U.V. ray and hard X ray
(c) Very hard X ray and low frequency Y ray
(d) Soft X ray and Y ray

49.

The correct option are :

(a) In uranium ore, the ratio of U235 to U238 is 1 : 40
(c) 92U235 : 92U238 = 1 : 4

1 2
1 2

(b) Critical mass of uranium is 10 kg

(d) All the above

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3
50. A star initially has 1040 deutrons. It produces energy via, the processes 1H2 + 1H2
1H + p &
4
16
H2 + 1H3
2He + n. If the average power radiated by the star is 10 W, the deuteron supply of the
star is exhausted in a time of the order of :
[JEE, 93]
6
8
12
16
(A) 10 sec
(B) 10 sec
(C) 10 sec
(D) 10 sec
1

51(i). Fast neutrons can easily be slowed down by :

(A) the use of lead shielding
(C) elastic collisions with heavy nuclei

(B) passing them through water

(D) applying a strong electric field

(ii). Consider particles, particles & -rays, each having an energy of 0.5 MeV. Increasing order of
penetrating powers, the radiations are :
[JEE, 94]
(A) , ,
(B) , ,
(C) , ,
(D) , ,
52. Which of the following statement(s) is (are) correct ?
[JEE, 94]
(A) The rest mass of a stable nucleus is less than the sum of the rest masses of its separated nucleons.
(B) The rest mass of a stable nucleus is greater than the sum of the rest masses of its separated nucleons.
(C) In nuclear fusion, energy is released by fusion two nuclei of medium mass (approximately 100 amu).
(D) In nuclear fission, energy is released by fragmentation of a very heavy nucleus.
53. The binding energy per nucleon of 16O is 7.97 MeV & that of 17O is 7.75 MeV. The energy in MeV
required to remove a neutron from 17O is :
[JEE, 95]
(A) 3.52
(B) 3.64
(C) 4.23
(D) 7.86
54. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted from a surface when photons of energy 6 eV fall on
it is 4 eV. the stopping potential in Volts is :
[JEE, 97]
(A) 2
(B) 4
(C) 6
(D) 10
55. Select the correct alternative(s).
(i)

[JEE, 98]

Let mp be the mass of a proton, mn the mass of a neutron, M1 the mass of a

of a

40
20

20
10

Ne nucleus & M2 the mass

Ca nucleus. Then :

(A) M2 = 2M1

(B) M2 > 2M1

(C) M2 < 2M1

(D) M1 < 10(mn + mp)

56(a). Binding energy per nucleon vs. mass number curve for
nuclei is shown in the figure. W, X, Y and Z are four nuclei
indicated on the curve. The process that would release
energy is
[JEE, 99]
(A) Y 2Z
(B) W X + Z
(C) W 2Y
(D) X Y + Z

Binding Energy/nucleon
in MeV

(ii) The half-life of 131I is 8 days. Given a sample of 131I at time t = 0, we can assert that :
(A) no nucleus will decay before t = 4 days
(B) no nucleus will decay before t = 8 days
(C) all nuclei will decay before t = 16 days
(D) a given nucleus may decay at any time after t = 0
Y

8.5
8.0

X
W

7.5
5.0

30
60
90
Mass Number of Nuclei

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MODERN PHYSICS
(b) Order of magnitude of density of Uranium nucleus is, [mp = 1.67 1027 kg]
(A) 1020 kg/m3
(B) 1017 kg/m3
(C) 1014 kg/m3
(c)

(D) 1011 kg/m3

22

Ne nucleus, after absorbing energy, decays into two -particles and an unknown nucleus. The unknown
nucleus is
(A) nitrogen
(B) carbon
(C) boron
(D) oxygen

(d) Which of the following is a correct statement ?

(A) Beta rays are same as cathode rays
(B) Gamma rays are high energy neutrons.
(C) Alpha particles are singly ionized helium atoms
(D) Protons and neutrons have exactly the same mass (E) None
(e) The half-life period of a radioactive element X is same as the mean-life time of another radioactive element
Y. Initially both of them have the same number of atoms. Then
(A) X & Y have the same decay rate initially
(B) X & Y decay at the same rate always.
(C) Y will decay at a faster rate than X
(D) X will decay at a faster rate than Y
57. A particle of mass M at rest decays into two particles of masses m1 and m2, having non-zero velocities. The
radio of the de-Broglie wavelengths of the particles, 1/2, is
[JEE, 99]
(A) m1/m2

(B) m2/m1

(C) 1.0

(D)

m 2 / m1

58.(a) Imagine an atom made up of a proton and a hypotherical particle of double the mass of the electron but
having the same charge as the electron. Apply the Bohr atom model and consider all possible transitions of
this hypothetical particle to the first excited level. The longest wavelength photon that will be emitted has
wavelength (given in terms of the Rydberg constant R for the hydrogen atom) equal to [JEE, 2000 Scr.]
(A) 9/(5R)
(B) 36/(5R)
(C) 18/(5R)
(D) 4/R
(b). The electron in a hydrogen atom makes a transition from an excited state to the ground state. Which of the
following statements is true ?
[JEE, 2000 Scr.]
(A) Its kinetic energy increases and its potential and total energies decrease.
(B) Its kinetic energy decreases, potential energy increases and its total energy remains the same.
(C) Its kinetic and total energies decrease and its potential energy increases.
(D) Its kinetic, potential and total energies decrease.
59. The potential difference applied to an X-ray tube is 5 kV and the current through it is 3.2 mA. Then the
number of electrons striking the target per second is
[JEE, 02 Scr.]
16
16
17
(A) 2 10
(B) 5 10
(C) 1 10
(D) 4 1015
60. A Hydrogen atom and Li++ ion are both in the second excited state. If lH and lLi are their respective
electronic angular momenta, and EH and ELi their respective energies, then
[JEE, 02 Scr.]
(A) lH > lLi and |EH| > |ELi|
(B) lH = lLi and |EH| < |ELi|
(C) lH = lLi and |EH| > |ELi|
(D) lH < lLi and |EH| < |ELi|
61. Given a sample of Radium-226 having half-life of 4 days. Find the probability, a nucleus disintegrates within
2 half lives.
[JEE, 06]
(A) 1
(B) 1/2
(C) 3/4
(D) 1/4

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62. The graph between 1/ and stopping potential (V) of three metals
having work functions 1, 2 and 3 is an experiment of photoelectric
effect is plotted as shown in the figure. Which of the following
statement(s) is/are correct? [Here is the wavelength of the incident
ray].

metal 1 metal 2 metal 3

(A) Ratio of work functions 1 : 2 : 3 = 1 : 2 : 4

0.001 0.002 0.004 1/
nm1
(B) Ratio of work functions 1 : 2 : 3 = 4 : 2 : 1
(C) tan is directly proportional to hc/e, where h is Plancks constant and c is the speed of light
(D) The violet colour light can eject photoelectrons from metals 2 and 3.
[JEE, 06]
63. In the options given below, let E denote the rest mass energy of a nucleus and n a neutron. The correct
option is :
[JEE, 07]

(C) E
(A) E

236
92

236
92

I E Y 2E(n)
U E Ba E Kr 2E(n)
U E

137
53

140
56

97
39

94
36

(D) E
(B) E

236
92

236
92

I E Y 2E(n)
U E Ba E Kr 2E(n)

U E

137
53

140
56

97
39

94
36

64. The largest wavelength in the ultraviolet region of the hydrogen spectrum is 122 nm. The smallest wavelength
in the infrared region of the hydrogen spectrum (to the nearest integer) is
[JEE, 07]
(A) 802 nm
(B) 823 nm
(C) 1882 nm
(D) 1648 nm
65. Electrons with de-Broglie wavelength fall on the target in an X-ray tube. The cut-off wavelength of the
emitted X-rays is
[JEE, 07]
(A) 0

2mc 2
h

(B) 0

2h
mc

(C) 0

2m 2 c 2 2
h2

(D) 0 =

66. Which one of the following statements is WRONG in the context of X-rays generated from a X-ray tube?
(A) Wavelength of characteristic X-rays decreases when the atomic number of the target increases
(B) Cut-off wavelength of the continuous X-rays depends on the atomic number of the target. [JEE, 08]
(C) Intensity of the characteristic X-rays depends on the electrical power given to the X-rays tube.
(D) Cut-off wavelength of the continuous X-rays depends on the energy of the electrons in the X-rays tube.
67. Assume that the nuclear binding energy per nucleon (B/A) versus mass B/A
8
number (A) is as shown in the figure. Use this plot to choose the correct
6
choice(s) given below : Figure
4
(A) Fusion of two nuclei with mass numbers lying in the range of
2
1 < A < 50 will release energy.
0
(B) Fusion of two nuclei with mass numbers lying in the range of
A
100
200
51 < A < 100 will release energy.
(C) Fission of a nucleus lying in the mass range of 100 < A < 200 will release energy when broken into two
equal fragments.
(D) Fission of a nucleus lying in the mass range of 200 < A < 260 will release energy when broken into two
equal fragments.
[JEE, 08]
68. The quantum number n of the state finally populated in He+ ions is
(A) 2
(B) 3
(C) 4

[JEE, 08]
(D) 5

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MODERN PHYSICS
69. The wavelength of light emitted in the visible region by He+ ions after collisions with H atoms is [JEE, 08]
(A) 6.5 107 m
(B) 5.6 107 m
(C) 4.8 107 m
(D) 4.0 107 m
70. The ratio of the kinetic energy of the n = 2 electron for the H atom to that of He+ ion is
(A)

1
4

(B)

1
2

(C) 1

[JEE, 08]

(D) 2

71. A radioactive sampel S1 having an activity of 5Ci has twice the number of nuclei as another sample S2
which has an activity of 10 Ci. The half lives of S1 and S2 can be :
[JEE, 08]
(A) 20 years and 5 years, respectively
(B) 20 years and 10 years, respectively
(C) 10 years each
(D) 5 years each
72. Photoelectric effect experiments are performed using three different metal plates p, q and r having work
functions p = 2.0 eV, q = 2.5 eV and r = 3.0 eV, respectively. A light beam containing wavelengths of
550 nm, 450 nm and 350 nm with equal intensities illuminates each of the plates. The correct IV graph for
the experiment is
[JEE, 09]
I

(A)

I
p
q
r

(B)

p q

(C)

I
r
q
p (D)

r q

Passage
PASSAGE : 1
Figure 1 below depicts three hypothetical atoms. Energy levels are represented as horizontal segments. The
distance between the segments is representative of the energy difference between the various levels . All
possible transitions between energy levels are indicated by arrows
Atom #1

Atom # 2
Atom # 3

Scientists can observe the spectral lines of atoms that are dominant in far-away galaxies. Due to the speed at
which these galaxies are travelling, these lines are shifted, but their pattern remains the same. This allows
researchers to use the spectral pattern to determine which atoms they are seeing. Table 1 below shows
spectroscopic measurements made by researchers trying to determine the atomic makeup of a particular faraway galaxy. Light energy is not measured directly, but rather is determined from measuring the frequency of
light. Which is proportional to the energy.

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MODERN PHYSICS
Table 1
Frequencies Measured
868440
880570
879910
856390
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

For each of three hypothetical atoms (Atom 1, Atom 2 and Atom 3), Figure 1 depicts the
(A) number of electrons and the amount of energy the atom contains
(B) distance an electron travels from one part of the atom to another
(C) energy released by the atom as an electron as it moves from one energy state to another
(D) frequency with which the atoms electrons move from one energy state to another
In which of the three hypothetical atoms depicted in Figure 1 does the energy of the light released by
the atom vary the least
(A) Atom 1
(B) Atom 2
(C) Atom 3
(D) It is impossible to
tell
Scientist observing an actual atom similar to hypothetical Atom 1 in the figure might observe
(A) three spectral lines close together and two other spectral lines close together
(B) light blinking at six different frequencies
(C) a much brighter light emanating from one electron than from any other.
(D) four distinct spectral lines emanating from six different electrons.
Based on the spectroscopic measurements shown in Table 1, which of the atoms in Figure 1 (Atom 1,
Atom2, or Atom 3) is most similar to the one the scientists were observing, and why ?
(A) Atom 2, because it contains four different energy levels
(B) Atom 3, because it contains four different energy levels
(C) Atom 1, because the frequencies listed in Table 1 indicate a high level of atomic activity.
(D) Atom 3, because there is a comparatively small difference between exactly two of the four frequencies
listed in Table 1
The laws of atomic physics prohibit electron movements between certain energy states. In atomic
physics. these prohibitions are called forbidden transitions. Based on Figure 1, which of the following
is most accurate ?
(A) Atom 2 has the same number of forbidden transitions than Atom 3
(B) Atom 2 has more forbidden transitions than atom 3
(C) Atom 3 has the same number of forbidden transitions as Atom 1
(D) Atom 1 has fewer forbidden transitions than Atom 2
PASSAGE : 2
In quantum mechanics, some quantities are discrete and cannot be continuous. One of these quantities
is the energy. Energy can only take certain values E1, E2, E3, E4......., which are called energy levels.
The energy cannot take any values between E1 and E2, or E2 and E3 or E3 and E4 etc. Certain transitions
from one energy level to another result in the emission of a photon of radiation, whereas others can
only take place if a photon is absorbed. The energy levels in a newly discovered gas are expressed as:

En

6.
7.

E1z 2
n2

in which E1z2 is the ground state energy. Take z = 1 for simplicity, but do not assume that the gas is
hydrogen. An experiment is designed to measure the energy as a functions of the level. The results
obtained are as follows :
n
En(eV)
2
144
3
64
4
36
The ionization energy of the gas must be
(A) 244 eV
(B) 576 eV
(C) 144 eV
(D) +13.6 eV
The ground state energy is
(A) 144 eV
(B) + 144 eV
(C) 244 eV
(D) none of the above

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8.

Which of the following shapes is most likely to represent the graph of En versus 1/n2 ?

(A)
9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

(B)

(C)

(D)

A transition from the n = 2 state to the n = 3 state results :

(A) in emission of a photon of energy 144 eV
(B) in emission of a photon of energy 80 eV
(C) in emission of an ultraviolet photon
(D) only accomplished if a photon is absorbed
A transition from the n = 4 state to the n = 3 state results :
(A) in emission of a photon of energy 28 eV
(B) in emission of a photon of energy 13.6 eV
(C) in emission of an infrared photon
(D) only accomplished if a photon is absorbed.
PASSAGE : 3
The power per unit area reaching the Earths surface from
cathode
Anode
the sun, averaged over 24 hours, is 0.2 kW/m 2. This solar
(emitter)
(collector)
g ht
li
t
n
e
energy can be converted directly into electrical energy via
inc id
photocell
the photoelectric effect. For example, in the photoelectrical
cell shown in figure 1, a cathode emits electrons when
A
illuminated by light of a high enough frequency. The ejected
Ammeter
electrons travel to the anode, and a small electric current flows. An electron within the cathode requires
a minimum energy to break free from the cathode surface. This minimum energy is known as the work
function, W, and is a constant intrinsic to the material of which the cathode is composed. An individual
photonincident on the cathode collides with an electron and is absorbed, transferring all of its energy to
the electron. The energy of each incident photon is given by Ep = hf, where f is the frequency of incident
light and h is Plancks constant. If Ep is less than W, then no electrons will be ejected from the
cathode at all. The maximum kinetic energy Emax of an electron liberated from the cathode is given by
: Emax = Ep W
A voltage source can be connected across the photoelectric cell to oppose the current flow. At a
critical applied voltage, called the stopping voltage, even an electron ejected from the cathode with a
kinetic energy of Emax will not be able to reach the anode therefore the current will stop altogether. The
value of this stopping voltage is dependent only on Emax.
The most efficient modern photovoltaic cells can covert the Suns energy into electrical energy with an
efficiency of 35%. Approximately what area would have to be covered by such cells in order to supply
a household with 20 kW-hourse of electrical energy per day
(A) 0.5 m 2
(B) 12 m 2
(C) 285 m 2
(D) 6850 m 2
Light intensity is defined as the energy flowing per unit area per unit time for an area perpendicular to
the direction of energy flow. In an experiment, the frequency of light incident on the cathode of a
photoelectric cell is held constant, but the intensity is varied. As the intensity of the incident light is
increased, the stopping voltage.
(A) increases, because more electrons are ejected from the cathode as the number of photons striking
it increases.
(B) remains the same, because the energy supplied to one electron depends only on the energy of an
individual photon.
(C) increases, because the electrons in the cathode absorb more energy per unit time
(D) remains the same, because each incident photon shares its energy between several electrons in
the cathode.
The behavior of light is sometimes explained in terms of particles and sometimes in terms of waves.
Which of the following CANNOT be explained by a theory that refers to light in terms of waves alone
(A) Current flow in a photoelectric cell can be stopped by reducing the intensity of the incident light
while maintaining the same frequency.
(B) An electron requires energy to escape from the surface of a photosensitive cathode.
(C) Current flow in a photoelectric cell can be stopped by reducing the frequency of the incident light
while
maintaining the same intensity.
(D) The angle through which light is refracted when it moves from one medium to another is a function of
frequency, rather than intensity.

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14.

Under which of the following conditions will the stopping voltage across a photoelectric cell be greatest(A) The wavelength of the incident light is short, and the work function of the cathode material is low.
(B) The wavelength of the incident light is short, and the work function of the cathode material is high.
(C) The wavelength of incident light is long, and the work function of the cathode is low.
(D) The wavelength of the incident light is long, and the work function of the cathode material is high.

