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TheLeagueofNations:SuccessesandFailures

Home>TheLeagueofNations:SuccessesandFailures

Saturday,October1,1932
TheLeagueofNations:SuccessesandFailures
EduardBene
EDUARDBENE,MinisterofForeignAffairsoftheCzechoslovakRepublicsince1918(and
Premierfrom1921to1922)oneofthedraftersoftheGenevaProtocolin1924
ASANaccompanimentoftheeconomicandfinancialcrisistheworldhasbeenafflictedwith
ageneralpoliticalunrestandanincreaseofmistrustanduncertaintyininternational
relations.Inthissituationpublicopinioneverywherehasturneditscriticalattentiontothe
LeagueofNations,foundedtwelveyearsagoforthepurposeofcombatingjustsuch
tendencies,andtopromoteinternationalcoperationandsafeguardpeace.Thequestion
beingaskedis:WhathastheLeagueofNationsdone,whatisitdoing,toalleviatethecrisis
andhelptowardsasolutionoftheworld'surgentandcomplicatedproblems?Thequestionis
oftenaskedskeptically,implyingadversecriticismoftheLeague'sactivitiesanddoubt
regardingitsprospects.
Inmyopinion,criticismofwhattheLeaguehasdoneisnecessaryandusefulbuttobeas
usefulaspossiblethecriticismmustbediscriminating.Wemustrecognizefranklyandfairly
whattheLeaguehasaccomplishedandwhatareitsassetswemustmakejustasfrankan
appraisaloftherespectsinwhichithasnotfulfilleditsmissionsoastodecidefairlywhat
constituteitsliabilities.
I.THEMISSIONOFTHELEAGUE
ThegeneralobjectsforwhichtheLeagueofNationswasfoundedinJanuary1920,andthe
hopesthatattachedtoit,arewellknown.Exasperatedandhorrorstrickenatthefearful
sacrificesentailedbytheWorldWar,atthebloodspiltandatthemoralaswellasthe
materialdamage,mankinddemandedtheendingofthatperiodintheworld'sdevelopmentin
whichwarwasconsideredanormalpoliticalinstrumentforthesettlementofinternational
disputes.TheintroductorywordsoftheCovenantstresstheLeague'sforemostobjectto
promoteinternationalcoperationandtosafeguardinternationalpeaceandsecurity.
Inadditiontothesemoralreasonstherewerealsoeconomicandpoliticalreasonswhyitwas
necessarytomakeatremendousefforttoestablishasoundbasisforfuturepeaceand
security.Butthemoralreasons,whichmaturednaturallyinthespiritualatmosphere
prevailingattheendofthewar,werethemostpowerful.Oneprinciplesettledfirmlybythe
warwasthatdemocracyandracialandsocialjusticeshouldreplacetheobsoletepolitical
organismshithertotoleratedinmanypartsofEurope.Itgoeswithoutsayingthatoncesucha
principlehadbeenacceptedtherenolongerwasanyplaceforinternationalpoliciesbasedon
themilitaryoreconomicsupremacyofanyPowerorofanyonesocialclass,orforthe
periodicalequalizationofthemilitaryandmaterialforcesofrivalPowersbymeansof
violence,orformilitaryandothersecrettreaties,orforarmedpeace.Inotherwords,theidea
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ofaninternationalorganizationforthepurposeofpeaceandorderwasonlyalogical
consequenceofthesovereignideaswhichbroughtaboutthepoliticalreorganizationoflarge
partsofEuropeandoftheworldduringtheyears1917,1918and1919.
ThetwentysixArticlesoftheCovenantareevidencethatthenationswhichdecidedinfavor
ofthenewpolicyforesawcorrectlywhatwasnecessarytorealizeit.Theysawthatitwas
necessary:
1.Firstandforemost,toacceptandtomaintaintheobligationneverwilfullytoresorttowar,
therebyrenouncingoneofthemostimportantandfarreachingrightsofsovereignty,andto
recognizethenecessityofreducingnationalarmamentstothelowestpointconsistentwith
nationalsafety.