PASSAGE : 4
An x- ray tube consists of two metal electrodes, a heated filament cathode,
and an anode containing the metal target sealed under high vaccum in a glass
envelope. The heated filament in the cathode emits electrons which are
accelerated by a high DC voltage and collide with the positive anode target.
Kp
I
Two different types of x-ray spectra may be seen. The continuous or
bremsstrahlung spectrum that is always present is produced when the electron
Ka
penetrates through the outer electron cloud and is abruptly accelerated by the
large positive charge on the nucleus of a heavy atom. The production of x-rays

increases with increasing atomic number but is typically no more than 1%

min
efficient, the remaining energy appearing as heat in the target metal. The sharp line spectra that can be
seen at higher voltages occur when the incident electrons eject an inner shell electron, such as n = 1 shell
electron. The spectral line is produced when an electron, say from n = 2, fills the vacancy in the n = 1 shell,
emitting an x-ray photon whose energy corresponds to the energy difference between the n = 2 and n = 1
shells. The intensity of x-rays is proportional to the number of photons created. The photon energy E = hf
= hc/ where h is Plancks constant and c is the speed of light. Figure 1 is a sketch of intensity versus
wavelength for a molybdenum target with an accelerating voltage of 35,000 V.
15.
Figure shows that the continuous x-ray spectrum has a minimum (cut-off) wavelength. No shorter
wavelengths are emitted from the tube. This minimum wavelength corresponds to :
(A) the smallest number of emitted photons
(B) the highest energy photons emitted
(C) the type of cathode used
(D) the type of anode material used.
16.
The sharp K peak in figure 1 corresponds to an electron transition from state n = 2 to n = 1, where K
corresponds to a transition from state n = 3 to n = 1. The K line peak is higher than the K because
(A) it is due to a higher atomic number target metal (B) K is the more energetic transition
(C) the K transition is more probable than the K transition, so its intensity is higher
(D) the K transition occurs in the valence shells instead of the inner shells
17.
The current to the heated filament in the cathode is increased while the accelerating voltage is kept
constant. This increased current increases the number of electrons striking the target increasing the
overall intensity. What effect does this have on the minimum wavelength value ?
(A) The minimum value will move to shorter wavelength values.
(B) It will move to longer wavelength values
(C) There will no longer be a cutoff wavelength.
(D) The minimum wavelength will remain the same.
18.
If the accelerating voltage, V0, increased while keeping the filament current constant, the overall intensity
will also increase. What effect will this have on the wavelength position where the two peaks are
observed?
(A) They will occur at the same wavelengths
(B) The peaks occur at shorter wavelengths due to the higher wavelengths due to the higher energies
available.
(C) They may diappear because all energies may exceed those of the n = 3 to n = 1 transition
(D) The K occur at longer wavelengths but the K occur at shorter wavelengths.
19.
Because the efficiency of x-ray production increases with increasing atomic number, Z, it would seem
that lead (Z = 82) would be a better target material than tungsten (Z = 74). However, tungsten (also
used in ordinary light bulb filaments) is the most common target meal, whereas lead is never used. this
is because(A) lead has too many electrons
(B) lead becomes radioactive
(C) lead would melt, whereas tungsten has a very high melting point
(D) lead will not get hot enough to produce and x-rays.

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PASSAGE : 5
Student in a medical physics class are given the assignment of planning a nuclear medicine facility.
They not only design the rooms and choose the major equipment they also will have to solve elementary
problems dealing with treatment, doses, radiation protection and safety, and the general principles of physics
of typical isotopes that might be used in diagnostic nuclear medicine. They are required to be familiar with
concepts of half life, half-thickness for shielding and the decay schemes of representative isotopes.
20.
The most common isotope used in diagnostic work is Technicium. It is furnished from a generator or
cow in which the negative beta decay of Molybdenum -99 produces the desirable metastable isotope
of Technicium according to the following decay scheme ?
Mo99 Z TcA + 1e0
42
What are the atomic number , Z and mass number A, of the Tc isotope ?
(A) 41, 99
(B) 42, 99
(C) 43, 98
(D) 43, 99
21.
If the Mo99 has a physical half-life of 67 hours, about what fraction is left after 5.5 days ?
(A) 0.10
(B) 0.25
(C) 0.40
(D) 0.45
22.
This isotope of Technicium has a physical half life of 6 hours. When it is tagged onto a polyphosphate
carrier used for a certain procedure, there is a biological half-life of 12 hours (for the biological excretion
of the carrier). What is the effective half life in this case ?
(A) 4.0 hours
(B) 7.5 hours
(C) 10 hours
(D) 14 hours
23.
The cow was milked at 8.00 A.M. At 2.00 PM the activity of the milked sample is measured by a
technician and found to be 200 millicuries. What was the activity of the Technicium at 8.00 A.M.
(A) 100 mCi
(B) 150 mCi
(C) 300 mCi
(D) 400 mCi
24.
Thallium -201 is used for myocardial prefusion studies of the heart. It decays by electron capture when
the nucleus captures one of the atoms own orbital electrons (converting a proton in the nucleus into an
uncharged neutron), with the emission of gamma rays used for the imaging. What are the atomic
number Z, the mass number, A, of the Mercury isotope produced in the decay of the Thallium -201 ?
Tl 201 + 1e0 Z HgA + Is
81
(A) 80, 201
(B) 80, 202
(C) 81, 201
(D) 81, 203
25.
The Thallium -201 half-life is 74 hours. If the sample has an activity of 80 millicuries initially, what will
be the activity after 9.25 days ?
(A) 2.5 mCi
(B) 5 mCi
(C) 10 mCi
(D) 20 mCi
26.
One advantage of the Thallium isotope is the low whole body absorbed dose per millicurie, which for
Tl-201 is 70 millirads/millicurie. If the recommended amount to be injected for a heart scan is 10
microcurie per kg of body mass, what would be the whole body dose in millirads for a 70 kg person ?
(A) 34 mrad
(B) 49 mrad
(C) 72 mrad
(D) 134 mrad
27.
Another feature that makes Technicium a desirable isotope for diagnostic nuclear medicine use is that
it is a pure gamma emitter. What is the meaning of the terminology pure gamma emitter?
(A) The gamma radiation stays in the patients tissue while the electrons are detected.
(B) Particles emitted cannot escape tissue while the gama radiation escapes
(C) The isotope decay emits only penetrating gamma radiation that can escape from tissue and be
detected.
(D) The isotope decay emits energetic electrons that act like gamma rays.
28.
A patient is injected with Technicium and is estimated to have received a whole body dose of 400
millirads. If the Quality Factor is 1 for gamma radiation and 3 for low energy neutrons, what was the
doese received by the patient in rem units ?
(A) 4 mrems
(B) 400 mrems
(C) 1200 mrems
(D) 4000 mrems
29.
The half-thickness of lead for the absorption of the gamma radiation from a particular isotope is 0.4 cm
of lead. How many half thicknesses are necessary to reduce the radiation penetration to less than 1%
and how thick would the lead be ?
(A) 2 half - thickness, 1.2 cm
(B) 4 half-thicknesses, 3.2 cm
(C) 7 half-thicknesses, 2.8 cm
(D) 11 half-thicknesses , 4.4 cm
PASSAGE : 6
Medical researchers and technicians can track the characteristic radiation patterns emitted by certain
inherently unstable isotopes as they spontaneously decay into other elements. The half life of a radioactive
isotope is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the initial amount of its nuclei to decay. the decay
curves of isotopes 39Y90 and 39Y91 are graphed below as functions of the ratio of N, the number nuclei remaining
after a given period to N0, the initial number of nuclei.

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N/N0

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

90

39

N/N0

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

91

39

30

60

90

120

150

180

Time (days)
Time (days)
The half-life of 39Y90 is approximately :
(A) 2.7 days
(B) 5.4 days
(C) 27 days
(D) 48 days
What will the approximate ratio of 39Y90 to 39Y91 be after 2.7 days if the initial samples of the two
isotopes contain equal numbers of nuclei ?
(A) 1 : 1
(B) 1 : 2
(C) 2 : 1
(D) 10 : 1
When inhaled by humans, 39Y90 accumulates in the gastrointestinal tract, whereas 39Y91 accumulates in
the bones. If the total amount of each isotope inhaled goes to the specified area, which of the following
situations will exist three days after a patient inhales these substances, assuming none of the isotopes
leave the assuming none of the isotopes leave the specified areas due to physiological factors ?
(A) The amount of 39Y91 in the gastrointestinal tract will be approximately equal to the total amount
inhaled.
(B) The amount of 39Y90 in the bones will be approximately one-half of the total amount inhaled
(C) The amount of 39Y90 in the gastrointestinal tract will be approximately one-half of the total amount
inhaled
(D) None of the 39Y91 inhaled will be left in the bones.
Approximately how many 39Y91 nuclei will exist after three half -lives have passed, if there are 1,000
nuclei to begin with ?
(A) 50
(B) 125
(C) 250
(D) 500
Which of the following conclusions is / are supported by the information given in the passage ?
I. 39Y90 is less stable than 39Y91
II. Only one-quarter of the original amount of 39Y90 will remain after 116 days.
III. 39Y90 and 39Y91 are both radioactive
(A) I only
(B) III only
(C) I and II only
(D) I and III only

30.
31.

32.

33.

34.

PASSAGE : 7

Scientists are working hard to develop nuclear fusion reactor. Nuclei of heavy hydrogen, 12 H , known as
deuteron and denoted by D, can be thought of as a candidate for fusion reactor. The DD reaction is
2
1

H + 12 H 32 He + n + energy. In the core of fusion reactor, a gas of heavy hydrogen is fully ionized into

deuteron nuclei and electrons. This collection of 12 H nuclei and electrons is known as plasma. The nuclei
move randomly in the reactor core and occasionally come close enough for nuclear fusion to take place.
Usually, the temperatures in the reactor core are too high and no material wall can be used to confine the
plasma. Special techniques are used which confine the plasma for a time t0 before the particles fly away
from the core. If n is the density (number/volume) of deuterons, the product nt0 is called Lawson number. In
one of the criteria, a reactor is termed successful if Lawson number is greater than 5 1014s/cm3.
e2
It may be halpful to use the following : Boltzmann constant k = 8.6 10 eV/K;
= 1.44 109
4 0
5

eVm.

[JEE, 09]

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MODERN PHYSICS
35. In the core of nuclear fusion reactor, the gas becomes plasma because of
(A) strong nuclear force acting between the deuterons
(B) Coulomb force acting between the deuterons
(C) Coulomb force acting between deuteron-electron pairs
(D) the high temperature maintained inside the reactor core.
36. Assume that two deuteron nuclei in the core of fusion reactor at temperature T are moving towards each
other, each with kinetic energy 1.5 kT, when the separation between them is large enough to neglect Coulomb
potential energy. Also neglect any interaction from other particles in the core. The minimum temperature T
required for them to reach a separation of 4 1015 m is in the range.
(A) 1.0 109 K < T < 2.0 109 K
(B) 2.0 109 K < T < 3.0 109 K
(C) 3.0 109 K < T < 4.0 109 K
(D) 4.0 109 K < T < 5.0 109 K
37. Results of calculations for four different designs of a fusion reactor using DD reaction are given below.
Which of these is most promising based on Lawson criterian ?
(A) deuteron density = 2.0 1012 cm3, confinement time = 5.0 103 s
(B) deuteron density = 8.0 1014 cm3, confinement time = 9.0 101 s
(C) deuteron density = 4.0 1023 cm3, confinement time = 1.0 1011 s
(D) deuteron density = 1.0 1024 cm3, confinement time = 4.0 1012 s

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Level 2
1.

When a surface is irridated with light of = 4950 A , a photo current appears which vanishes if a retarding
potential greater then 0.6V is applied across the photo tube. When a different source of light is used, it
is found that the critical retarding potential is changed to 1.1 V. what is the work function of the surface
and the wavelength of the second source ? If the photo-electrons (after emission from the source) are
subjected to a magnetic field of 10 tesla what changes will be observed in the above two retarding
potentials?

2.

A particle of charge equal to that of an electron and mass 208 times the mass of the electron (called a
mu-meson) moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge +3e. (Take the mass of the nucleus to
be infinite.) Assuming the Bohr model of the atom to be applicable to this system,
(i) derive an expression for the radius of the nth Bohr-orbit,
(ii) find the value of n for which the radius of the orbit is approximately the same as that of the first
Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom, and
(iii) find the wavelength of the radiation emitted when the meson jumps from the third orbit to the
first orbit. (Rydbergs constant = 1.097 x 107 m 1 )

3.

Hydrogen atom in its ground state is excited by means of monochromatic radiation of wavelength 975 A .
How many different lines are possible in the resulting spectrum ? Calculate the longest wavelength
amongst them. You may assume the ionization energy for hydrogen atom as 13.6 eV.

4.

An X-ray tube works at a potential difference of 100,000 V. Only 0.1% of the energy of cathode rays is
converted into X-ray radiation and heat is generated in the target at the rate of 120 calorie per second.
What current does the tube pass and what is the energy and velocity of an electron when it reaches the
target?

5.

A laser emits a light pulse of duration 0 .13 ms and energy E = 10 J. Find the mean pressure exerted
by such a light pulse when it is focussed into a spot of diameter d = 10 m on a surface perpendicular
to the beam and possessing a reflection coefficient = 0.5

6.

A short light pulse of energy E = 7.5 J falls in the form of a narrow and almost parallel beam on a mirror
plate whose reflection coefficient is = 0.60. The angle of incidence is 30. In terms of the corpuscular
theory find the momentum transferred to the plate.

7.

The binding energy of an electron in the ground state of He atom is equal to E0 = 24.6 eV. Find the energy
required to remove both electrons from the atom.

8.

A stationary He+ ion emitted a photon corresponding to the first line of the Lyman series. That photon
liberated a photoelectron from a stationary hydrogen atom in the ground state. Find the velocity of the
photoelectron.

9.

Taking into account the motion of the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, find the expressions for the electrons
binding energy in the ground state and for the Rydberg constant. How much (in per cent) do the binding
energy and the Rydberg constant, obtained without taking into account the motion of the nucleus, differ
from the more accurate corresponding values of these quantities?

10.

Calculate the separation between the particles of a system in the ground state, the corresponding
binding energy, and the wavelength of the first line of the Lyman series, if such a system is
(a) a mesonic hydrogen atom whose nucleus is a proton ( in a mesonic atom an electron is replaced
by a meson whose charge is the same and mass is 207 that of an electron);
(b) a positronium consisting of an electron and a positron revolving around their common centre of
masses.

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11.

In accordance with classical electrodynamics an electron moving with an acceleration a loses its energy
due to radiation as :

d
2 e2
3 a 2 Estimate the time during which an electron moving in a hydrogen
dt
3c

atom along a circular orbit of radius r = 50 pm would have fallen onto the nucleus. Assume a to be
directed permanently towards the nucleus.
12.

The Earth revolves round the Sun due to gravitational attraction. Suppose that the Sun and the Earth are
point particles with their existing masses and that Bohrs quantization rule for angular momentum is
valid in the case of gravitation.
(a) Calculate the minimum radius the Earth can have for its orbit.
(b) What is the value of the principal quantum number n for the present radius? Mass of the Earth =
6.0 x 1024 kg, mass of the Sun = 2.0 x 1030 kg, Earth-Sun distance = 1.5 x 1011 m.

13.

A parallel electron beam is obtained from the application of

accelerating voltage V0 = 2 x 104 V. These electrons are sent
travelling in the direction normal to an infinitely long straight
copper wire of radius r0 = 108 m as shown in figure. The wire
b
carries uniform positive charge with charge density
= 4.4 x 10111 c/m, the distance of the electrons closest
approach to the wire if uncharged is represented by bmax = 104 m.
L
The electrons after passing the charged copper wire land on the
Electron Beam
Screen
screen located at distance L = 0.3 cm ( L >.b) from the wire.
At the beginning of the experiment the electron beam is confined
within the normal distance to the wire of b ( collision parameter) (see Figure).
(a) Determine electric field E due to the charged copper wire and sketch a graph of electric field E as
a function of distance measured from the axis of the wire to inside as well as outside the wire.
(b) Calculate the angle of deflection of electron beam which has the collision parameter b and the
electron does not collide with the wire. If f is a small angle between the direction of the original
velocity of the electron and the direction of final velocity of the electron arriving at the screen.
(c)

14.

15.

16.

Calculate f .
Show that two plane waves representing deflected beams in the upper and lower parts give
interference pattern on the screen. Calculate the number of bright bands in the interfence pattern.

To stop the flow of photoelectrons produced by electromagnetic radiation incident on a certain metal, a
, what is
negative potential of 300 volts is required. If the photoelectric threshold of the metal is 1500 A
the frequency of the incident radiation? Is this radiation visible?

A toy truck has dimensions as shown in Figure and its width normal to
b
the plane of this paper is d. Sun rays are incident on it as shown in
h
figure. If intensity of sun rays is and all surfaces of truck are perfectly
black, calculate tension in thread used to keep truck stationary. Neglect
Thread
fraction.
a
A monochromatic beam of light ( = 4900 A) incident normally upon a surface produces a pressure of 5
x 107 N/m 2 on it. Assuming that 25% of the light incident is reflected and the rest absorbed, find the
number of photons falling per second on a unit area of thin surface.

17.

A beam of light consists of four wavelength 4000 A , 4800 A , 6000 A and 7000 A , each of intensity 1.5
x 103 wm 2. The beam falls normally on an area 104 m 2 of a clean metallic surface of work function 1.9
eV.Assuming no loss of light energy calculate the number of photo electrons liberated per second.

18.

A single electron orbits around a stationay nucleus of charge +Ze, where Z is a constant and e is the
magnitude of the electric charge. It requires 47.2 eV to excite the electronfromthe second Bohrorbit
tothe third Bohr orbit. Find :

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(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

the value of Z
the energy required to excite the electron from the third to the fourth Bohr orbit.
The wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation required tomove the electron from.
Thekinetic energy, the potentialenergy and the angular momentumof the electron in the first Bohr
ortib.
the radius of the first Bohr orbit.

19.

Radiations from hydrogenic C gas corresponding to 2nd line of Lyman series falls on a hydrogenic atom
where rotating particles mass and charge are unknown. Nucleus contains one proton only. This atom is
excited to 4th excited energy level.
(a) Find a relation for valid values of mass and charge of the rotating particles.
(b) Find the maximum K.E.of the electron ejected due to aforesaid radiation falling on a hydrogenic
potassium having some of the atoms in the ground energy level & some in the 4th energy level.

20.

Stopping potentials of 24, 100, 110 and 115 kV are measured for photoelectrons emitted from a certain
element when it is radiated with monochromatic x-ray. If this element is used as a target in an x-ray
tube, what will be the wavelength of K line?

21.

Light from a discharge tube containing hydrogen atoms falls on the surface of a piece of sodium. The
kinetic energy of the fastest photo-electrons emitted form sodius is 0.73 eV. The work fraction for sodium
is 1.82 eV. Find :
(i) the energy of the photons causing the photoelectric emission.
(ii) the quantum numbers of the two levels involved in the emission of these photons.
(iii) the charge in the angular momentum of the eletron in the hydrogen atom in the above transition.
(iv) the recoil speed of the emitting atom assuming it to be at rest before the transition.
(Ionization potential of hydrogen is 13.6 eV).

22.

A gas of hydrogen like atoms can absorb radiations of 68 eV. Consequently, the atoms emit radiations of
only three different wavelengths. All the wavelengths are equal or smaller than that of the absorbed
photon.
(a) Determine the initial state of the gas atoms.
(b) Identify the gas atoms.
(c) Find the minimum wavelength of the emitted radiation.
(d) Find the ionization energy and the respective wavelength for the gas atoms.

23.

According to the Thomson model, a helium atom consists of a cloud of positive charge, within which two
electrons sit at equlibrium positions. Assume that the positive cloud has a charge +2e uniformly distributed
over the volume of a sphere of radius 0.50 A .
(a) Find the equilibrium position of the two electrons. Assume that the electrons are symmetrically
placed with respect to the centre.
(b) What is the frequency of small radial oscillations of the electrons about their equilibrium positions.
Assume that the electrons move symmetrically with identical amplitudes.

24.

The Rydberg constants for hydrogen and singly ionized helium are R1 and R2 respectively. Find the ratio
of the mass of the proton to that of the electron in terms of R1, R2 and R .

25.

A sample contains 102 kg each of two substances A and B with half lives 4 second and 8 second
respectively. Their weights are in the ratio of 1.2. Find the amounts of A and B after an interval of 16
second.

26.

A sample of uranium is a mixture of three isotopes 92U234, 92U235 and 92U238 present in the ratio of 0.006%,
0.71% and 99.284% respectively. The half-lives of these isotopes are 2.5 x 105 years, 7.1 x 108 years
and 4.5 x 109 years respectively. Calculate the contribution to activity (in %) of each isotope in this
sample.

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27.

Polonium ( 84Po210 ) emits 2He4 particles and is converted into lead (82Pb206). This reaction is used for
producing electric power in a space mission. Po210 has half life of 138.6 days. Assuming an efficiency of
10% for the thermoelectric machine, how much Po210 is required to produce 1.2 x 107 J of electric energy
per day at the end of 693 days. Also find the initial activity of the material. (Given : masses of nuclei Po210
= 209.98264 a.m.u., Pb206 = 205.97440 a.m.u., 2He4 = 4.00260 a.m.u., 1 a.m.u. = 931 MeV and Avogadro
number = 6x1023/mol.

28.

103 kg of radioactive isotope (atomic mass 226) emits 3.72 x 1010 -particles in a second. Calculate the
half-life of the isotope. If 4.2 x 102 joule is released in one hour in this process, what is the average
energy of the -particle?

29.

In an ore containing uranium, the ratio of U238 to Pb206 nuclei is 3. Calculate the age of the ore, assuming
that all the lead present in the ore is the final stable product of U238. Take the half-life of U238 to be 4.5 x
109 year.

30.

A7 Li target is bombarded with a proton beam current of 104 A for 1 hour to produce 7Be of activity 1.8 x
108 disintegrations per second. Assuming that one 7Be radioactive nuclei is produced by bombarding
1000 protons, determine its half-life.

Level 3
1.

A small quantity of solution containing 24Na radionuclide (half life 15 hours) or activity 1.0 microcurie is
injected into the blood of a person. A sample of the blood of value 1 cm3 taken after 5 hours shows an
activity of 296 disintegrations per minute. Determine the total value of blood in the body of the person.
Assume that the radioactive solution mixes uniformly in the blood of the person. (1 Curie = 3.7 1010
disintegrations per second)
[JEE, 94]

2.

At a given instant there are 25% undecayed radio-active nuclei in a sample. After 10 sec the number of
undecayed nuclei remains to 12.5%. Calculate :
[JEE, 96]
(i) mean-life of the nuclei and
(ii) The time in which the number of undecayed nuclear will further reduce to 6.25% of the reduced number.

3.

Consider the following reaction ; 2H1 + 2H1 = 4He2 + Q.

Mass of the deuterium atom = 2.0141 u; Mass of the helium atom = 4.0024 u
This is a nuclear _______ reaction in which the energy Q is released is _______ MeV.

4.

248
The element Curium 96
Cm has a mean life of 1013 seconds. Its primary decay modes are spontaneous
fission and decay, the former with a probability of 8% and the later with a probability of 92%. Each fission
releases 200 MeV of energy. The masses involved in decay are as follows :
248
96

Cm = 248.072220 u,

244
94

Pu = 244.064100 u & 42 He = 4.002603 u.

Calculate the power output from a sample of 1020 Cm atoms. (Iu = 931 MeV/C2)
5.

[JEE, 96]

[JEE, 97]

Nuclei of a radioactive element A are being produced at a constant rate . the element has a decay constant
. At time t = 0, there are N0 nuclei of the element.
[JEE, 98]
(a) Calculate the number N of nuclei of A at time t.
(b) If = 2N0, calculate the number of nuclei of A after one halflife of A & also the limiting value of N as
t .

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6.

Photoelectrons are emitted when 400 nm radiation is incident on a surface of work function 1.9 eV. These
photoelectrons pass through a region containing -particles. A maximum energy electron combines with an
-particle to form a He+ ion, emitting a single photon in this process. He+ ions thus formed are in their fourth
excited state. Find the energies in eV of the photons, lying in the 2 to 4eV range, that are likely to be emitted
during and after the combination. [Take, h = 4.14 1015 eVs]
[JEE, 99]

7(a). A hydrogen-like atom of atomic number Z is in an excited state of quantum number 2 n. It can emit a
maximum energy photon of 204 eV. If it makes a transition to quantum state n, a photon of energy 40.8 eV
is emitted. Find n, Z and the ground state energy (in eV) for this atom. Also, calculate the minimum energy
(in eV) that can be emitted by this atom during de-excitation. Ground state energy of hydrogen atom is
13.6 eV.
[JEE, 2000]
(b). When a beam of 10.6 eV photon of intensity 2 W/m2 falls on a platinum surface of area 1 104 m2 and
work function 5.6 eV, 0.53% of the incident photons eject photoelectrons. Find the number of photoelectrons
emitted per sec and their minimum and maximum energies in eV.
[JEE, 2000]

8.

A hydrogen like atom (described by the Bohr model) is observed to emit six wavelengths, originating from
all possible transition between a group of levels. These levels have energies between 0.85 eV and 0.544
eV (including both these values)
[JEE, 02]
(a) Find the atomic number of the atom.
(b) Calculate the smallest wavelength emitted in these transitions.

9.

Two metallic plates A and B each of area 5 104 m2, are placed at a separation of 1 cm. Plate B carries
a positive charge of 33.7 1012 C. A monochromatic beam of light, with photons of energy 5 eV each,
starts falling on plate A at t = 0 so that 1016 photons fall on it per square meter per second. assume that one
photoelectron is emitted for every 106 incident photons. Also assume that all the emitted photoelectrons are
collected by plate B and the work dunction of plate A remains constant at the value 2 eV. Determine
(a) the number of photoelectrons emitted up to t = 10 sec.
(b) the magnitude of the electric field between the plates A and B at t = 10 s and
(c) the kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectron emitted at t = 10 s when it reaches plate B.
(Neglect the time taken by photoelectron to reach plate B)
[JEE, 02]

10. Frequency of a photon emitted due to transition of electron of a certain elemrnt from L to K shell is found to
be 4.2 1018 Hz. Using Moseleys law, find the atomic number of the element, given that the Rydbergs
constant R = 1.1 107 m1.
[JEE, 03]
11. In a photoelectric experiment set up, photons of energy 5 eV falls on the cathode having work function 3
eV.
(a) if the saturation current is iA = 4A for intensity 105 W/m2, then plot a graph between anode potential
and current.
(b) Also draw a graph for intensity of incident ratiation of 2 105 W/m2 ?
[JEE, 03]
12. A radioactive samle emits n -particles in 2 sec. In next 2 sec it emits 0.75 n -particles, what is the mean
life of the sample ?
[JEE, 03]

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13. The potential energy of a particle of mass m is given by
E 0 x 1
V(x) 0

0 x 1
1 and 2 are are the de-Broglie wavelengths of the particle, when 0 x 1 and x > 1 respectively. If the
total energy of particle is 2E0, find 1/2.
[JEE, 05]
14. Highly energetic electrons are bombarded on a target of an element containing 30 neutrons. The ratio of
radii of nucleus to that of helium nucleus is (14)1/3. Find
[JEE, 05]
(a) atomic number of the nucleus
(b) the frequency of K line of the X-ray produced. (R = 1.1 107 m1 and c = 3 108 m/s)
15. In hydrogen-like atom (z = 11), nth line of Lyman series has wavelength equal to the de-Broglies wavelength
of electron in the level from which it originated. What is the value of n ? [Take : Bohr radius (r0) = 0.53
and Rydberg constant (R) = 1.1 107 m1]
[JEE, 06]

Answer Key
Assertion-Reason
Q.
Ans.

1
B

2
C

3
D

4
B

5
A

6
A

7
B

8
A

9
A

10
B

Match the Column

1.

(A) (U), (B) (R), (C) (P), (D) (S)

2.

(A) (S), (B) (T), (C) (Q), (D) (P)

3.

(A) (R), (B) (P), (C) (T), (D) (U)

4.

(A) (R), (B) (U), (C) (V), (D) (Q)

5.

(A) (Q), (B) (R), (C) (S), (D) (P)

6.

(A) (PQ), (B) (PR), (C) (PS), (D) (PQR)

7.

(A) (P), (B) (T), (C) (U), (D) (R)

8.

(A) (PR), (B) (QS), (C) (P), (D) (Q)

9.

(A) (PQT), (B) (Q), (C) (S), (D) (S)

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Level 1
Q.
1
2
3
Ans.
D
C
D
Q.
11
12
13
Ans.
B
B
B
Q.
21
22
23
Ans.
C
D
D
Q.
31
32
33
Ans.
B
C
AD
Q.
41
42
43
Ans. ABC
CD
AC
Q.
51
52
Ans. (i-B), (ii-A)
AD
Q.
57
58
Ans.
C
(a-C), (b-A)
Q.
66
67
68
Ans.
B
BD
C

4
B
14
D
24
C
34
BC
44
AB
53
C
59
A
69
C

5
C
15
A
25
D
35
ABC
45
AB
54
B
60
B
70
A

6
A
16
D
26
C
36
BD
46
AC

7
C
17
A
27
B
37
ABD
47
AD

55
(i-CD), (ii-D)
61
62
C
AC
71
72
A
A

8
D
18
C
28
D
38
AB
48
AC

9
D
19
ABC
29
D
39
AC
49
AB
56

10
A
20
C
30
B
40
BD
50
C

(a-C), (b-B), (c-B), (d-E), (e-C)

63
A

64
B

65
A

8
A
18
A
28
B

9
D
19
C
29
C

10
A
20
D
30
A

Passage
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.
Q.
Ans.

1
C
11
B
21
B
31
B

2
B
12
B
22
A
32
C

3
A
13
C
23
D
33
B

4
D
14
A
24
A
34
D

5
B
15
B
25
C
35
D

6
B
16
C
26
B
36
A

7
D
17
D
27
C
37
B

Level 2
1.

0 1.9 eV , = 4125 A

3. n = 4; = 18800 A

2. (i) 8.426 x 1014 n2 (ii) 25

4. 50.6 A

5.

(iii) 5.478 x 1011 m

(p) 41 d2 c 50 atm

6.

P E / c 1 2 2 cos 2 35 nN.s

8.

2 R/ m 3.1106 m/s, where m is the mass of the electron.

9.

b e 4 / 2 3 , where is the reduced mass of the system. If the motion of the nucleus is not taken into

7.

0 4R 79 eV.

account, these values (in the case of a hydrogen atom) are greater by m/M 0.055%, where m and M
are the masses of an electron and a proton.

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MODERN PHYSICS
(b) 106 pm, 6.8 eV, 0.243 m.

10. (a) 0.285 pm, 2.53 keV, 0.65 nm;

11.

t m 2e c 2 r 3 / 4 e 2 13 ps

13. (a)

15.

12. (a) 2.3 x 10138 m (b) 2.5 x 1074

q
q L
for r > r0 = 0; (b) f
; (c) 500 14. v = 7.45 x 1016 cycles/s, no
2 0r
4 0 V0

d
b cos a cos h sin sin
c

16. 2.93 x 1020

; (iv) 1.056 x 1034 kg m 2 s1 (v) 1.06 x 1011 m

18. (i) x = 5 ; (ii) 16.53 eV (iii) 36.36 A

19. (a) 1.6 x 1017 02 h 2

17. 11.72 x 1011

(b) The radiation connot eject electron.

20. 0.163 A
21. 2.55 eV, electron jumps from 4th to 2nd orbits, 2.11 x 1034 Js 0.8144 m/s
22. (a) n = 2

(b) z = 6

(c) 28.5 A

(d) 25.32 A
0.75

(b) 1.76 x 1016 Hz

23. (a) 0.25 A

24.

25. NA = 6.25 x 104 kg, NB = 2.5 x 103

1
1
R

R
R
2
1

26. 51.41%, 2.13%, 46.45%

27. A0 = 4.57 x 1021 per day, 320 gm 28.

T = 1573 year, Energy per particle = 19.5 MeV

29. 1.868 x 109 year

30.

T = 8.63 x 106 s.

Level 3
1. 6 litre

2. (i) t1/2 = 10 sec., tmeans = 14.43 s; (ii) 40 seconds

3. Fusion, 24

1
3N0
[ (1 e t ) N 0 e t ] ; (b)
, 2N0

2
6. during combination = 3.365 eV; after combination = 3.88 eV (5 3) & 2.63 eV (4 3)

4. 33.298 W

5. (a) N

7.(a) n = 2, z = 4; G.S.E. 217.6 eV; Min. energy = 10.58eV; (b) 6.251019per sec, 0, 5 eV
9. (a) 5 107, (b) 2000 N/C, (c) 23 eV

8. (a) 3; (b) 4052.3 nm

I
8A
4A

10. z = 42

I=2105 W/m2
I = 105W/m2

11.
2V

13.

12. 1.75n = N0(1e4), 6.95 sec,

2
ln(4 / 3)

VP
18

14. v = 1.546 10 Hz

15. n = 24

XXXX
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154

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

DHANALAKSHMI NAGAR
NEAR ANNAMAIAH CIRCLE,
TIRUPATI.
PH NO. 9440025125

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

RADIO ACTIVITY
INTRODUCTION OF ATOMIC NUCLEUS
(a) The atomic nucleus consists of two types of elementary particles, viz. protons and neutrons. These particles
are collectively called nucleons.
(b) The electrons surround this nucleus to form the atom.
(c) This structure of atom was revealed by the experiments of Rutherford in which a beam of -particles were
made to strike a thin gold foil.
(d) Nucleus can be regarded as a small spherical volume situated at the centre of atom.
(e) Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
(f) Nucleus has a positive charge.
PROPERTIES OF AN ATOMIC NUCLEUS
Composition:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

All nuclei are composed of two types of particles protons and neutrons.
The only exception is the ordinary hydrogen nucleus which is just a single proton.
A proton has a mass of 1.6726 1027 kg and charge +e (= 1.6 1019 C).
A neutron has a mass of 1.6750 1027 kg and is electrically neutral.
The atomic number Z: This is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
The neutron number N: This is equal to the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
The mass number A: This is equal to the number of nucleons (protons + neutrons) in the nucleus.
Thus, A = Z + N
Symbolically a nucleus X shall be represented as

XA .

Types of Nuclei : Nuclei are of three types:

(i) Isotopes: Nuclei having the same Z value but different N and A values are called isotopes of the element.
eg. 1H1, 1H2 and 1H3 are isotopes of hydrogen.
(ii) Isobars: Nuclides (nuclei of different elements) having the same A value but different Z and N values are
called isobars.
e.g. 1H3 and 2He3 are isobars.
(iii) Isotones: Nuclides having the same N value but different A and Z values are known as isotones. e.g. 1H3
and 2He4 are isotones.
Radius of atomic nucleus:
The size of the nucleus is of the order of fermi (fm).
1 fm = 1015.
Most nucleus are almost spherical with an average radius R given by
R = R0 A1/3 where A is the mass number and R0 is a constant.
R0 ~ 1.2 fm = 1.2 1015 m

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Mass :
(a) Nuclear masses have been accurately determined with the help of the mass spectrometer.
(b) It is expressed in a.m.u. i.e. atomic mass unit.
(c) This unit is such that mass of the carbon isotope 6C12 is exactly 12 amu.
(d) 1 a.m.u. = 1.66056 1027 kg
(e) Matter can be viewed as a condense form of energy.
(f) The energy corresponding to the mass of a particle when it is at rest is called rest mass energy.
(g) Rest mass energy is E = mc2, from Einstein relation.
(h) Energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u. is equal to 931.5 MeV. i.e. 1 a.m.u. = 931.5 MeV/c2.
Example 51: (a) Calculate the value of 1 a.m.u. from Avogadros number.
(b) Determine the energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u.
Sol: (a) One mole of C12 has a mass of 12 g and contains Avogadro number, NA of atoms.
By definition each C12 atom has a mass of 12 a.m.u.
Thus, 12 g corresponds to (12 NA) a.m.u. which means,

or

1g
103
1 a.m.u. = N =
kg
6.022055 1023
A
1 a.m.u. = 1.66056 1027 kg

(b) From Einstein relation, rest mass energy

E = mc2
Hence, energy equivalent of 1 a.m.u.,
E = (1 a.m.u.) c2
= (1.66056 1027 kg) (3 108 m/s)2 = 1.4924 1010 J
Since, 1 eV = 1.6 1019 J,

E = 931.5 MeV
Hence, 1 a.m.u = 931.5 MeV/c2
Density:
Mass of a nucleus can be taken approximately Am, where m is the mass of proton or a neutron and A is
mass number

Mass = Am
Also, assuming the nucleus to be a sphere of radius R, its volume is
4
4 3
R3 = R 0 A ,
3
3
The nuclear density is thus given by,

V=

[ R = R0A1/3]

Am
3m
mass
=
= 4 R 3 A = 4R 3
0
volume
0
3
It is thus independent of the mass number A and is therefore nearly the same for all nuclei. Putting R 0 =
1.2 fm = 1.2 1015 m and m = 1.67 1027 kg, we get, = 2.3 1017 kg/m3.
This is almost 1014 times the density of water.
(a) Nuclear density = 2.3 1017 kg/m3
(b) It is nearly the same for all nuclei.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
C48: Find the mass density of the oxygen nucleus 8O16.
Sol: Volume =

4
4 3
R3 = R 0 A
3
3

[ R = R0A1/3]

4
(1.2)3 16 1045 m3, [ R0 = 1.2 1015, A = 16]
3
= 1.16 1043 m3
Mass of oxygen atoms (A = 16) is approximately 16 a.m.u.

Therefore density is

mass
16 amu
=
volume 1.16 1043 m 3

16 1.66 1027
kg/m3
1.16 1043 m3
= 2.3 1017 kg/m3
=

NUCLEAR STABILITY
(a) High density of the nucleus suggests a very tight packing of protons and neutrons in it.
(b) The Coulombs repulsive force between two protons in a nucleus is about 1036 times as large as the
gravitational force between them. It is therefore surprising that a nucleus should be so stable.
(c) Nuclei are stable because of the presence of another force, called the nuclear force.
Nuclear force :
It arises due to interaction between protons, proton with neutrons, and neutron with neutrons. This force is
essentially a very strong attractive force and overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between the proton
inside the nucleus.
Properties of Nuclear forces :
(a) These are strong attractive forces.
(b) These are about 100 times stronger than the Coulombs force.
(c) These are short ranged forces (effective upto 10 fm).
(d) They contain a small component of repulsive force which is effective up to a distance of the order of
0.5 fm or 0.5 1015 m or less. This repulsive component prevents the collapse of the nucleus.
(e) These forces are charge independent.
(f) Let d be the range of the effectiveness of nuclear forces, then
0.5 fm d 10 fm
(g) Let Fpp, Fpn and Fnn denote the magnitude of the nuclear force by a proton on a proton, by a proton on a
neutron and by a neutron on a neutron respectively.
Then for a separation of 1 fm, Fpp = Fpn = Fnn.