2.Asalogicalconsequenceofthefirstobligation,toacceptandmaintaintheobligationto
submitallinternationaldisputeslikelytoendinarupturetoarbitration,ortothePermanent
CourtofInternationalJustice,ortotheCounciloftheLeagueforinquiryandaward,aswell
astorespecttheverdictsandrecommendationsofthoseorgans.
3.Andfinallytoacceptthefarreachingobligationtomaintaininternationalpeacesolidarity,
i.e.,torespecttheterritorialintegrityandpoliticalindependenceofallstatesmembersofthe
League,andeventopreserveandprotectthisintegrityandindependenceagainstexternal
aggression,andtoviewanyresorttowarindisregardofobligationsundertheCovenantas
anactofwaragainstallothermembersoftheLeague,andtoparticipateinsubjectingthe
offendingstatetoallthe"sanctions"providedforintheCovenant.
Withthesethreefundamentalobligationsmustbementionedonefundamentalguaranteeto
allthemembersoftheLeague.NostatewhichisamemberoftheLeagueisconsideredto
haverenounceditssovereigntyfully.Inotherwords,theLeagueinitspresentformdoesnot
pretendtobeasuperstate,andinnegotiationsandinreachingdecisionsunanimityis
required.Atthesametimethetheoreticalequalityofallnations,greatorsmall,isduly
respected,althoughquitejustlytheGreatPowersareassuredpredominanceinpractice,
correspondingtothefargreatermeasureoftheirdutiesandresponsibilitiesinthe
managementofworldpolicy.
Inshort,inestablishingtheLeagueofNationstheworldmadeaboldefforttosafeguard
peaceandcreateabasisfordevelopinginternationalcoperation.Bymeansofasortof
voluntarysocialcontractbetweencivilizednationsitattemptedtotransplantintothesphere
ofinternationalrelationsthoseprinciplesofademocraticlegalsystemknowninthesphereof
internalnationalorder.
II.THELEAGUEATWORK
Whattestimonydotheyearswhichhaveelapsedfurnishconcerningthesuccessorthe
failureofthisattempt?Intryingtoanswerthatquestion,wemustbearinmindthatduringthis
periodmankindhasconfrontedthemostdifficulttasksinitshistory,andthattheprincipalaim
theestablishmentofpeaceinvolvedarevolutionarychangeinthemethodsofforeign
policyandacompleteoverturnoftheworld'sexistingpoliticalthoughtandaction.
Beforethewartheforeignpolicyofallcountrieswasasaruleegoisticandselfcentered.It
wasdeterminedbynationalinterestsorbytheinterestsofsomeparticularclass.Evenifon
specialoccasionssomestatesmanshowedthathewasconsciousofthesolidarityofall
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mankind,hisactionneverprogressedtothepointofacquiringtheformofgeneralpolitical
organization.Decisionsofwarandpeace,andthefreeuseofnationalforces,were
consideredthemostimportantprerogativesofnationalsovereignty,andwereuntouchable.
Thenewpolicy,asformulatedinthetextoftheCovenant,demandedfromsignatorystates
thattheyshouldrealizethatnoneofthemisaloneintheworld,andthateachformsa
componentpartoftheinternationalcommonwealththattheparticularinterestsofeachmust
bebroughtintoharmonywiththeinterestsofothersandfinallythattherearecertainmoral
andmaterialinterestscommontoallnations,andthattosecuretheseeachmustresign
certainofitssovereignrights.AndIwishtoemphasizethispoint:itwasnotonlyaquestionof
understandingtheseprinciples,butofactivelycoperatingandparticipatingasmembersof
theLeagueinestablishingandpreservingthem.
ThefulfilmentofthisconceptionwasnotmadepossiblebythemeresigningoftheCovenant.