(b) It must be greater than or equal to unity and less than 1.6
i.e. 1

N
1.6.
Z

lin

N
N

N/Z ratio :
(a) N/Z ratio inside a nucleus is responsible for stability of a nucleus.

Z
N v/s Z curve

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(c) Reason for N/Z ratio to be greater than unity is due to the fact that protons are positively charged and repel
on another electrically. This repulsion becomes so great in nuclei with more than 10 protons or so that an
excess of neutrons, which produce only attractive nuclear forces, is required for stability. Thus N/Z ratio
increases with increase in Z.
(d) When excess of neutrons or protons in a nuclide is there then the nuclide -decay or -decay to achieve the
required N/Z ratio for stability. This causes radioactive disintegrations of nuclides.
Binding Energy (B.E.) :
The binding energy is equal to the work that must be done to split the nucleus into particles constituting it.
Hence, Energy of nucleus + B.E. = Energy of each nucleon individually.
Let
Mass of nucleus = M,
Mass of neutron = mn,
and,
Mass of proton = mp

Rest mass energy of nucleus = Mc2,

Rest mass energy of neutron = mnc2,

Rest mass energy of proton = mpc2.

Thus,
Mc2 + B.E. = Z mpc2 + (A Z)mn c2

B.E. = [M {Z mp + (A Z)mn}]c2
The quantity, M {Z mp + (A Z)mn} is called mass-defect (m)

Mass defect = m = M {Z mp + (A Z)mn}

B.E. = m.c2
If m is in a.m.u., then
B.E. = m 931.5 MeV
or

B.E. = [M {Z mp + (A Z)mn}] 931.5 MeV

NOTE: Negative sign of B.E. represents boundedness of nucleons inside the nucleus.
56
1
C49: Find the binding energy of 56
26 Fe . Atomic mass of Fe is 55.9349 u and that of H is 1.00783 u. Mass of
neutron = 1.00867 u.

Sol: Z = The number of protons in

56
26

Fe = 26 and the number of neutrons, A Z = 56 26 = 30

Binding energy per nucleon :

Binding energy per nucleon is obtained by dividing
the binding energy of the nucleus by the number A
of nucleons in the nucleus.
B.E.
i.e. B.E. per nucleon =
A

Binding energy per

nucleon, MeV

2
Then binding energy of 56
26 Fe = [M {Zmp + (A Z))mn}]c
= [26 1.00783 u + 30 1.00867 u 55.9349 u]c2
= (0.52878 u)c2
= (0.52878 u) (931 MeV/u)
= 492 MeV
Negative sign indicates boundedness of nucleons.
10
B.E. = 492 MeV in magnitude.

56
26 Fe

He

6
6

Li

2
0

50

100

150

200

250

Mass number, A

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(a) The adjacent figure shows the dependence of
the B.E. per nucleon, B.E./A on the mass number
A of the nucleus.
(b) Nucleons in nuclei with mass number from 50 to 60 have the highest B.E. The B.E./A for these nuclei
amounts to 8.7 MeV and gradually decreases with increasing A.
(c) B.E. per nucleon is highest for

56
26

Fe .

Example 52: Find the binding energy of 126 C ? Also find the binding energy per nucleon.
Mass of 6C12 atom = 12 a.m.u.
Mass of proton
= 1.00759 a.m.u.
Mass of neutron
= 1.00898 a.m.u.
Sol:
M = mass of C12 atom
= 12 a.m.u.
mp = mass of proton
= 1.00759 a.m.u.
mn = mass of neutron
= 1.00898 a.m.u.
Z = number of proton
=6
A Z = number of neutrons = 12 6 = 6
Mass-defect, m = M {Zmp + (A Z)mn}
= 12 (6 1.00759 + 6 1 1.00898) in a.m.u.
= (12 12.009) a.m.u = 0.099 a.m.u.
B.E. = m 931.5 MeV = 0.099 931.5 MeV = 92.22 MeV
Hence, Binding energy = 92.22 MeV
(Negative sign indicates boundedness of the nucleon)
Binding energy per nucleon =

B.E. 92.22
=
MeV = 7.68 MeV
A
12

NUCLEAR COLLISIONS
(a) A nuclear reaction in which a collision between particle a and nucleus X produces Y and particle b is
represented as
a+X
Y+ b
(b) The reaction is sometimes expressed in the shorthand notation X (a, b)Y.
(c) Reaction are subjected to the restrictions imposed by
(i) The conservation of charge,
(ii) The conservation of energy,
(iii) The conservation of momentum, and
(iv) The conservation of angular momentum.
Q-Value or Energy of a reaction :
Let m2, m3 are nuclear masses of X and Y respectively.
a

m1

K1 m2

K2

Before collision

Y
m3

X
K3 m4
K4
After collision

Initial energy: Ei = m1c2 + m2c2 + K1 + K2

Final energy: Ef = m3c2 + m4c2 + K3 + K4

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Since,
Ei = Ef, (from energy conservation)

[(m1 + m2) (m3 + m4)]c2 = (K3 + K4) (K1 + K2)

The energy, [(m1 + m2) (m3 + m4)]c2, that is released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction is called the QValue or disintegration energy of the reaction.
Hence, Q = [(m1 + m2) (m3 + m4)]c2 J
or,
Q = [(m1 + m2) (m3 + m4)] 931.5 MeV, when masses are in a.m.u.
Mass defect:
The quantity [(m1 + m2) (m3 + m4)] is called the mass defect of the reaction and is given by
m = (m1 + m2) (m3 + m4) in a.m.u.
Q = m. 931.5 MeV
Example 53: A neutron breaks into a proton and electron. Calculate the energy produced in this reaction in
MeV. Mass of an electron = 9 1031 Kg, Mass of proton = 1.6725 1027 kg,
Mass of neutron = 1.6747 1027 Kg. Speed of light = 3 108 m/s.
Sol: 0n1
H1 + 1e0
1
Mass defect,
m = [mass of neutron (mass of proton + mass of 1e0)]
= 1.6747 1027 kg (1.6725 + 0.0009) 1027 kg
= 0.0013 1027 kg
Energy released,
Q = m.c2
= 1.3 1030 (3 108)2 kg m2/s2
= 1.17 1013 J

1.17 1013
eV
1.6 1019
= 0.73 MeV
=

Example 54. Find the Q-value of the reaction

H2 + 3Li6 3Li7 + 1H1
1
The rest masses of 1H2, 3Li6 3Li7, and 1H1are, respectively, 2.01410 amu, 6.01513 amu, 7.01601 amu
and 1.00783 amu.
Sol. Suppose 1H2 + 3Li6 3Li7 + 1H1 + Q.
Total mass of left-hand side = 2.01410 + 6.01513 = 8.02933 amu
Total mass on right-hand side = 7.01601 + 1.00783 = 8.02384 amu

8.02933 = 8.02384 + Q
or
Q = 0.00549 amu = 0.00549 931 MeV
( 1 amu = 931 MeV)
Q = 5.1 MeV
INTRODUCTION OF RADIOACTIVITY
(a) In 1896, Becquerel discovered accidentally that uranium salt crystals emit an invisible radiation which
affected a photographic plate even though it was properly covered.
(b) In 1898, Marie and Pierre Curie and other workers showed that many other substances also emitted similar
radiations.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(c) The property of spontaneous emission of radiation from the substance is called radioactivity and such type
of substance is called radioactive substance.
(d) Radioactivity is due to the decay or disintegration of unstable nuclei.
(e) The radiations are being emitted from the nuclei hence it is a nuclear phenomenon, not an atomic phenomenon.
(f) Some examples of radioactive substances are: U, Ra, Th, Po and Np.
(g) Electronic configuration of atom does not have any relationship with radioactivity.
(h) Radioactivity is explained on the basis of quantum mechanics.
(i) No single phenomenon has played so significant role in the development of nuclear physics as radioactivity.
(j) It is not influenced by external parameters such as pressure, temperature, chemical reaction (combination)
or phase of matter.
C50: Uranium salt crystals emit
(a) visible radiation
(b) invisible radiation
(c) any type of electromagnetic radiation
(d) sound waves
Sol: This is according to discovery of radioactivity of Becquerel.
C51: The radioactivity is a/an
(a) optical phenomenon
(b) Atomic phenomenon
(c) nuclear phenomenon
(d) photoelectric phenomenon
Sol: Nuclear radiations are obtained from the nuclei hence it is a nuclear phenomenon.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY
(a) The decay of radioactive substance means disintegration of nuclei of the substance by emission of different
radiations.
(b) Despite the strength of the forces that hold nucleons (protons and neutrons) together to form an atomic
nucleus, many nuclides are unstable and spontaneously change into other nuclides by radioactive decay.
(c) The energy liberated during radioactive decay comes from within individual nuclei without external excitation,
unlike the case of atomic radiation.
(d) It is statistical process that obeys the laws of chance.
(e) The decay of nucleus takes place to achieve the stable end products.
Kinds of Decay
There are five kinds of radioactive decays.
When radioactivity was discovered, only three kinds of radioactive decays alpha(), beta() and gamma)()
were known. Which were eventually identified as 42 He nucleus, electron and high energy photon respectively..
Later two more kinds of radioactive decays namely positron emission and electron capture were added.
Alpha decay
(a) In this type of decay, the unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle.
(b) It reduces the proton number Z of the nucleus by 2.
(c) It reduces the neutron number N of the nucleus by 2.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(d) It reduces the mass number (i.e. Z + N) of the nucleus by 4.
(e) It changes the element itself hence the chemical symbol of the residual nucleus is different from that of the
original nucleus.
(f) The alpha decay process may be represented as
A
Z

A 4
Z 2

Y 42 He

(g) The nucleus before the decay is called the parent nucleus and that obtained after the decay is called the
daughter nucleus.
Ex: Let us consider the example given below:
212
83

Bi

208
81

Tl 42 He

In the above example of -decay, the parent nucleus is bismuth (Bi) and the daughter nucleus is thallium
(Tl).
(h) Alpha decay occurs in all nuclei with mass A > 210.
(i) In this decay, the nucleus decreases its mass number to move towards stability.
(j) On emission of -particle, the binding energy per nucleon increases and the residual nucleus tends towards
stability.
Q-Value for -decay:
If -decay process is given by
A
Z

A 4
Z 2

Y + 42 He , then

A
A4
4
Q-value = m Z X m Z 2 Y m 2 He c2

NOTE: The quantity m AZ X represent atomic mass of the particle X.

Example 55. A radon nucleus Rn86222, of mass 3.6 1025 kg, undergoes -decay. The -particle has mass
6.7 1027 kg and energy 8.8 1031 J.
(a) What is the resulting nucleus?
(b) Find the velocity of recoil of the nucleus.
Sol. (a) The atomic number will be reduced by 2 and the mass number by 4.

A = 222 4 = 218
and
Z = 86 2 = 84
218
The resulting nucleus is 84Po .
(b) mass of resulting nucleus = m1 = 3.6 1025 6.7 1027
= 3.533 1025 kg
Let v1 = its velocity of recoil
Mass of -particle = m2 = 6.7 1027 kg

2E
Velocity of -particle = v2 =
m

1/ 2

with E = 8.8 1013 J

Now

m1v1 = m2v2
(2m 2 E)1/ 2 (2 6.7 1027 8.8 1013 )1/ 2
v1

,
m1
3.533 1025

v1 = 3.1 10+5 ms1

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Beta Decay
(a) Beta decay is a process in which a neutron is converted into a proton.
p + e +

(b) It increases the atomic number (Z) of nucleus by 1.

(c) It does not alter the mass number (A).
(d) If a nucleus is formed with more number of neutrons than needed for stability, a neutron will convert itself
into a proton to move towards stability.
(e) When a neutron is converted into a proton, an electron and a new particle named antineutrino are created
and emitted from the nucleus.
(f)

The antineutrino is denoted by the symbol . It is supposed to have zero rest mass like photon. It is chargeless and has quantum number .

(g) The electron emitted from the nucleus is called a beta particle and is denoted by the symbol or 1e0.
(h) A stream of beta particles coming from bulk of unstable nuclei is called beta ray.
(i) It is also called beta minus decay as negatively charged beta particles are emitted.
(j) The beta decay process may be represented by
A
Z

A
Z 1

Y + e +

A
Z

A
Z 1

Y + +

(k) An example of beta decay is 6C14

( n

p + e + )

N14 + e +

(antineutrino)

Q-value for -decay:

(a) decay: If -decay process is given by AZ X

A
Z 1

Y + + , then

A
Initial rest mass energy, REi = m Z X Zm e c2

Final rest mass energy, REf = m ZA1 Y Zm e (Z 1) m e c2

A
A
Q = REi REf = m Z X m Z1 Y c2

Because of the large mass, the residual nucleus Z A1 Y does not share appreciable kinetic energy. Thus, the
energy Q is shared by the antineutrino and the beta particle. Depending on the fraction taken away by the
antineutrino, the kinetic energy of the beta particle can be anything between zero and a maximum value Q.
Positron emission ( + decay)
(a) + decay is a process in which a proton is converted into a neutron with emission of positron (e+) and
neutrino (v).
p
n + e+ + v
(b) It reduces the atomic number (Z) of nucleus by 1.
(c) It does not alter the mass number (A).
(d) An isolated proton does not beta decay to a neutron. On the other-hand, an isolated neutron decays to a
proton.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(e) If the unstable nucleus has excess protons than needed for stability, a proton converts itself into a neutron.
(f) When a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino are created and emitted from the
nucleus.
(g) The neutrino is denoted by the symbol v. It is charge-less particle.
(h) The positron (e+) has a positive electric charge equal in magnitude to the charge on an electrons and has a
mass equal to the mass of an electron.
(i) Positron is called the antiparticle of electron.
(j) When an electron and a positron collide, both the particles are destroyed and energy is made available.
(k) Neutrino and antineutrino are antiparticles of each other.
(l) The + decay process is represented as
A
Z

A
Z 1

Y + e+ + v

[ p n + e+ + v]

A
Z

A
+
X
Z 1 Y + + v
If the unstable nucleus has excess protons than needed for stability, a proton converts itself into a neutron.
In the process, a positron and a neutrino are created and emitted from the nucleus,
p
n + e+ + v
.....(iv)
+
The positron e has a positive electric charge equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron and has a mass
equal to the mass of an electron. Positron is called the antiparticle of electron. When an electron and a
positron collide, both the particles are destroyed and energy is made available. Similarly, neutrino and
antineutrino are antiparticles of each other. When a proton in a nucleus converts itself into a neutron, the
decay process is represented as
A
Z

A
Z 1

Y + e+ + v

A
A
+
or
.....(v)
ZX
Z 1 Y + + v
This process is called beta plus decay. The positron so emitted is called a beta plus particle.

+ - decay or position - emission :

If the +-decay or position-emission is given by
A
Z

A
Z 1

Y + + + v, then

A
R.Ei = m Z X Zm e c2
A
R.Ef = m Z1 Y (Z 1)m e m e c2

A
A
= R.Ei R.Ef = m Z X m Z1 Y 2me c2

A
A
Q = m Z X m Z1 Y 2me c2
.....(vi)
Can an isolated proton decay to a neutron emitting a positron and a neutrino as suggested by equation (iv)?
The mass of a neutron is larger than the mass of a proton and hence the Q-value of such a process would be
negative. So, an isolated proton does not beta decay to a neutron. On the other hand, an isolated neutron
decays to a proton as suggested by equation (i).
(m) The positron is also called beta plus particle.

(n) An example of + decay is

Cu64

29

Ni64 + e+ + v

28

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10

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
A similar process, known as electron capture, takes place in certain nuclides. In this process, the nucleus
captures one of the atomic electrons (most like an electron from the K shell). A proton in the nucleus
combines with this electron and coverts itself into a neutron. A neutrino is created in the process and emitted
from the nucleus.
Electron capture
(a) When the nucleus has too many protons relative to the number of neutrons, the nucleus captures one of the
atomic electrons (most likely an electron from the K-shell).
(b) A proton in the nucleus combines with this electron and converts itself into a neutron.
(c) A neutrino is created in this process and emitted from the nucleus.
p + e
n+v
(d) In this process, atomic number (Z) of the nucleus decreases by 1.
(e) This process does not alter the value of mass number (A).
(f) When an atomic electron is captured, a vacancy is created in the atomic shell and X-rays are emitted
following the capture.
(g) This process is also called K-capture.
(h) The process may be represented as
A
Z

(i)

A
Z 1

X + e

[ p + e

Y +v

n + v]

An example of electron capture is

Cu64 + e
Ni64 + neutrino
29
28

Q-Value of K-capture process:

If K -capture process is given by
A
Z

X + e

A
Z 1

Y + v, then

A
A
Q = m Z X m Z1 Y c2

Example 56: Calculate the Q-value in the following decays19

(a) 19O
F+e+
[ -decay]
25
(b) 25Al
Mg + e+ + v, [+-decay]
The atomic masses of 19O = 19.003576 a.m.u. 19F = 18.998403 a.m.u, 25Al = 24.990432 a.m.u., 25 M g
= 24.985939 a.m.u.
Sol: (a) The Q-value of -decay is
Q = [m (19O) m(19F)]c2
= [19.003576 a.m.u. 18.998403 a.m.u.] (931.5 MeV/a.m.u.)
= 4.819 MeV

(b) The Q-value of + -decay is

Q = [(mass of 25Al nucleus) (mass of 25Mg nucleus) (mass of positron)]c2
= [(24.990432 a.m.u 13me) (24.985939 a.m.u. 12 me) me]c2
= [(0.004593 a.m.u.) 2me]c2
MeV
= 0.004593 a.m.u. (931.5 MeV/a.m.u.) 2 0.511 2 .c2
c
= 4.276 MeV 1.022 MeV = 3.254 MeV

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11

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Gamma Decay
(a) Nucleus has also energy levels like atoms have.
(b) This decay process is related to the transitions between two nuclear energy levels.
(c) The protons and neutrons inside a nucleus move in discrete quantum states with definite energies.
(d) In the ground state, the nucleons occupy those quantum states which minimise the total energy of the
nucleus.
(e) The higher energy states are also available to the nucleons and if appropriate energy is supplied, the nucleus
may be excited to higher energies.
(f) The energy differences in the allowed energy levels of a nucleus are generally large (in the order of MeV).
(g) It is difficult to excite the nucleus to higher energy levels by usual methods of supplying energy like heating
etc.
(h) When an alpha or a beta decay takes place, the daughter nucleus is generally formed in one of its excited
states. The daughter nucleus in an excited state eventually comes to its ground state by emitting one photon
or more than one photon of electromagnetic radiation.
(i) The process of a nucleus coming down to a lower energy level by emitting a photon is called gamma decay.
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)

In this decay, atomic number (Z) as well as mass number (A) of the nucleus remain constant.
In this decay, the quantum states of the nucleons vary.
The electromagnetic radiation emitted in nuclear transitions is called gamma ray.
The wavelength of this radiation is given by the common relation.

hc
where E = energy of the photon.
E
(n) An example of gamma decay is shown in figure below:

57

Co

2nd excited state

136 keV

1st excited state

14 keV
0 keV

57

Ground state
Fe

When 57Co is taken in bulk, we can observe a stream of + particles, 136 keV photons, 122 keV photons
and 14 keV photons coming from the 57Co source.
NOTE: The , and rays are collectively called nuclear radiation.
Comparison among the kinds of decay
(a) The velocity of -particles is relatively low:
v = (c/30 c/15), when c is the velocity of light
Mass
m = 4 amu
charge
q = +2e
For -particles:

0 v < c
m = mass of an electron
q = e

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12

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
For -rays:
Since -rays are electromagnetic waves, hence they propagate with the speed of light.
i.e.
v = c
Rest mass,m = 0(like photon)
q = 0 (like photon)
(b) The penetrability of -rays is 0 - 100 times higher than the penetrability of b-rays and 1000 - 10000 times
higher than the penetrability of -rays. The penetrability of -rays also exceeds the penetrability of x-rays.
Al

Carboard

Lead

- particles from radioactive materials are stopped by a piece of cardboard.

-particles penetrate the cardboard but are stopped by a sheet of aluminium.
Even a thick slab of lead may not stop all the -rays.

(c) In a magnetic field, a beam of , and -rays splits into

three parts. In a magnetic field, -rays are undeviated and
-particles are most deviated

-rays

-particles

-particles

Magnetic field
directed into paper

(d) Table for various decay

Decay

Transformation

-decay

A
Z

A4
Z 2

-decay

A
Z

A
Z1

Positron emission

A
Z

Electron capture

A
Z

X + e

Gamma decay

A
Z

X*

238
92

Y 42 He

Y + e +

A
Z 1

Y + e+ + v
A
Z 1

A
Z

Example

Y +v

X +

14
6

64
29

Cu

64
29

Cu + e

87
38

Sr *

234
90
14
7

Th 42 He

N + e +

64
28

Ni + e+ + v
64
28

87
38

Ni + v

Sr +

The *denotes an excited nuclear estate, -denotes a gamma-ray photon and v and denotes neutrino and
antineutrino particles respectively.
C52: An a-particle is bombarded on 14N. As a result, a 17O nucleus is formed and a particle is emitted. This
particle is a/an
(a) neutron
(b) proton
(c) electron
(d) positron

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13

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol:

14
7

N 42 He

17
8

O 11p

1
1

p is equivalent to 11H .

C53: In a radioactive decay, neither the atomic number nor the mass number changes. Which of the following
particles is emitted in the decay ?
(a) Proton
(b) Neutron
(c) - particle
(d) photon
Sol: Photon is equivalent to -radiation. In this decay, only quantum states of the nucleons vary.
C54: -rays emitted by a radioactive material are
(a) electromagnetic waves
(c) charged particles emitted by the nucleus
Sol: A neutron in the nucleus decays emitting an electron.

(b) electrons orbiting around the nucleus

(d) neutral particles

C55: Give an equation representing the decay of a free neutron.

Sol:

1
0

1
1

H 01e v

C56: How many electrons, protons and neutrons are there in a nucleus of atomic number 11 and mass number
24 ?
Sol: Number of electrons or protons, Z = 11
and number of neutrons, N = mass number Atomic number
= 24 11 = 12
C57: Fill up the blanks
(i)
hv
(-photon)
(ii)
(iii)

Th234
(Thorium)
90

U238
(Uranium)
92

Sol: (i) e+(Positron)

e + ..............
(electron)
B0
+ 91Pa234 + .............
(-particle) (Protactinium)
1

He4 + ................
(-particle)
2

(ii) (Antineutrino)

(iii) 90Th234(Thorium)

C58: Following the origin of gamma decay, calculate the value of

27
wavelength of resulting photon when the nucleus of
13 Al
reaches the ground state (Eg = 0) from the state in which Eex. =
1.015 MeV. The related figure is shown adjacent.
12400
12400
Sol: (in ) =
=
E(eV) (1.015 0) 106
= 0.012217

27
12Mg

1.015 MeV

27
13Al

0 MeV

LAW OF RADIOACTIVE DECAY

When the radioactive substance is only disintegrating:
Radioactive decay is a random process. Each decay is an independent event, and one cannot tell when a
particular nucleus will decay. When a given nucleus decays, it is transformed into another nuclide which may

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14

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
or may not be radioactive. When there is a very large number of nuclei in a sample, the rate of decay
dN

dN
dN
N
= N
i.e.
is proportional to the number of nuclei, N, that are present i.e.
dt
dt
dt

where is called the decay constant.

This equation may be expressed in the form

dN
= dt and integrated to get
dt

t
dN
=

N
0 dt , to yield, ln
N0

N
N 0 = t, where N0 is the initial number of parent nuclei at t = 0. The number that survive at time t is
therefore
N = N0et
Definition of decay constant :
The probability of decay per second for a particular process for a sample is called the decay constant for
that process for that sample.
Radioactivity law of decay gives, =

dN
Ndt

Half life :
The time period for the number of parent nuclei to fall to 50% is called the half-life, T, and may be related
to .
if we put N = N0/2 at t = T, the exponential decay equation gives,
0.5N0 = N0eT
0.693

T = ln|2| = 0.693 , T =

(a)It takes one half-life to drop to 50% of any starting value.

(b) The half-life for the decay of the free neutron is 12.8 min.
(c) Other half lives range from about 1020s to 1016 years.
Mean life(Tm ) :
Mean life of a radioactive sample is defined as the average of the lives of all nuclei.
0

tdN

Tm =

1
and T = 0.693 Tm

N0

1
T
=
0.693

Tm =

N0

NOTE : (i) Radioactive decay equation, N = N0et, can also be written as

1
N = N0
2

t/T

, where T is half-life of the sample.

(ii) The decay constant is also given as, =

N0
2.303
log
N
t

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15

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Activity of radioactive substance:
Since the number of atoms is not directly measurable, we measure the decay rate or activity (A)
A=

dN
,
dt

but N = N0et

dN
= (N0et) = N
dt

A = N = A0et,
where A0 = N0 is the initial activity.
Both N and A decrease exponentially with time. The activity is characterized by the same half-life.

A=

Units of activity:
(a) The SI unit for the activity is the becquerel (Bq), but the curie (Ci) is often used in practice.
1 becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegrations per second (dps)
1 curie (Ci)
= 3.7 1010 dps
1 rutherford
= 106 dps
(b) Rate of decay of 1 gm substance is called specific activity.
(c) Activity of 1 gm Ra226 is 1Ci.
Example 57: The half-life of 198Au is 2.7 days. Calculate (a) the decay constant, (b) the average life and (c) the
activity of 1.00 mg of 198Au. Take atomic weight of 198Au to be 198 g/mol.
Sol: (a) The half-life and the decay constant are related as T =

0.693
0.693
0.693
= 2.7 days = 2.7 24 3600 s
T
= 2.9 106 s1.

(b)

Tm =

0.693

T
0.693

2.7
days = 3.9 days.
0.693
(c) Activity is given as, A = N, where N is the number of nuclei present in 1 mg of 198Au.
Atomic mass of 198Au = 198 g

1 mg
N = 198 g Avogadro no

103
6 1023 atoms
198
N = 3.03 1018 atoms
Thus, A = N = (2.9 109 s1) 3.03 1018 (atoms)
= 8.8 1012 disintegrations per sec.
N =

8.8 1012
Ci = 240 Ci
3.7 1010

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16

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Example 58. Two radioactive material A1 and A2 have decay constants of 10 0 and 0. If initially they have
same number of nuclei, the ratio of number of their undecayed nuclei will be (1/e) after a time
1
(A)
0

1
(B) 9
0

1
(C) 10
0

(D) 1

N1 N 0 e 1t N 0 e100t

Sol.

N 2 N 0e 2t N 0 e 0 t
N1 N 0 e 10 0 t

N2
N 0e 0 t
N1
e 9 0 t
N2
1
e 9 0 t
e

e1 e9 0 t
1 = 90t
t

1
9 0

Hence (B) is correct.

C59. A certain element has a density of 10 g cm3 and half-life of 140 days. Over a period of 140 days, the
average number of -emissions per day is found to be 12 1012, from a sample of initial mass 1 g.
Estimate the number of atoms in 1 cm3 of the element.
Sol. We assume that only one emission takes place per atom.
In 140 days, no. of emissions = 140 12 1012
initial no. of atoms present = 2 140 12 1012
(since 140 days is the half-life)
no. of atoms in 1 g = 28 12 1013
no. of atoms in 1 cm3, i.e., 10g = 3.36 105 107
= 3.36 1022
C60: A radioactive sample has 3.2 1016 active nuclei at certain instant. How many of these nuclei will still be in
the same active state after four half-lives ?
Sol: In one half-life the number of active nuclei reduces to half the original number. Thus in four half-lives the
1111
1
number is reduced to i.e.
th of the original number..
16
2222
The number of remaining active nuclei is,

1
3.2 1016 = 2 1015 nuclei
16

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17

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
C61: The activity of a radioactive sample falls from 1200 s1 to 1000 s1 in 60 minutes. Calculate its half life.
Sol: We have, A = A0et
(1000 s1) = (1200 s1) et 5/6 = et
t = ln(6/5)
but,

T=

ln 2

ln(6 / 5)
ln(6 / 5)
= 60 min
t

ln(6 / 5)
ln 2
= 60 min
T

ln 2
0.693
60 min =
60 min
ln(6 / 5)
0.182
half-life = 228 min
T=

C62. At a given instant there are 25% undecayed radioactive nuclei in a sample. After 10 second the mumber of
undecayed nuclei reduces to 12.5% Calculate :
(i) mean life of the nuclei
(ii) the time in which the number of undecayed nuclei will further reduce to 6.25% of the reduced number.
Sol. (i) In 10 second, number of nuclei has been reduced to half (25% to 12.5%). Therefore, its half life is
t1/2 = 10 s
Relation between half life and mean life is
t
10
t mean 1/ 2
s
ln (2) 0.693
tmean = 14.43 s
(ii) From initial 100% to reduction till 6.25%, it takes four half lives.
100%
50%
25%
12.5%
6.25%
t1/ 2
t1/ 2
t1/ 2
t1/ 2

t = 4 t1/2 = 4(10) s = 40 s

Example 59. A sample initially contains 1020 radioactive atoms of half-life 130 days. Calculate the activity of the
sample after 260 days have elapsed. Also find the total energy released during this period if the energy
released per disintegration is 8 1013 J.
In 260 days, i.e., two half-lives, the number of undisintegrated atoms will reduce to 1/4th.
Sol. no. of atoms present after 260 days = N =

1
1020
4

Also, disintegration constant = = 0.6931/T

where T = 130 days = 130 86400 s
0.693
1
1020 = 1.54 1012 s
130 86400 4
Number of atoms present initially = 1020
1
Number of atoms present after 260 days = 1020
4
number of disintegrated atoms = 3/4 1020
Energy per disintegration = 8 1013 J
3
total energy released = 1020 8 1013 = 6 107 J
4

Now, activity = N =

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18

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Example 60. A body of mass m0 is placed on a smooth horizontal surface. The mass of the body is decreasing
exponentially with disintegration constant . Assuming that the mass is ejected backwards with a relative
velocity u. Initially the body was at rest. Find the velocity of it after time t.
Sol. Mass of the body left after time t is
m = m0et
So

dm

= m0et
dt

and thrust force on the body is

dm
Ft = ur

dt

(in forward direction)

or

dv
m = u(m0et)
dt

(ur = u)

or

(m0et)

or

dv
= m0 uet
dt
t

dv u dt
0

or

dv = udt

or

v = ut

Example 61. A radio nuclide with half life T = 69.31 second emits -particles of average kinetic energy E =
11.25 eV. At an instant concentration of -particles at distance, r = 2 m from nuclide is n = 3 1013 per m3.
(i) Calculate number of nuclie in the nuclide at that instant.
(ii) If a small circular plate is placed at distance r from nuclide such that -particles strike the plate normally and
come to rest, calculate pressure experienced by the plate due to collision of -particles.
[Mass of -particle = 9 1031 kg)]
Sol. Let activity (rate of decay) of the nuclide be A nuclie per second. It means
A -particles are emitted per second. If a spherical surface of radius r with
centre at position of nuclide be considered then A -particles cross this
surface
(v dt)
per second. It means during an elemental time interval dt a number (A . dt)
r
of -particles cross this surface. If velocity of -particles be v then above
calculated (A . dt) -particles are in a space having shape of a spherical
shell of radius r and radial thickness (v dt) as shown in figure.
Volume of this space = 4r2 (v dt)
Concentration of -particles at distance r from nuclide is

A dt
4r 2 (v dt)

or activity of the nuclide, A = 4r2 vn

But activity,
A = N where N is number of nuclei
Hence,

N=

log 2
4r 2 vn
but decay constant =
T

4r 2 vnT
0.6931

...(1)

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19

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1
mv 2 ,
2
substituting this value in equation (1),

Kinetic energy of -particles, E

4r 2 nT
N
0.6931

2E
m

2E
9.6 1022
m

(ii) At distance r from the nuclide (A/4r2) -particles cross unit area per second. Let area of small circular
plate be S, then
number of -particles striking the plate per second
A
N
0.6931 NS

S
S
2
2
4r
4r
4 r 2 T
Momentum of each particle just before collision is mv and after collision particles come to rest or momentum
becomes zero.
Momentum transferred to plate due to collision is
p = mv 0 = mv
Due to transfer of momentum, the plate experiences a force which is equal to rate of transfer of momentum.
Force,
F = p no. of particles striking per second

Pressure,

0.6931 NS
4r 2 T
P = Force per unit area

P=

F 0.6931 N
=
mv but v =
4r 2 T
S

P=

0.6931 N
2mE = 1.08 104 Nm2
4r 2 T

or

F = mv

2E
m

RADIOACTIVE DATING OR CARBON DATING

Radiocarbon dating, also called carbon dating, is used to estimate the age of organic samples. The technique
is based on the -activity of the radioactive isotope C14;
14
6

14
7

N + +

beta particles, anti neutrino]

(a) High energy particles for outer space, called cosmic rays, induce nuclear reactions in the upper atmosphere
and create carbon - 14.
(b) The carbon dioxide molecules of the earths atmosphere have a constant ratio ( ~ 1.4 1012) of C14 to C12
isotopes.
(c) All living organisms also show the same ratio as they continuously exchange CO2 with their surroundings.
(d) However after its death, an organism can no longer absorb CO2 and the ratio C14/C12 decreases due to the
-decay of C14.
(e) Thus by measuring the -activity per unit mass, it is possible to estimate the age of a material.
(f) Half life of 14C is 5739 y.

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20

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Example 62: When charcoal is prepared from a living tree it shows a disintegration rate of 15.3 disintegrations
of 14C per gram per minute. A sample from an ancient piece of charcoal shows 14C activity to be 12.3
disintegrations per gram per minute. How old is this sample ? Half life of 14C is 5730 y.
Sol: 14C-activity of a living tree,A0 = 15.3 dis. per min.
14
C-activity of the old sample, A = 12.3 dis. per min.
Suppose, the sample is t year old, then
(14C-activity of sample) = (14C-activity of living tree )et
i.e. A = A0et
.....(i) where is decay constant of 14C-activity
Putting values of A and A0 in equation (i), we get
12.3 = 15.3 et t = ln

t=

0.218 0.218
=
T,,

0.693

t = ln(1.24) = 0.218

[as, =

0.218
5730 y,,
0.693

t = 1805 y
Thus, the sample is 1805 y old.

15.3
12.3

0.693
]
T

[T = half-life of 14C -activity = 5730 y]

t=

Example 63: The relative radiocarbon activity in a piece of charcoal from the remains of an ancient camp fire is
0.18 that of a contemporary specimen. How long ago did the fire occur ? Half-life of 14C-activity is 5730 y.
Sol: Here, ratio between the 14C-activity of burnt charcoal and that of a living tree is given.
14

14

A
C activity of charcoal (say, A)
= 0.18 A = 0.18
C activity of a living tree (say, A 0 )
0

Suppose, t year ago fire occurred and let be the decay constant of 14C-activity. We have, using radioactive
decay law,
A = A0et
t = ln
t =

A0
A

et =
t=

A0
T
ln
,
0.693 A

A0
A

1 A0
ln
A

[ =

0.693
]
T

1
5730
ln
0.693 0.18
= 8268.3 ln|5.56|
= 1.4 104 y
Thus, fire occurred 1.4 104 years ago.

Radioactivity law for different types of disintegration of the radioactive substance

It is seen that radioactive disintegration of a radioactive substance is not only ruled by the radioactive law,
N = N0et (which is applicable only when the radioactive substance is only disintegrating), but the radioactive
law changes for various types of disintegration of the substance. Let us first enlist these types of disintegration
as:

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21

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(1) Radioactive substance only disintegrates:
For this radioactive law is

dN
= N
dt

or N = N0et

(2) Disintegration with continuous production of the radioactive substance.

It deals with the case when production and the decay of the radioactive substance are taking place
simultaneously.
Formation

A decays
( )

(3) Successive disintegrations of the products:

It deals with the case when a substance A decays into a substance B and B successively decays into a third
substance C with the same or different decay rates.
A

decays
( 1)

B decays

( 2)

(4) Simultaneous disintegrations of parent nuclei:

It deals with the case when a parent nucleus may disintegrate in a number of ways into different products.
1 B
A
Parent nucleus A may decay in B or C with decay constants 1 and 2 respectively..
2 C
(5) Radioactive equilibrium:
In a radioactive series, after a period of time, successive daughter nuclei decay at the same rate as it is
formed. This situation is called radioactive equilibrium.
(6) Disintegration of isotopes:
A preparation may have a number of radioactive isotopes. Here we will deal with the net rate of disintegration
of the preparation.
Let us discuss these types of disintegrations.
Radioactive substance only disintegrates :
Suppose disintegration of A into B is taking place with decay constant , then decay rate,

dN
= N N = N0et
dt

Disintegration with continuous production:

Suppose a substance A decays into B with decay constant and simultaneously the production of A is
taking place at a constant rate q.
Formation
(q)

decays
( )

Let, N is the number of nuclei of A present at time t.

q = constant rate of formation of A.
Disintegration rate will be given by
dN
= q + N, where N is the rate of decay of A.
dt
Rearranging, we get,

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

dN
= dt,
q N
N

Integration gives,

Finally, N =

t
dN
=

q N dt , where N0 is the no. of nuclei of A initially present.