Successwasconditionaluponacompletetransformationofexistingtraditionsinthesphere
offoreignpolicy,uponthepoliticaleducationofthewidemassesofelectorsinallcountries,
anduponthedevelopmentofanewmentalityinpoliticalpartiesandparliaments.Thisisa
processrequiringtheconsciouseffortofthebestspiritualleadersofeachnation,and
requiringmuchtimeandvastpatience.
Forthisreasonitisnotpossibleevennow,afterseveralyears,topassadefiniteverdicton
theLeague.Allthatispossibleistopointoutwhathasbeenachieved,thestagesthrough
whichthestrugglebetweenoldandnewpoliticalmethodsispassing,andhowthisstruggleis
reflectedintheLeague'ssuccessesandfailures.AnyestimateoftheLeaguecanstillhave
onlyaprovisionalandrelativecharacter.
III.THEROLEOFTHELEAGUEINORGANIZINGPEACE,ORDERANDSECURITY
Tocarryouttheaimofsafeguardinginternationalpeace,orderandsecuritytheCovenant
imposesuponLeaguememberstheobligationtoabstainfromwagingwarstosettledisputes
withoneanother,andinsteadtosettlethembypeacefulmeansanditentruststheorgansof
theLeaguewiththetaskofadoptingsuitablemeasures,incaseofaggressionorathreatof
aggression,toupholdthesaidobligation.ThustheCovenantprovidesnotonlythatthe
Leagueshallactasconciliator,butincertaineventsalsoasjudge,andsometimesevenas
policeman.ItfurtherexplicitlyimposesontheLeaguethedutyofpreparingaplanfor
disarmamentcompatiblewithnationalsafety,andofinsistingonandsupervisingthe
systematicandgradualreductionofnationalarmaments.
TheCovenant,havingimposedonmembersoftheLeaguetheobligationnottoconcludeany
treatiesorenterintoanyengagementsinconsistentwithitsterms,gavetheLeaguetheright
anddutyofinspectingallinternationaltreaties.ThusArticle18stipulatesthateverytreatyor
internationalengagemententeredintobyamemberoftheLeagueshallberegisteredwith
theSecretariatandshallbepublishedbyitassoonaspossible.NotreatymadebyaLeague
memberisbindinguntilsoregistered.
IfwetrytoanswerthequestionhowtheLeagueofNationshascarriedoutthesevarious
functionswemustturnfirsttoitseffortstoprovideandstrengthenappropriatepacific
instruments.HerethePermanentCourtofInternationalJusticeplaysanimportantpart.Its
workiscomplementedbytheLeague'ssystematiceffortstoinsurethattheideaofarbitral
tribunalsandofcommissionsofarbitrationshallbedefinitelyrecognizedandadopted,and
thatmodeltypesofarbitrationandconciliationtreatiesshallbepreparedforanymember
wishingtomakeatreatyofthatsort.InthisfieldtheLeaguehasaccomplishedwonders.The
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gistofthisworkisembodiedinthesocalledGeneralAct(preparedin1928bytheSecurity
CommissionoftheLeague),whichalsocontainsacollectionofspecimentreaties.Normust
weomittomentiontheefforttocompleteanexaminationofthetheoryofallformsofpeaceful
arbitrationprocedure(goodoffices,mediation,etc.)possibleonthebasisofthevarious
ArticlesoftheCovenant,andtoinvestigatehowtheseproceduresmightbeextendedand
improved.Thesediscussions,evenwhentheyresultonlyinunfinishedprojects,suchasthe
projectforbringingtheKelloggPactintoharmonywiththeCovenant,arenotdevoidof
interestandimportance.
Inasurveysuchasthisweofcourseshouldconcernourselvesmorewithpractical
accomplishmentsthanwithdevelopmentsoftheory.ButtheworkwhichIhavebeen
describingdidhavemanypracticalresults.