N0
0

1
[q + (N0 q)et]

Example 64. A radionuclide with disintegration constant is produced in a reactor at a constant rate nuclei
per second. During each decay energy E0 is released. 20% of this energy is utilised in increasing the temperature
of water. find the increase in temperature of m mass of water in time t. Specific heat of water is s. Assume
that there is no loss of energy through water surface.
Sol. Let N be the number of nuclei at any time t. Then
N

Rate of decay = N

Rate of formation =

net rate of formation of nuclei at time t is

dN
= N
dt

or

t
dN
dt
N 0

(1 et)

Number of nuclei formed in time t = t

or

N=

and number of nuclei left after time t

1 e t

Therefore, number of nuclei disintegrated in time t t

1 e t

t
energy released till time t E 0 t 1 e .

But only 20% of it is used in raising the temperature of water.

0.2 E 0 t 1 e t Q
So
where Q = ms

= increase in temperature of water =

ms

0.2 E0 t 1 e t

ms

Example 65. Nuclei of a radioactive element A are being produced at a constant rate . The element has a
decay constant . At time t = 0 , there are N0 nuclei of the element.
(a) Calculate the number N of nuclei of A at time t
(b) If = 2 N0, calculate the number of nuclei of A after one half life of A, and also the limiting value of N
as t .

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23

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol. (a) Let at time t, number of radioactive nuclei are N.
Net rate of formation of nuclei of A.
dN
= N
dt

or

Rate of formation =

t=t
N=N

Rate of decay = N

dN
= dt
N

t
dN
dt
N0 N
0
Solving this equation, we get

or

1
N 0 e t

(b) (i) Substituting = 2N0 and t = t1/2 =

...(1)
ln (2)
in equation (1), we get

3
N0
2
(ii) Substituting = 2N0 and t in equation (1), we get
N

N=

= 2N0

or

N = 2N0

Example 66. A radionuclide with half life T is produced in a reactor at a constant rate q nuclei per second.
During each decay, energy E0 is released. If production of radionuclide is started at t = 0, calculate.
(i) rate of release of energy as function of time t and
(ii) total energy released upto time t.
Sol. To calculate rate of release of energy at time t and total energy released upto time t, rate of decay at that
instant and total number of decays upto that instant must be known.
Since, nuclei produced are radioactive, therefore, their decay starts as soon as their production is started.
Let at some instant number of nuclei in the radionuclide be N. Then rate of its decay = N where is decay

log e 2
constant which is equal to
.
T
Since, rate of production is q nuclei per second, therefore, at instant t, net rate of increase of nuclei

N log e 2
dN
q N q
dt
T
dN qT Nloge 2

dt
T

or

dN
dt

qT N log e 2 T

...(1)

Integrating above equation with limits at t = 0, N = 0 and at t, N = ?

t dt
dN

qT N log e 2 0 T

t loge 2

qT
T
N
1

log e 2

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Hence, rate of decay,

t log e 2

A N q 1 e T

Since, energy E0 releases during each decay, therefore, rate of release of energy at time
t log e 2

t AE 0 qE 0 1 e T

Total number of nuclei produced upto time t = q . t

But the number of nuclei remaining undecayed at that instant is N. Therefore, total number of nuclei which
decayed upto time
t = (qt N)
Hence, total energy released upto this time = (qt N)E0
t log e 2

qTE 0
T
qtE 0
1

log e 2

Successive disintegration :
Suppose a radioactive substance A decays into B with decay constant 1 and B successively decays into
another stable product C with a decay constant 2.
A

decays
1

decays
2

C (stable product)

Let N0 be the number of nuclei of A present at t = 0, N1, N2, N3 be the number of nuclei of A, B and C
respectively at any instant t.
Decay rate of A is given by
dN
= 1N1 N1 = N0e1t
dt
Rate of change of no of nuclei of B is

.....(i)

dN 2
= (Rate of decay of A) (Rate of decay of B)
dt
But,
Rate of decay of A = 1N1

and rate of decay of B = 2N2

dN 2
= 1N1 2N2
dt

hence,

Rate of change of number of nuclei of C is

dN 3
= 2N2
dt
Solving (i), (ii) and (iii), we get
N 1 = N0e1t

.....(ii)

dN 3
= (rate of decay of B) = 2N2
dt

.....(iii)

N 0 1
N 2 = [e1t e2t]
2
1

1e2 t 2e 1t
1
N 3 = N0
2 1

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NOTE : In this case total number of nuclei remains constant,
hence, N1 + N2 + N3 = N0 at any time.
Example 67: A radioactive nucleus A decays to a nucleus B with a decay constant 1. B further decays to a
stable nucleus C with a decay constant 2. Initially there are only A nuclei and their number is N0. Set up the
rate equations for the populations of A, B and C. The population of B nucleus as function of time is given by

N 01 1t 2 t
N2(t) = ( ) (e e ) . Calculate the population of C as a function of time t.
2
1
Sol: Let N1, N2 and N3 be the number of A, B and C nuclei respectively present at a time t.
Decay rate for A nuclei will be
dN1
= 1N1 N1 = N0e1t
dt
Rate of change of the number of nuclei of B is

dN 2
= 1N1 2N2 where 2N2 = decay rate of B and 1N1 = decay rate of A
dt

Rate of change of the number of nuclei of C is

dN 3
= 2N2
dt
t

N3 = 2 N 2 dt
0

N3

dN 3
= (Rate of decay of B) = 2N2
dt

dN3 = 2 N 2dt , after integrating.

0

N 01 1t 2 t
but, N2 is given as, N2 =
(e e )
( 2 1 )
t

N3 =

N3 =

N3

t
N 0 1 2
N 0 1 2 e1t e2 t
1t
2 t
(e

e
)
dt

2 1 0
2 1 1 2 0

N 0 1 2 e 1t e 2 t 1
1

2 1 1 2 1 2
N0
[1e2 t 2 e 1t ] + N0
2 1

1e2 t 2e 1t
1
= N0
2 1

Simultaneous disintegration:
A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes. For example a nucleus A may either a-decay
to a nucleus B or -decay to nucleus C.
1 B
A
Let 1 and 2 be the decay constants for these two decay processes.
2 C

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26

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The probability that an active nucleus decays by the first process in a time interval dt is 1dt . As decay
constant, is defined as the probability of decay per second for a particular process for a sample. Similarly,
the probability that it decays by the second process is 2dt.
Hence, the probability the it either decays by the first process or by the second process is
1dt + 2dt.
If the effective decay constant is eff, this probability is also equal to effdt.
Thus,
effdt = 1dt + 2dt

eff = 1 + 2
For a number of different process for decay, eff = 1 + 2 + ............
Example 68: A radioactive nucleus can decay by two different processes. The half life for the first process is t1
and that for the second process is t2. Show that the effective half-life t of the nucleus is given
1
1
1
=
+ .
t
t1
t2

Sol: The decay constant for the first process is 1 =

ln 2
t1

ln 2
For the second process, 2 = t
2

Probability of decay by the first process = 1dt

Probability of decay by the second process = 2dt
Probability that it either decay by the first process or the second process = 1dt + 2dt
This probability also equals to effdt, where eff is the effective decay constant.
Thus,
effdt = 1dt + 2dt

eff = 1 + 2

1
1
1
=
+
t
t1
t2

ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
=
+
t
t1
t2

Proved.

Example 69. A number N0 of atoms of a radio active element are placed inside a closed volume. The radiactive
decay constant for the nucleus of this element is 1. The daughter nucleus that form as a result of the decay
process are assumed to be radioactive too with a radioactive decay constant 2. Determine the time variation
of the number of such nucleus. Consider two limiting cases 1 >> 2 and 1 << 2.
Sol. In time interval dt, number of increase of daughter nuclei are
dN2 = 1N1dt 2N2dt
or

dN2 = 1N0 e 1t dt 2N2dt

dN 2
+ 2N2 = 2N0 e 1t
dt
Case-1 : When 1 > >2 i.e. (t1/2)1 < < (t1/2)2

or

(N1 = N0 e 1t )
...(1)
(t1/2 = half life)

We can assume that N20 N0 so that N2 = N0 e 2 t

(N20 = number of daughter atoms at time t = 0)

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Physically this means that parent nuclei practivally instantly transform into daughter nuclei, which then decay
according to the law of radioactive decay with decay constant 2.
Case-2 : When 1 < <2 i.e. (t1/2)1 > > (t1/2)2
In this case number of parent nuclei can be assumed to remain constant over a sizable time interval and is
equal to N0.
dN 2
This transforms equation (1) into
= (2N2 1N0)
dt
N2
t
dN 2

or
1N0 2 N 2 dt
0
0
Which after integration gives
1
N2 = N0(1 e 2 t )
2

Example 70. A radio nuclide consists of two isotopes. One of the isotopes decays by -emission and the other
by -emission with half lives T1 = 405 second and T2 = 1620 second, respectively. At t = 0, probabilities
of getting and particles from the radionuclide are equal. Calculate their respective probabilities at t =
1620 second.
If at t = 0, total number of nuclie in the ratio-nuclide are N0, calculate time t when total number of nuclie

N0
.
2
Given
log10 2 = 0.30103,
log10 13 = 1.11394
Sol. Since, at t = 0, probabilities of getting and particles from the radionuclide are equal, therefore, initial
activities of two isotopes are equal. Let it be A0.
Activity of first isotope at t = 1620 sec.
remained undecayed becomes equal to

1
A1 A 0
2

That of second isotope,

1
A2 A0
2

t / T1

A0
16

A0
2

t / T2

Total activity of radionuclide at t = 1620 sec, A = A1 + A2 =

Probability of getting -particle,

P1

9
A
16 0

A1 1

A 9

A2 8

A 9
Let at t = 0, number of nuclei of two isotopes be N01 and N02, respectively.

and that of getting -particle,

P2

log 2
T1

Initial activity of first isotope,

A1 N 01 1 N 01

That of second isotope,

A 2 N 02 2 N 02

log 2
T2

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Since,

N 01 N 02

T1
T2

A1 = A2, therefore

N 01 T1 1

N 02 T2 4

or

Initially, total number of nuclei, N0 = N01 + N02

1
4
N0 and N 02 N0
5
5
At time t, number of nuclei of first isotope that remain undecayed,
N 01

1
N1 N 01
2

That of second isotope,

t / T1

1 1
N0
5 2

1
N 2 N 02
2

t / T2

t / 405

4 1
N0
2
5

t /1620

Total number of nuclei remaining undecayed at time t,

N0 1
N = N1 + N2 =

5 2

But it is equal to

t / 405

4
1
+ N0
2
5

t /1620

N0
= 5

1 4
1 t /1620

4


2
2

N0
.
2
1 4
1 t /1620 N 0

2
2
2

N0
5

or

1

2

Taking log,

or

log13 log 8 1620 s

or

log13 3log 2 1620 s 1134 s

t /1620

8
13

t
log 2 = log 8 log 13
1620

log 2

log 2

Radioactive equilibrium :
206
Decay of 238
92 U into a stable end product 82 Pb is a radioactive series which contains a number of intermediate
members. The intermediate members of each decay series have much shorter half-lives than their parent
nuclide. As a result, if we start with a sample NA nuclei of a parent nuclide A, after a period of time an
equilibrium situation will come about in which each successive daughter B, C, ........... decays at the same
rate as it is formed. Thus the activities RA, RB, RC, ........... are all equal at equilibrium, and since R = N we
have.

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29

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
ANA = BNB = CNC = ...........
This situation is called radioactive equilibrium. The above equation can be used to establish the decay
constant (or half-life) of any member of the series if the decay constant of another member and their relative
proportions in a sample are known.
Example 71: The atomic ratio between the uranium isotope 238U and 234U in a mineral sample is found to be 1.8
104. The half-life of 234U is 2.5 105 year. Find the half-life of 238U.
Sol: The two isotopes are in radioactive equilibrium. Hence activities of the two will be equal.
Thus,
1N1 = 2N2,
where, 1, 2 are decay constant of 238U and 234U respectively.
N1 and N2 are number of atoms of 238U and 234U respectively, we have
2

ln 2
(year)1,
2.5 105

N1
4
N 2 = 1.8 10 ,

1
Now,

ln 2
, where T is half life of 238U.
T

1N1 = 2N2

ln 2 N1

=
T N2

ln 2
(year)1
2.5 105

N1
T = N 2.5 105 year
2
= 1.8 104 2.5 105 year
half life of 238U = 4.5 105 year
Disintegration of isotopes :
Suppose a sample is a mixture of three radioactive isotopes A, B and C.
Let 1, 2 and 3 be the decay constant of A, B and C respectively.
N1, N2 and N3 be the number of nuclei of isotopes A, B and C respectively at any instant.
If A1, A2, A3 are decay rates of A, B and C respectively then, the net decay rate is
Anet = A1 + A2 + A3
but, A = N net N = 1N1 + 2N2 + 3N3
1 N1 2 N 2 3 N 3
N
N is the total no. of nuclei in the sample at any instant
N = N1 + N2 + N3
1 N1 2 N 2 3 N 3
hence net decay constant, net =
N1 N 2 N3

net =

235
238
Example 72: A sample of uranium is a mixture of three isotopes 234
92 U , 92 U and 92 U present in atomic ratio
of 0.006 %, 0.71% and 99.284% respectively. The half life of these isotopes are 2.5 105 years, 7.1 108
years and 4.5 109 years respectively. Calculate the contribution of activity (in %) of each isotope in this
sample.

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30

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol: Let N1, N2 and N3 be the number of the three isotopes in the sample.
we have
N1 : N2 : N3 = 0.006 : 0.71 : 99.284
.....(i)
If 1, 2, 3 are decay constants of these isotopes and as activity A = N, we have
A1 : A2 : A3 = 1N1 : 2N2 : 3N3

A1 : A2 : A3

(ln 2)N1 (ln 2)N 2 (ln 2)N 3

:
:
,
T1
T2
T3

A1 : A2 : A3

N1 N 2
N3
:
=
T1
T2
T3

[as =

ln 2
]
T

.....(ii)

where, T1, T2 and T3 are half lives of the isotopes.

Comparing (i) and (ii) we get
A1 : A2 : A3

0.006 0.71 99.284

T1 : T2 : T3

0.006
0.71
99.284
5 :
8 :
2.5 10
7.1 10
4.5 109

=
=
=

A1 : A2 : A3

=
=
=
Activity ratio =

60
99.284
:1:
2.5
4.5
24 : 1 : 22.06
24 : 1 : 22.06
24 100
1 100
22.06 100
:
:
24 1 22.06 24 1 22.06 24 1 22.06
2400
100
2206
%:
%:
47.06
47.06
47.06
51.00% : 2.12% : 46.88%
51% : 2.12% : 46.88%

Contribution of

234
92

U = 51%;

Contribution of

235
92

U = 2.12%;

and Contribution of

238
92

U = 46.88% in activity of the sample.

Example 73. The isotopes of uranium U238 and U235 occur in nature in the ratio 128 : 1. Assuming that at the
time of the earths formation they were in equal ratio, make an estimate of the age of the earth. The half-lives
of U238 and U235 are 4.5 109 years and 7.13 108 years, respectively.
Sol. Let N0 be the initial number of atoms. Then from N = N0et, N1 N 0 e (ln 2 / T1 ) t and N 2 N 0 e (ln 2 / T2 ) t

ln 2 1/ T 1/ T t
N1 / N 2 e 2 1

128 e

or

ln 2 1/ 7.13108 1/ 4.5109 t

9
9
or
128 eln 21.1810 t
27 e ln 21.1810 t
7
t
109 = 5.9 109 years
1.18

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Types of Nuclear Collision:

Exoergic collision / reaction: If Q is positive, rest mass energy is converted to kinetic mass energy (K3, K4
etc), radiation energy or both, and the reaction is called exoergic.
Note: (i) The kinetic energy KE of the emitted -particle is never quite equal to the disintegration energy Q
because the nucleus recoils with a small amount of kinetic energy when the -particle emerges (since
momentum must be conserved).
*

A4
Q , A is the mass number of the parent nucleus.
KE
A
(ii) The mass numbers of nearly all alpha-emitters exceed 210, and hence most of the disintegration energy
appears as the KE of the -particle.
(iii) In the decay process, the energy Q is shared by the antineutrinos and the beta particle. The kinetic
energy of the beta particle can be anything between zero and maximum value of Q.
*

K + Ky = Q & p = py

p 2y
p 2
+ 2m = Q
2m
y
p 2
2m

m
1
= Q
my

K 1
=Q
A4

A4
K =
Q
A

234
C63: Find the kinetic energy of the -particle emitted in the decay 238Pu
U + .
238
234
The atomic masses of Pu = 238.04955 a.m.u.; of U = 234.04095 a.m.u; of 4He = 4.002603 a.m.u.
Neglect any recoil of the residual nucleus.
Sol: Using energy conservation,
m(238Pu)c2 = m(234U)c2 + m(4He)c2 + K
or K = [m(238Pu) m(234U) m(4He)]c2
= (238.04955 a.m.u. 234.04095 a.m.u. 4.002603 a.m.u.]c2
= 0.0059970 a.m.u. (931.5) MeV/a.m.u.
= 5.59 MeV

C64: Neon-23 beta decay in the following way:

23
10

Ne

23
11

Na +

0
1

e +

Find the minimum and maximum kinetic energy that the beta particle
of 23Ne and 23Na are 22.9945 u and 22.9898 u, respectively.
Sol:
Reactant
Product

0
1

e can have. The atomic masses

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
23
10

Ne 22.9945 10me

23
11

Na 22.9898 11me

0
1

e me
Total
22.9945 10 me
Total 22.9898 10 me
Mass defect,
m = 22.9945 u 22.9898 u = 0.0047 u

Q = m c2 = (0.0047 u) 931.5 MeV/u) = 4.4 MeV

The -particle and neutrino share this energy. The maximum kinetic energy of a beta particle in this decay is,
therefore, 4.4 MeV when the antineutrino does not get any share. Energy of particle can range from 0 to
4.4 MeV.
Endoergic collisions
(a) If Q is negative, the reaction is endoergic.
(b) For endoergic reaction to take place a minimum energy has to be supplied.
(c) Threshold energy Eth: The minimum amount of energy that a bombarding particle must have in order to
initiate an endoergic reaction, is called threshold energy Eth.
Using momentum conservation also, we get

m1

Eth = Q m 1 , where m1 = mass of the bombarding particle, m2 = mass of the target nucleus.
2
m1c2 + m2c2 + K1 = (m3 + m4)c2 + K3 + K4
& p1 = p3 + p4;
Q + K1 = K3 + K4
p32
p32
(p1 p 3 )2
p12
p 24
Q+
=
+
=
+
2m1
2m 3
2m 4
2m 3
2m 4

1 2p1p3
p12
p12
2 1
p

2Q +
= 3m m m +
2m1
m4
4
4
3
1
1
1 2p1p3
1
2
p32

2Q = 0
+
p
1
m4
m 4 m1
m3 m 4
4p12
4
m 24

1
1

m3 m 4

2 1
1
2Q 0
p1
m 4 m1

m3 m4
m3 m4
p12
Q m m m ; K1 Q m m m
2m1
3
4
1
3
4
1

m1
If m1 + m2 ~ Q 1 m

2
C65: How much energy must a bombarding proton possess to cause the reaction
7
3

7
1
1
7
1
7
Li + 11 H
4 Be + 0 n atomic masses of Li, H, Be and 0 n are 7.01600 u, 1.0783
u, 7.01693 u and 1.0866 u respectively.
Sol: Since the mass of an atom include the masses of the atomic electrons, the appropriate number of electron

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
masses must be subtracted from the given values to get masses of nuclei.
Q-value, = [m( 37 Li ) 3me + m( 11 H ) me]c2 [m( 74 Be ) 4me + m( 10 n )]c2
= [m( 37 Li ) + m( 11 H ) m( 74 Be ) m( 10 n )]c2
= (8.02383 8.02559)u.c2
= 0.00176 u (931.5 MeV/c2)
= 1.65 MeV
Negative sign of Q indicates endoergic reaction. Energy must be supplied for this reaction to take place.
The energy is supplied as kinetic energy of the bombarding proton. The incident proton must have more
than this energy because the system must posses some kinetic energy even after the reaction, so that
momentum is conserved. With momentum conservation taken into account, the minimum kinetic energy of
the incident can be found with the formula.
m
1
Eth = 1 Q = 1 (1.65 MeV) = 1.89 MeV..
M
7

C66. Making use of the table of atomic masses find the energies of the following reachings Li7(, n) B10
Sol.
Li7 + 2He4 5B10 + 0n1
3
Q = (7.01601 + 4.00260) (10.0124 + 1.00867)
Q = 0.00300 amu = 2.79 MeV
Example 74: Find the energy of the reaction N14(, p) O17, if the
kinetic energy of the incoming -particle is T = 4.0 MeV Y
and proton outgoing at an angle = 60 to the motion direction
of the alpha-particle has a kinetic energy Tp = 2.09 MeV.
Sol: T= 4.0 MeV, Tp = 2.09 MeV
Let TO is kinetic energy after collision of oxygen.
Reaction is, 7N14 + 2He4
O17 + 1p1
8
Let Q - value of reaction Q.
Energy conservation gives, Q + T = TO + Tp
Momentum conservation along x-direction gives,

2m T =

2mO TO .cos +

2m p Tp .cos

2m T

2m p Tp .cos =

2mO TO .cos

TO

= 60
p Tp

.....(i)

.....(ii)

Momentum conservation along y-direction gives,

2m p Tp .sin=

2mO TO .sin

.....(iii)

Squaring the equation (ii) and (iii) on both sides and adding the result, we get,
( 2m T

2m p Tp .cos)2 + 2mpTp sin2 = 2mOTO

2mT 2 (2m T )(2m p Tp ) .cos + 2mpTp(cos2 + sin2) = 2mOTO

1
TO = m [m T + mpTp 2 m m p T Tp .cos]
O

From equation (i), Q = TO + Tp T

Putting the value TO from equation (iv) in equation (v), we get,

.....(iv)
.....(v)

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1
Q = Tp T + m [m T + mp Tp 2 m m p T Tp . cos]
O
1
[1 4 + 1 2.09 2 4 1 4 2.09 .co60] MeV
16

= 2.09 MeV 4.0 MeV +

Q = 1.14 MeV

NUCLEAR FISSION
Continuous research or artificial transmuttion and especially the study of induced radioactivity, culminated in
the discovery of nuclear fission which is accompanied by the release of enormous amounts of energy. In
ordinary nuclear disintegrations, both natural and artificial, the nucleus is only chipped off rather than broken
and accordingly, the amount of energy released is comparatively less i.e. from about 10 to 23 MeV.
It was discovered in 1939 that the heavy unstable uranium nucleus when bombarded by neutrons splits into
two almost equal fragments which fly apart with great speed and the amount of energy released per fission
is about 200 MeV.
This division of a nucleus into two approximately equal parts as called nuclear fission.
Discovery of fission
The starting point in the discovery of nuclear fission can be traced to the attempts of Fermi in 1934, to
produce transuranic elements by bombarding uranium with neutrons. However, the fission process itself
was discovered in 1939 by German radio chemists Otto Hahn and his two associates Meitner and
Strassmann. After bombarding uranium with neutrons, they performed a series of chemical separations to
identify the products. To their great surprise, they found that the atoms produced by the bombardment of
uranium belonged to elements which lie near the centre of the periodic table. Obviously, a uranium nucleus
after capturing neutron had become so unstable that instead of disintegrating by ejecting one or two particles,
it had split up into two parts.
The actual fission process can be understood with the help of figure which shows a uraniumnucleus capturing
a neutron.
51

236

92 U
92

236

Sb133
-rays
Unstable
Antimony
Nuclide

51p
82n

-rays
92p
143n
(a)

(b)

Unstable
Niobium
Nuclide

41p
48n

99

41

Nb

(c)

The newly-formed nucleus of figure (b) is unstable and starts breaking up into two parts. In breaking up, the
uranium nucleus, behaving like a liquid drop, splashes out small droplets, i.e. neutron and -rays. So great
is the release of energy that the two fission fragments fly apart in opposite directions with tremendous
speeds. It amy, however, be noted that not all uranium nuclei break into Sb and Nb as shown in figure.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
There are at least 30 different ways in which a fissile nuclide can divide itself. The experimental evidence
seems to favour pairs of fission fragments of unequal masses (asymmetrical fission) accompanied by one to
five or some time more neutrons. In general, fission fragments are unstable nuclei containing an excess
number of neutrons. After a series of -emissions in which neutrons are converted into protons in the
nucleus, a stable nuclide results.
Out of all the neutrons ejected during the fission of uranium, about 99 per cent are ejected in an extremely
short interval of time and are called prompt neutrons. The remaining one per cent of neutrons are emitted a
little later and are called delayed neutrons. The delayed neutrons originate from unstable fragments that
decay by neutron emission on their way to becoming stable nuclei.
It may be noted that division of a fissile nucleus into three fragments of comparable sizes (ternary fission) has
been observed although it is a rare event, occurring about 5 times per million binary fissions.
Types of Fission Reactions
Historically speaking, uranium was the first element to undergo fission. However, soon after it was found
that other elements of high atomic weight could also be made to undergo fission and that particles other than
neutron could be equally effective in this respect.
Natural uranium contains three principal isotopes with the following relative abundance:
U238
99.28%
4.51 109 Y
U235
0.714%
7.1 108 Y
U234
0.006%
2.48 105 Y
It is found that slow neutrons cause fission of U235 but not of more abundant isotope U238 which requires fast
neutrons with energies exceeding 1 MeV. Similarly, Th232 and Pa231 undergo fission when bombarded with
fast neutrons. Fission can also be produced in uranium and thorium by high-energy -particles, protons,
protons, deuterons and -rays etc. Two other nuclides which do not occur in nature but have proved to be
fissionalbe by neutrons of all energies are 92U233 and 94Pu239. In 1947, successful fission of bismuth, lead,
thallium, mercury, gold, platinum and tantalum was achieved in USA by means of -particles, deutrons and
neutrons of 100 MeV and more. With bismuth (Z = 83) fission was detected with 50 MeV deuterons
whereas tantalum (Z = 73) required -particles of 400 MeV energy.
It is worth nothing that only three fissile materials U233, U235, Pu239 are important in the large-scale application
of nuclear energy.
Finally, some heavy nuclei have been found to undergo spontaneous fission. In this process, nucleus divides
in the ground state without bombardment by particles from outside.
Mass distribution of Fission Products
During uranium fission, a large number of nuclides of intermediate charge and mass are found. Their study
is a promising source of information about the mechanism of the fission process itself and also offers the
possibility of discovering hitherto unknown nuclides. Investigations of the fission products of U235 have
shown that the range of their mass numbers is from 72 to 158. About 97% of the U235 nuclei undergoing
fission give fragments which fall into two groups as shown in the fission yield curve of figure .
(i) light group with mass numbers from 85 to 104 and
(ii) heavy group with mass numbers from 130 to 149.
The most probable type of fission which occurs in about 7% of the total cases, gives fission products with
mass numbers 95 and 139.

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10000

139
95

Number of Fragments

1000

100

10

60

80

100

120

160

140

180

Mass Number (A)

As mentioned earlier, fission fragments have too many neutrons in their nuclei for stability. Consequently,
most of them decay by electron emission. Each fragment starts a short radio-active series involving many
emission of -particles. These series are called fission decay series and chain has three members on the
average although longer and shorter chains occur frequently. One such fission decay chain is shown in figure
which starts with one of the unstable fragments of the fission of U235 nucleus.
51

Sb133

52

Te133

O
53

I133

O
54

Xe133

O
55

Cs133

51

52

53

54

55

82

81

80

79

78

60m
Unstable
Tellurium

5d
Unstable
Iodine

Energy Distribution of Fission Products

Energy distribution among the fission products can
be found by measuring their kinetic energy with the
help of suitable ionization chambers. The results of
such study on U235 fission have shown that the energy
distribution curve is not uniform; rather it is a doublepeaked curve with maxima at 67 MeV and 100 MeV.
It is seen that while the greatest probability is for a
fragment of 100 MeV, the areas under the two peaks
which represent the total number of particles in the
two groups are approximately equal.

5d
Unstable
Xenon

Number of frangments

5m
Unstable
Antimony

Stable
Cesium

400
100

300
67
200
100
0
40

60

80

100

120

Energy (MeV)

Neutron Emission in Nuclear Fission

One of the notable features of nuclear fission is that while it is initiated by neutrons it is also accompanied by
the emission of fast-moving neutrons. The number of neutrons released depends on the mode of fission and
on the energy of the neutrons which induce fission. The average values for the number of neutrons emitted
per thermal neutron absorbed by the three important fissile materials are given below:
U235
2.43
U233
2.50
Pu239
2.89
These neutrons are emitted by the fission fragments and not by the compound nucleus.

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The neutrons emitted as a result of fission process (i.e. fission neutrons) can be divided into two groups:
(i) Prompt Neutrons: These make up about 99.36% of the total fission neutrons and are ejected by the
product nuclei within 1014 second of the fission process. Prompt -rays are also emitted at the same time.
(ii) Delayed Neutrons: These constitute about 0.64% of the total neutrons from the fission of U235. These
are emitted with gradually decreasing intensity for several minutes after actual fission process. Although the
number of delayed neutrons is small, they have a strong influence on the time-dependent behaviour of chainreacting systems based on fission and play an important role in the control of nuclear-fission reactors.
Fissile and Fissionable Nuclides
Elements like U235, U233 and Pu239 undergo fission by neutrons of energy from almost zero upwards. Such
nuclei are referred to as fissile nuclides. On the other hand, U238 and Th232 nuclei which have a fission
threshold at 1 MeV are said to be fissionable nuclides.
In general, fissile nuclides have either an even number of protons and an odd number of neutrons or odd
numbers of both. Fissionalbe nuclides, on the other hand, have either even number of protons and neutrons
or an odd number of protons and an even number of neutrons.
Fission Energy
One of the striking features of the fission process is the magnitude of the energy released which is about 200
MeV per fission of U235 nuclide. Before 1939, the largest known nuclear reaction energy was 22.2 MeV
associated with Li6 (d, ) He4 reaction.
The amount of energy released per fission of U235 nuclide may be calculated by the following three methods:
(i) Binding-energy method: As mentioned above all stable fission products have mass numbers in the range
72 to 158 where the average binding energy per nucleon is about 8.5 MeV. However, in the neighbourhood
of uranium, its value is 7.6 MeV. Hence, average binding energy per nucleon is (8.5 7.6) = 0.9 MeV
greater in the fission products than in the compound nucleus of U235. The excess energy is released as fission
energy. Its value is 235 0.9 ~ 200 MeV per fission of U235 nuclide (which has 235 nucleons).
(ii) Mass Defect Method: The energy released per fission can also be estimated by comparing the mass of the
interacting particles and the final fission products.
As mentioned, U235 splits in many ways and the nuclei obtained in the greatest yield in fission by slow
neutrons have mass numbers of 95 and 139. The fission products being initially radioactive, undergo many
-emissions to form ultimately stable nuclides. If molybdenum-95 and lanthanum-139 are taken as pair of
stable products from fission of U235, the fission reaction can be written as
U235 + 0n1
Mo95 + 57La139 + 20n1
92
62
Comparing masses on both sides of the above equation we get,
mass of U235 nuclide = 235.124 amu
mass of one neutron = 1.009 amu
Total = 236.133 amu
mass of Mo95 nuclide = 94.946 amu
mass of La139 nuclide = 138.955 amu
mass of two neutrons = 2.018 amu
Total = 235.919 amu
mass of defect
= 236.133 235.919 = 0.214 amu
Therefore, energy released per fission of U235 nucleus
~ 200 MeV
= 0.214 931
(iii) Kinetic energy measurement method: The total amount of energy released per fission is equal to the sum
of the following energies:
(a) the kinetic energy of fission fragments. As seen from figure the average value of this energy for U235 is
167 MeV.

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(b) the kinetic energy of fission neutrons. Since the average number of neutrons emitted per fission of U235
is 2.43 or say 2.5 and the average kinetic energy of these neutrons is 2 MeV, total kinetic energy of fission
neutrons is 2.5 2 = 5 MeV.
(c) the kinetic energy of prompt -rays. Its value is about 7 MeV.
(d) the total energy of the decay process in the fission decay chains.
This includes the energy carried away by radiations like -rays, -rays and neutrons. Its value is nearly 21
MeV.
The total of all the above energies is
= 167 + 5 + 7 + 21 = 200 MeV
C67: A U235 nucleus is fissioned by a thermal neutron and two fission fragments and two neutrons are produced.
Compute the fission energy released if the average binding energy per nucleon is 7.8 MeV in fissioned U235
nucleus and 8.6 MeV in the fission fragments.
Sol: Greater binding energy of the fission fragments indicates that there has been release of energy during fission
of low-binding energy nucleus U235.
Fission energy released is = (234 8.6 236 7.8)
= 171.6 MeV
Theory of Fission Process
The first attempt to explain the mechanism of fission process was made by Bohr and Wheeler who accounted
for many of the properties of fission on the basis of the liquid-drop model of the nucleus.

The shape of the drop depends on a balance between the surface tension forces and Coulombic repulsive
forces. The excitation energy given to the drop during the capture of the slow or thermal neutron sets up
oscillations within the drop. These oscillations tend to distort the spherical shape so that the drop becomes
ellipsoid in shape. The surface tension forces try to make the drop return to its original spherical shape while
the excitation energy tends to distort the shape still further. If the excitation energy and hence oscillations are
sufficiently large, the drop pattains the dumbbell shape as shown in figure. The Coulombic repulsive forces
then push the two bells further apart until the dumbbell splits into two similar drops each of which assumes
a spherical shape. The sequence of steps leading to fission is shown in figure.
However, if the excitation energy is not large enough, the ellipsoid will return to the spherical shape. In that
case, the excitation energy is given out in the form of -rays and the process becomes a radioactive capture
process rather than fission process.
LECTURE 5
Nuclear Reactors :
(a) A nuclear rector is a system designed to control the chain reaction of fission with continuous energy production.
(b) A useful factor for describing the level of operation of a reactor is the reproduction constant K. It is defined
as the average of neutrons available from each fission that will cause another fission. For a controlled or self
sustained chain reaction K must be maintained close to unit.
i.e. K 1 for controlled chain reaction.

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(c) Fuel: This is the fissionable material. Commonly used materials
are U238 enriched in U235 and plutonium (Pu239).
(d) Moderator: Fast moving neutrons cannot trigger the fission
of U235 and have a very high chance of being captured by
U238 which is not fissionable. It is therefore necessary to
use moderators to slow down the neutrons.

Control
rods
Shield

(e) Coolant: Air, water or CO2 are used as a coolant to

remove the heat released inside the reactor.
(f) Control Rods: Cd(cadmium) which is a good absorber
Fuel
of neutrons is used to control the rate of fission and also to elements
shut down the reactor in case of emergency.
(g) Types of reactors:
Moderator
Nuclear
Reactor
(i) Thermal reactors: In these reactors fission is produced by
slow neutrons ro thermal neutrons.
(ii) Breeder reactor: Breeder reactors generally use fast neutrons in these reactors U238 is converted into
Pu239 by capture of neutrons. Pu239 is fissionable. Thus such reactors also produce fuel in addition to the
energy released through fission.
(h) Critical mass: For a fuel there is a critical mass below which the fissionable material is completely safe.
But for a mass above the critical mass more neutrons are produced than are lost so that the chain reaction
builds up rapidly and the system explodes.
The atomic bomb are therefore stocked as subcritical mass such that the combined mass is greater than the
critical mass resulting in a spontaneous explosion.
Example 75: In a nuclear reactor, fission is produced in 1 g for U235 (235.0439u) by a slow neutron (1.0087 u).
Assume that 35Kr92 (91.8973 u) and 56Ba141 (140.9139 u) are produced in all reaction and no energy is lost.
(a) Write the complete reaction,
(b) Calculate the energy released per fission,
(c) Calculate the total energy produced in kilowatt hour. Given 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2.
Sol: (a) The nuclear fission reaction is
U235 + 0n1
Ba141 + 36K92 + 3 0n1
92
56
(b) Mass defect, m = [(mu + mn) (mBa + mKr + 3mn)
m = 256.0526 u 235.8373 u = 0.2153 u
Energy released per fission,
Q = 0.2153 u 931.5 MeV/u = 200.6 MeV

6.02 1023
(c) Number of atoms in 1g =
= 2.56 1021
235
Energy released in fission of 1 g of U235
= 200.6 2.56 1021 MeV
= 5.14 1023 MeV
= (5.14 1023) (1.6 1013)J
= 8.2 1010 J = 8.2 1010 W-s
8.2 1010
=
KWh
3.6 106
= 2.28 104 KWh

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Example 76: In neutron-induced binary fission of 92U235 (235.044) two stable end-products usually found are
Mo98 (97.905) and 54Xe136 (135.917). Assuming that these isotopes have come from the original fission
42
process, find (i) what elementary particles are released (ii) mass defect of the reaction (iii) the equivalent
energy released.
Sol: (i) The reaction can be written as
n1 + 93U235 = 43Mo98 + 51Xe136
0
It is seen that the total Z-value of the two stable fission products is (42 + 54) = 96. It is 4 units more than
that of 92U235. For balance, the original unstable fission products must have got Z = 92. Obviously, the
original unstable products must have emitted 4 -particles before becoming stable. Now, mass number on
right-hand side is 2 units less than on the left-hand side. It means that tow fission neutrons must have been
produced. Hence, the fission reaction can be represented by the following equation:
n1 + 92U235 = 42Mo98 + 54Xe136 + 4 1e0 + 20n1
0
(ii) m = LHS mass RHS mass
LHS mass = (1.009 + 235.055) = 236.053 amu
RHS mass = (97.905 + 135.917 + 4 0.0055 + 2 1.009)
= 235.842 amu

m = 236.053 235.842
= 0.211 amu
(iii) Energy released = 0.211 931 = 196 MeV
Example 77. About 180 MeV energy is released when one nucleus of 92U235 undergoes fission. estimate the
energy released from 1 kg of U235, assuming that each nucleus undergoes fission.
Sol.