Inthefirstplace,theimportanceoftheconcreteworkforpeaceaccomplishedbythe
PermanentCourtisbeyondalldispute.Theverdictswhichithasgivenonactualdisputes
broughtbeforeit,eitherinvirtueofinternationaltreatiesorattheinstigationoftheCouncil,as
wellastherecommendationswhichithasmadeinindividualcasesattherequestofthe
Council,arehighlyimportantactsinthecauseofpeace.TheauthorityoftheCourthas
becomealivingfactorforpeace,recognizedassuchbymanynations,whobyacceptingthe
facultativeclausehaveobligatedthemselvestoapplytotheCourtforasolutionofmost
internationaldisputesofalegalnature.
AlsoofgreatpracticalpoliticalimportancearetheLeague'seffortsinthefieldofarbitration
andconciliation.Thelatestvolumeoftreatiesofarbitration,conciliationandguarantee,
publishedperiodicallybytheSecretariatoftheLeague,enumeratesabouttwohundred
treaties,testifyingtotheextentandpopularityofthenewinternationalpoliticalmethods.The
effectivenessofthetreatiesremainstobeseen,becausefewofthemhavesofarreceived
practicalapplication.Thatveryfact,however,isproofthattheexistenceofthesetreaties,
bindingthesignatorynationstopursueapacificpolicyandtoapplypeacefulmethodstothe
settlementofdisputes,actsasapowerfulbrakeoninternationalconflictsandasanimportant
factorforpeace.
PublicopiniondoesnotdenytheLeague'susefulrleinextendingtheideaofarbitration,
thoughoftenitfailstoappreciateitfully.Rather,realcriticismusuallyisdirectedatthe
League'seffortstosolvespecificconflicts.Actually,theLeague'srecordisacreditableonein
thisrespect.True,manyoftheconflictswhichittookinhandgrewoutoftheworkof
reconstructioninCentral,EasternandSouthEasternEuropeinotherwords,thequestions
involvedwerepartoftheepilogueoftheGreatWarandalmostallconcernedsmallor
mediumsizednations.ButifthiscircumstancegavetheLeagueacertainadvantage,a
furtherfactmustnotbeforgottenthatthesequestionscameupforsettlementatatime
whentheLeaguehadonlyjustbeguntoformulateitsprocedure,totryoutitsmethods,and
ingeneraltobuildupitsauthority.
TherecordofdisputessettledbytheLeagueincludesseveralwhichcamebeforeitearlyin
itsexistence.Ishallmentiononlythechiefones.Firstletmerecallthedisputebetween
FinlandandSwedenoverthelandIslands.Thisdispute,whichwasarealmenaceto
peace,wassettledbytheCouncilinJune1921,withtheaidofaspecialcommissionoflegal
expertsandofacommissionofinquiry.ThesovereigntyofFinlandovertheislandswas
recognized,butSwedenwasgivenaguaranteethattheywouldneverbeusedasafortress,
thattheywouldbeneutralized,andthatsheshouldreceivecertainrightsinthemthrougha
specialautonomousstatute.Thissolutionwasacceptedbybothparties.InthePolish
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LithuaniandisputeoverthetownofVilna,whichbrokeoutintheautumnof1920,itbecame
thetaskoftheCounciltoavertwarbetweenthetwocountries.Althoughhostilitieshadreally
alreadybegun,theCouncil,aidedbyaMilitaryCommissionofControl,establishedneutral
zoneswithinthedisputedterritoryandthusdidinfactpreventawar.Thatachievement
remains,eventhoughtheCouncilfailedtobringaboutasettlementacceptabletoboth
partiesofthequestionofVilnaitself.Anotherservicetopeacewasthesolutionofthe
questionofthepartitionofUpperSilesia.Inthespringof1921thedisputehadgrowntosuch
proportionsthatitmighteasilyhaveledtoopenhostilitiesbetweenPolandandGermany,as
wellastoseriousdissensionsbetweentheAllies.TheCouncilcarriedoutthepartitionofthe
disputedterritorywiththegreatestpossibleregardfortheresultsoftheplebiscite,andmade
permanentpeaceinthatpartofEuropemorelikelybyimposingoneachparty,througha
specialConvention,theobligationtorespecttheminoritiesremainingunderitscontrol.Also
ofimportancewastheworkoftheCouncilduringthepostwarconsolidationofAlbania
duringthesolutionoftheMemelquestionandintheadjustmentoffrontiersbetweenPoland
andCzechoslovakia(thequestionofJavorina),betweenCzechoslovakiaandHungary(the
questionofalgoTarjan),andbetweenJugoslaviaandHungary.
TheLeagueofNationsalsowasactiveincaseswhichdidnotarisefromterritorialchanges
duetotheWorldWar.
TheconflictwhicharosebetweenGreeceandItalyinAugust1923followingthe
assassinationoftheItalianmembersofanInterAlliedBoundaryCommissiononGreek
territorywasoneofthemostinterestingandimportantcasesinthiscategory.Italysenta
strongnotetotheGreekGovernmentdemandinginstantsatisfaction,andastheGreek
Governmentrefusedallresponsibilityfortheincidentandconsequentlyrejectedsomeofthe
Italiandemands,ItalyresortedtomilitaryoperationsandoccupiedtheislandofCorfu.The
case,broughtbeforetheCouncilattherequestofGreece,wasextremelydifficult.Notonly
wasoneofthepartiestothedisputeaGreatPowerwhichfromthebeginninghadhada
representativeontheCouncil,butalsoitwasjustthispartywhichrefusedtorecognizethe
competenceoftheLeagueinthematterbypointingoutthattheConferenceofAmbassadors
hadjurisdictionandbyassertingthattheoccupationofCorfuwasonlyprovisional,thatitwas
meantonlytoguaranteethepaymentofreparationsbyGreece,andthatitdidnotandcould
notendangerpeace.TheConferenceofAmbassadorsitselftooktheloadofftheshouldersof
theLeaguebydeclaringitswillingnesstosolvetheconflictandintheendtheconflictwas
actuallysettledbytheConference.Nevertheless,thethanksofthosewhowereanxiously
watchingtoseehowtheLeaguewouldfacethistestwentouttotheCouncilfornothaving
flinchedandforthestrongdeterminationwhichitevidencednottoallowtheconflicttobe
settledbyotherthanpeacefulmeans.InprincipletheCounciluphelditsrighttodealwith
everysortofdisputewhichcouldleadtowar.
AnexampleofdirectinitiativebytheCouncilonbehalfofpeacewasgivenduringtheconflict
whichbrokeoutbetweenGreeceandBulgariainOctober1925,followingtheshootingofa
GreekfrontiersentrybyaBulgariansentry.Thedangerousnatureofthisincidentwas
illustratedbythefactthattheGreekGovernmentatonceissuedordersthatitsthirdArmy
CorpsshouldinvadeBulgarianterritory.TheCouncil,summonedattherequestofthe
BulgarianGovernment,tookimmediatestepsnotonlytopreventhostilities,butalsotosettle
thecasebyinstitutinganinquiryandbystipulatingthemeasureofsatisfactionwhichGreece
hadarighttodemandfromtheBulgarianGovernment.[i]

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TheconflictbetweenChinaandJapan,broughttoGenevaonSeptember18,1931,andstill
underconsideration,iswithoutdoubtthemostseriousmatterwithwhichtheLeagueof
Nationshasyetbeenconfronted.Thereisnouseindenyingthatitrepresentsacertaincrisis
fortheLeague.Pleadingthenecessityofinterveningtomaintainitsinterestsamidthe
chaoticanduncertainconditionsprevailinginChina,aGreatPowerresortedtomilitary
operations.ThoughthisGreatPowerhadbeenamemberoftheCounciloftheLeaguefrom
thebeginning,theprocedurewhichitadoptedrepresentedarevivalofmethodswhicharenot
themethodsoftheLeague.Complicatingthequestion,too,isthefactthatthepartiestothe
conflictarethelargestAsiannationandtheAsiannationwhichispoliticallythemost
powerfulalsothefurtherfactthattheconflictistakingplaceinanareainwhichthevital
interestsofathirdGreatPowerareaffected(viz.oftheBritishEmpire),aswellasthe
interestsoftwootherGreatPowerswhicharenotmembersoftheLeague(viz.theUnited
StatesandSovietRussia).Inotherwords,theLeagueisconfrontedwithaproblemoftruly
worldsignificance.