1 kg of U235 = 1000 g =
number of atoms =

1000
6.02 1023
235

total energy released =

=

1000
mole
235

6.02
1026 180 MeV
235

6.02 18
1027 106 1.6 1019 J = 7.37 1013 J
235

C68. Calculate the energy released in slow neutron capture by Pu239. Mass of Pu239 = 239.127 amu, Pu240 =
240.1291 amu, 0n1 = 1.008665 amu.
Sol. Energy released = mass defect in energy units
= (239.127 + 1.008665 2401) amu
= 0.006565 931 MeV = 6.1 MeV
Example 78. A nuclear reactor generates P = 20 MW power at efficiency = 60% by nuclear fission of a radionuclide whose half life is T = 2.2 years. If each fission releases energy E = 200 MeV, calculate time during
which = 10 mole of the radionuclide will be consumed completely.
(Avogadro number, N = 6 1023, loge 2 = 0.693, 1 year = 3.15 107 s)

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Sol. To operate the nuclear reactor, let the number of fissions required per second be n0. Then energy released
per second by fission reactions = n0E
Since, efficiency of the reactor is , therefore, power output from the reactor = n0E.
But it is equal to P therefore, P = n0E

P
E
Let at an instant number of nuclei of radionuclide be n then rate of decay = n where is decay constant
n0

or

which is equal to

log e 2
.
T

dn
Hence, net rate of decrease of nuclei n n 0
dt

dn
n log e 2 P
n E log e 2 PT

T
dt
E
ET

or

dn
dt

PT n E log e 2
Et

...(1)

At t = 0, number of nuclei are n = N and time t is to be calculated when all the nuclei are consumed or
when n = 0, t = ?
Integrating equation (1) with these limits,
t dt
dn

N PT n E log 2
0 ET
e

T
N E log e 2
log e 1
108 log e 1.0576 s

log e 2
PT

Example 79. The element Curium

248
96

Cm has a mean life of = 1013 second. Its primary decay modes are

spontaneous fission and -decay, the former with a probability of P1 = 8% and latter with a probability of
P2 = 92%. each fission releases E = 200 MeV energy. The masses involved in -decay are as follows
248
96

Cm = 248.072220 u,

244
94

Pu = 244.06400 u and 42 He = 4.002603 u.

Calculate the power output from a sample of N = 1020 Cm atoms. (1 u = 931 MeV/c2)
Sol. Decay constant,

1
1013 sec1
mean life ()

Rate of decay from a sample of N atom, A = N = 107 sec1

Since, probabilities of fission and -decay are P1 and P2 respectively, therefore, rate of decay due to
fission,
A1 = P1A
5
1
or
A1 = 8 10 sec
and rate of decay due to -emission, A2 = P2A = 9.2 106 sec1.
Since, each fission releases energy E, therefore, rate of release of energy due to fission
= A1 . E

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Equation of -decay is

248
96

244

Cm
94 Pu 42 He

Mass most during each -decay,

m = [248.072220 (244.06400 + 4.002603)] u
= 5.617 103 u
Energy released during each -decay, E = 5.617 103 931 MeV
E = 5.23 MeV
Rate of release of energy due to -decay = A2 . E
Total rate of release of energy
= A1E + A2E
But total rate of release of energy is equal to power output.
Therefore, power output,
P = A1E + A2E = 3.33 105 W
Nuclear fusion
It is the process of combining or fusing two lighter nuclei into a stable and heavier nuclide. In this case also,
large amount of energy is released because mass of the product nucleus is less than the masses of two nuclei
which are fused.
Many reactions between nuclei of low mass numbers have been brought about by accelerating one or the
other nucleus in a suitable manner. These are often fusion processes accompanied by release of energy.
However, reactions involving artificially-accelerated particles cannot be regarded as of much significance
for the utilization of nuclear energy. To have practical value, fusion reactions must occur in such a manner as
to make them self-sustaining, i.e. more energy must be released than is consumed in initiating the reaction. It
is thought that the energy liberated in the Sun and other stars of the main sequence type is due to the nuclear
fusion reactions occurring at the very high stellar temperature of 30 million K. Such processes are called
thermonuclear reactions because they are temperature-dependent.
Steller Thermonuclear Reactions:
Following two sets of thermonuclear reactions have been proposed as sources of energy in the Sun and
other stars of the main sequence:
(i) proton-proton (p - p) chain and (ii) carbon-nitrogen (C-N) cycle.
At low temperatures corresponding to those in the Sun when it was first formed, the proton-proton chain
was predominant. In the present state of the Sun with its higher central temperature and larger He4
concentration, the C-N cycle is supposed to be the main source of its energy.
Proton-Proton Chain
It is so called because the step involves the combination of two protons. When two protons fuse, they
produce a deuteron nucleus, a positron and a neutrino thus:
H1 + 1H1 = 1D2 + 1e0 + v 2
1
The deutron then combines with another proton to yield helium-3.
D2 + 1H1 = 2He2 + 2
1
The two helium-3 nuclei fuse to produce helium-4 thus
He3 + 2He3 = 2He4 + 21H1 + 1e0
2
It should be noted that for the third reaction to occur, each of the first two reactions must occur twice. The
net effect of the reactions is
41H1 = 2He4 + 21e0 + 2 + 2v

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Obviously, four hydrogen atoms are fused to produce one helium atom with a total energy release of about
26.7 MeV. When the kinetic energy of neutrions is substracted, the energy is 26.2 MeV. The emitted
positrons are annihilated by free electrons with the production of -rays.
Carbon-Nitrogen Cycle
It was proposed by H.A. Bethe to account for the energy production in the Sun and other stars of main
sequence. In this cycle, carbon acts as a nuclear catalyst. The cycle starts when a proton (hydrogen atom)
first interacts with carbon-12 nucleus with the release of fusion energy thus
C12 + 1H1 = 7N13 +
6
The product N13 is known to be radioactive, emitting a positron with a half-life of 10 minutes. Hence, it
decays in a very short time according to the relation
N13 = 6C13 + 1e0 + v
7
The stable C13 nucleus reacts with another proton, thereby liberating more energy
C13 + 1H1 = 7N14 +
6
The stable product N14 combines with third proton thus
N14 + 1H1 = 8O15 +
7
The O15 nucleus is a positron emitter with a half-life of 2.06 minutes which decays by the process
O15 = 7N15 + 1e0 + v
8
Finally, the resulting N15 nucleus interacts with the fourth proton thus:
N15 + 1H1 = 6C12 + 2He4
7
By adding up the above six equations and cancelling out those nuclei which appear on both sides, it is seen
that four hydrogen atoms are consumed and, in return, 2 positrons, 3 -rays and one helium nucleus are
created. In other words, hydrogen is burned and helium is created.
The overall process may be written as
41H1 = 2He4 + 21e0 + 24.7 MeV
The annihilation of positrons supplies an additional energy of 2 MeV so that total energy released is 26.7
MeV.
The fusion energy released may also be found by the loss of mass during the above reaction:
41H1 = 4 1.008144 = 4.032576 amu
He4 = 4.003873 amu
2
21e 0 = 2 0.000558 = 0.001115 amu
mass loss = 4.032576 (4.003873 + 0.001115)
or
m = 0.028857 amu
energy released = 931 0.028857 = 26.7 MeV
It is worthnoting that the above energy release is less than that in nuclear fission. However, its value is
26.7/4 = 6.7 MeV per nucleon as compared to less than 1 MeV per nucleon in fission process.
Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions
The fact that nuclear fusion reactions release large amounts of energy, as in stars, has attracted much
attention and continuous search is being made for finding practical means or controlled release of such
energy. It has however, been found that reactions of C-N cycle and proton-proton chain occur too slowly
to be of any practical use. Other thermonuclear reactions which occur much more rapidly and depend on
aboundant hydrogen isotopes like deuteron (1D2 or 1H2) and tritium (1T3 or 1H3) and hence seem more
practical proposition, are as under:
(i) 1H2 + 1H2
= 2He3 + 0n1 + 3.3 MeV
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or 1D2 + 1D2
= 2He3 + 0n1 + 3.3 MeV
(ii) 1H2 + 1H2
= 1H3 + 1H1 + 4 MeV
or 1D2 + 1D2
= 1T3 + 1H1 + 4 MeV
(iii) 1H2 + 1H3
= 2He4 + 0n1 + 17.6 MeV
or 1D2 + 1T3
= 2He4 + 0n1 + 17.6 MeV
The most important aspect of the above nuclear fusion reactions is that deuterium is available easily and
aboundantly. It occurs in nature with an aboundance of one part in six thousands of hydrogen and can be
separated from the lighter isotope quite cheaply. Five litres of water contain about 1/8 gram of deuterium
but its energy content if it could be used as a fuel in a thermo-nuclear reactor, would be equivalent to 130
litres of petrol! The more than 5 1019 kg of water present in the oceans could thus supply worlds power
requirement for several million years at negligible cost if the deuterium could be utilized to provide energy by
fusion reactions. However, as discussed below, there are some difficult problems to be solved before manmade controlled fusion reactors can become a reality.
Condition for Controlled Fusion
In order to provide useful energy, the fusion process must be self-sustaining. Once the temperature of
deuterium (or a mixture of D2 and T3) has been raised to the point at which fusion occurs at an appreciable
rate, the energy released must be sufficient, at least, to maintain that temperature. The minimum temperature
is known as critical ignition temperature and may be defined as that temperature above which the rate of
energy production by fusion exceeds the rate of energy loss. Its value is about 5 keV (i.e. 50 million K) for
a D-D- reaction. At these temperatures, the atoms are entirely stripped of their electrons. The result is a
completely ionized gas or plasma consisting of atomic nuclei (like deuterons, tritons and protons) and
electrons in rapid random motion. It is practically impossible to contain such plasma in walls of ordinary
materials. In the Sun, the fusion reactions are contained by a tremendous gravitational pressure. Such a high
pressure is yet not available for controlled thermo-nuclear reactions on earth although the plasma can be
contained in a magnetic field. Hence, main problem is to devise an apparatus in which plasma can be
obtained by means of a magnetic field at the kinetic temperatures required for the fusion reactions to proceed.
Another necessary condition for a self-sustaining thermonuclear system is known as Lawson criterion. It is
based on the requirement that in the operation of a fusion reactor, the total useful recoverable energy should
be at least sufficient to maintain the temperature of te reacting nuclei. Lawson criterion can be expressed in
terms of the product nt where n is the number of reacting nuclei per m3 and t is the time in seconds in which
the thermonuclear reaction takes place. The minimum value of nt for D-T system is 7 1019 and D-D
system is 2 1021. In controlled thermonuclear reactions, t is taken as the time during which the hightemperature plasma can be confined.
It will be seen from above that both the critical ignition temperature and Lawson criterion are much more
favourable for D-T system than for D-D system. But the former system has the draw-back that it requires
tritium which has to be obtained by nuclear reactions (because it does not occur in nature). Tritium can,
however, be made by bombarding lithium with slow neutrons in a reactor thus:
Li6 + 0n1 = 1H3 + 2He4 + 4.8 MeV
3
This reaction can be made to serve two useful purposes. In the thermonuclear reactor using D-T reaction,
the escaping neutrons carry off much of the energy (about 14 MeV per neutron). This energy can be
converted into heat by slowing down these fast neutrons in a blanket of beryllium surrounding the reactor in
which plasma is produced. The slow neutrons are captured by lithium which produces tritium. The blanket
could thus consist of moderator (i.e. beryllium), coolant and lithium. The heat generated by the moderation
and absorption of neutrons could thus be transferred by coolant to external heat exchangers and then to
turbines which could run alternators.

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Hydrogen bomb
This bomb is 1000 times more powerful than the atomic bomb which is based on nuclear fission. Hydrogen
bomb is based on the fusion if the hydrogen atoms into heavier ones by the thermonuclear reactions with
release of enormous energy. The essential conditions for the operation of the hydrogen bomb are extremely
high temperatures and pressures required for the fusion to start. Once started, the fusion itself maintains the
temperatures to keep the process going. For this purpose, the atom bomb (fission bomb) is used as a
primer which, by first exploding, provides the high temperature and pressure necessary for the successful
working of the hydrogen bomb (fusion bomb).
A fusion bomb is superior to a fission bomb because of the following reasons:
(i) The energy release in a hydrogen bomb is open-ended i.e. it has no upper limit. It depends on how much
fusible material is present in the bomb.
(ii) It has no limitation of a critical size of the fusible material unlike an atomic bomb. If the active material in
an atomic bomb exceeds the critical size, spontaneous explosion results. Hydrogen bomb cannot explode
unless ignited i.e., heated to critical ignition temperature and any amount of fusible material is safe until
ignited. Thus the amount of fusible material in a hydrogen bomb is not limited.
Cobalt Bomb
It consists of a hydrogen bomb which is encased in a sheath of metallic cobalt and is more lethal and
destructive than a simple uncased hydrogen bomb. When the hydrogen bomb explodes, it gives off neutrons
which act on the cobalt cover and render it intensively radioactive due to the formation of Co60 that is 300
times more powerful than radium. During explosion, the radioactive cobalt is pulverised and converted into
a gigantic radioactive cloud which can spread over thousands of kilometres killing everything living in that
area.
Fission and Fusion:
One thing common between the two nuclear processes si that they release very large amounts of energy.
But there are many differences in the mechanisms of the two processes.
(i) Fission involves breaking up of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. Fusion, on the other hand, involves
combining of two lighter nuclei into on heavy nucleus.
(ii) The links of the fission process are neutrons while the links of a fusion process are protons.
(iii) Fission proceeds best with thermal neutrons where thermal means room temperature. Fusion proceeds
best with thermal particles where thermal means temperatures of millions of K.
Example 80: the masses of 1H1 and 2He4 atoms are 1.00813 amu and 4.00386 amu respectively. How much
hydrogen must be converted to helium if solar constant is 1.35 kW/m2 an the earth is 1.5 1011 m from the
Sun.
Sol: This thermo-nuclear reaction may be written, in its essentials as
41H1 = 2He4 + 1e0
Neglecting the two positrons, it is seen that 4 hydrogen atoms fuse to produce one atom of helium.
Mass of 4 hydrogen atoms = 4 1.00813 = 4.03252 amu
Mass of one helium atom = 4.00386 amu
Decrease in mass, m
= 4.03252 4.00386
= 0.002866 amu
energy produced = 0.02866 931 = 26.68 MeV
This is the energy released when four hydrogen atoms fuse. Hence, energy produced by one hydrogen
atom.
26.68
=
= 6.67 MeV = 6.67 1.6 1013 = 10.67 1013J
4
= 6.02 1026 10.67 1013 = 6.42 1014 J

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NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The solar constant represents the amount of energy received per second
by 1 m2 area held perpendicular to the Suns rays at a distance equal to the
mean distance of the earth from the Sun.
Sun
1.5 1011
Given value of solar constant
= 1.35 kW/m2
= 1.35 1000 W/m3
= 1350 J/s/m2
Total energy emitted by the Sun is equal to the energy received by the inner surface of the imaginary sphere
drawn with Sun as centre and radius = 1.5 1011 m.
Surface area of the sphere
= 4R2 = 4 (1.5 1011)2 = 28.28 1022 m2
energy received by this surface area per second is
= 1350 28.28 1022 = 38.18 1025 J/s
It also represents the energy emitted by the Sun per second.
Mass of hydrogen consumed is

38.18 1025
=
= 5.59 1011 kg/s = 5.95 108 tones/second
6.42 1014
C69: Calculate the energy liberated when a Helium nucleus is formed by the fusion of two deuterium nuclei. The
mass 1H2 = 2.01478 a.m.u. and mass of 2He4 = 4.00388 amu.
Sol: The reaction may be written as
H2 + 1H2 = 2He4 + Q
1
2.01478 + 2.01478 = 4.00388 + Q ,
Q = 0.02568 amu = 0.02568 931 = 23.9 MeV
C70. In the fusion reaction 1H2 + 1H2 2He3 + 0n1, deuteron, helium and the neutron have masses 2.015 amu,
3.017 amu and 1.009 amu, respectively. Estimate the total energy released if 1 kg of deuterium undergoes
complete fusion.
Sol. Mass difference = 2 2.015 (3.017 + 1.009) = 0.004 amu
energy released = 0.004 931 MeV = 3.724 MeV
Energy released per deuteron =

1
3.724 MeV
2

6.02 1026
2
energy released per kg = 1.862 3.01 1026 MeV = 5.6 1026 106 1.6 1019 9 1013 J
C71. In some stars, three 2He4 nuclides fuse together to form 6C12 of mass 12.0000 amu. How much energy is
released per fusion of 6C12 ? Rest mass of 2He4 = 4.002603 amu. Find also the rate of consumption of
helium to maintain the radiative power of the star at 4 1021 MW. mass of 2He4 atom = 6.9 1027 kg.
Sol. Energy released per fusion = mass defect in amu
= (3 4.00263 12.0000) amu = 0.007809 931 MeV = 7.27 MeV
energy released by n atoms
7.27 1.6 1019 106

nJ
3
= 4 1021 106 (given) ,
n = 1.103163 1040
mass of helium atoms burnt per second
= 1.03163 1040 6.9 1027 kg = 7.1 1013 kg
No. of deuterons in 1 kg =

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