DuringitsearliereffortstodealwiththisconflicttheLeague,supportedbytheUnitedStates,
accomplishedsomething.Afterafewweeksofopenwarfareitbecomepossibletoarrestthe
firingofgunsandcannon,theJapanesetroopswereatlastrecalledfromtheterritoryof
Chinaproper,andanumberofdisputedquestionsweretransferredtothesphereof
diplomaticnegotiation.TheLeaguedemonstratedthatitisamoralfactorinthecauseof
peacewhichnoGreatPowercanaffordtoignore.
AtthesametimeitisnecessarytoemphasizethatthesuccessoftheLeagueofNationsin
thiscaseasfarasweareinapositiontodaytojudgewasonlyapartialsuccess.The
wholeprocedureadoptedbytheLeaguewastooprotracted,itwasnotabletopreventthe
actualoutbreakofhostilitiesinwhichseriouslossesoflifeandpropertyoccurred,ithasnot
beenabletorestorethewholepoliticalsituationasitexistedbeforetheconflict,andithasleft
theorgansoftheLeagueconfrontedwiththeserioustaskofarranginganhonorable
settlementofthenewsituationgrowingoutofthecreationofanindependentManchuria
underthedirectinfluenceofJapanesepolicyandunderJapaneseleadership.
AlthoughafriendandadherentoftheLeagueofNations,Iamconstrainedtoadmitopenly
thatinthisflagrantcasetheGenevainstitutionhasnotmusteredupsufficientcouragetocall
certaineventsandactionsbytheirpropernamesandtoresorttotheapplicationof
appropriatearticlesoftheCovenant.Ittriedtoavoid,andactuallydidavoid,carryingoutthe
sanctionswhichinthiscasewerejustified,anditrefrainedfromusingalltheforcesand
methodsappertainingtosovereignexecutivepowermorethanwasnecessaryandmorethan
wasprofitablenotonlyfromthepointofviewofajustandspeedysettlementofthewhole
conflict,butalsofromthepointofviewofthereputationandauthorityoftheLeagueitself.
ThefactremainsthatthecasebetweenChinaandJapanhasbeensolvedneitherbythe
CouncilnorbytheAssembly.Aboutthetimethisstudyappearsinprinttherewillbea
meetingofthecompetentCommission,consistingofnineteenmembers,tohearthereportof
theCommissionofInquirywhichwassenttoManchuriaandwhichwillpreparedefinite
proposalstolaybeforetheAssembly.
ThesituationoftheLeaguewillcertainlynotbeeasyifthereportrecommendsthenon
recognitionoftheexistingstateofaffairsinManchuria.WhatanswerwillJapanthengive?
AndwhatanswerwillbegivenbyGenevaifJapanannouncesthatitdoesnotintendto
changeitspolicy?AssuredlytherearemanyofusinGenevawhowilluncompromisingly
defendtheauthorityandtheprerogativesoftheLeagueofNations.Thismeansthata
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seriouscrisisofthewholeinstitutioncannotbeaverted.ItwillbeagreattrialoftheLeague's
strengthandauthority.IconsiderthattheLeaguewillneverbeabletorecognizeastateof
affairscreatedbymethodsnotcountenancedbytheCovenant.
Despiteouranxietyoverthisgravecase,wemustnotbeledintominimizingtheactivitiesof
theLeagueastheguardianofpeace,oritstheoreticalworktoimprovethemachineryforthe
peacefulsettlementofdisputes,oritsrecordinthepracticalcasesinwhichithastakeneither
adirectorindirectrle,oritsgeneralpropagandainbehalfoftheideaofpeace,whichis
impliedinitsverybeingandinallitsactivities.
Take,forexample,thegrowthonallsidesofthemoralconvictionthatviolenceasan
instrumentofinternationalpolicyshouldbeabolishedandthatwarisacrime.Thewellnigh
universalsignatureoftheKelloggPactshowsthatthisconvictionispenetratingevenofficial
circlesandisbecomingadominatingaxiomintheforeignpolicyofcountries.Thatinitself
representsanenormousprogressovertheprewarmentality.Theoldmilitaryconceptions
andmethodsaresteadilyretreatingintothebackgroundandwhentheyareused,itoftenis
onlyasasortofemergencyexit.Inofficialtreaties,inthepronouncementsofdiplomatsand
politicians,eveninthemindsofthemasses,theprinciplethatwarisacrimeisgradually
gainingground,andwithittheconsciousnessoftheparamountmoraldutyofworkingfor
peaceandofmaintainingpeace.
Wemaygoevenfurther.Thepeacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputesisbecomingthe
officialmethodofpoliticalprocedureitisbecomingthenormalrule,therecognizedduty.
Settlementbywarisbeginningtobeconsideredimmoralandabnormal.Almostallcountries
arenowlinkedtogetherbybilateralormultilateraltreaties,orbygeneralpactsand
declarations,stipulatingindetailthepeacefulproceduretobeadoptedintheeventof
disputes.Furthermore,thereisageneralwilltoimprovetheprocedurelaiddowninthese
treatiesandintheCovenant,soastoinsureapeacefulsettlementatallcostsandmake
certainthatifoneinstitutionorinstrumentfailsanotherwillberesortedtoautomatically.The
originatorsofthisendeavorarenotindividualspacifistsorpacifistgroupsbutthestates
andgovernmentsthemselvesandtheirdiplomaticandpoliticalrepresentatives.
IfaskedtobemorepreciseindefiningthepresentweakpointsoftheLeagueofNations,I
wouldsaythefollowing:
1.AstheconflictbetweenChinaandJapanshows,thegreathandicapontheefficacious
functioningoftheLeagueliesinthefactthatthetwolargestnationsoftheworld,theUnited
StatesandSovietRussia,arenotmembers.Thisdeterminestoagreatextentthepolicyof
GreatBritaininallquestionstouchingtheLeague,inasenseunfavorabletotheLeague.
2.ThepossibilityofsuccessfulactionbytheLeagueofNationsisfurtherlimitedbythefact
thattheGreatPowersofEuropeoftensubordinatetheirpolicyatGenevatotheneedsof
theirrespectiveinternalpolitics.OfthefiveEuropeanGreatPowers,threeareinthethroesof
revolutionaryferment:GermanyisundertheinfluenceofHitler'srevolutionarymovement,
ItalyunderthatoftheFascistrevolution,andRussiaunderthatoftheCommunistrevolution.
ThemoreabnormalthesituationofthechiefmembersoftheLeague,themoredifficultitis
fortheLeaguetofunction,itsmembersbeingsovereignnations.
3.ThefactthatcertainGreatPowers,notablyGermanyandItaly,thinkoftheirparticipationin
theLeagueaboveallasamediumoffurtheringtheirownwishesandaspirations,regardless
oftheclaims,wishesorevenrightsofothernations,isclearlythecauseofacrisisinthe
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LeagueandleadstoskepticismregardingtheLeague'sefficacy.
4.TheLeaguesometimesfindsitdifficulttoadjusttherelationsoftheGreatPowerswiththe
smallormediumsizedPowers.TheGreatPowersdonotliketobeoverruledbythevotesof
alargegroupofsmallnationswhilethelatterarereluctanttotoleratethepressureofthe
GreatPowers.Thismutualdislikeisoftenexaggeratedonbothsides.Anuncompromising
enforcementofinternationaldemocracyatGenevawouldjeopardizetheLeague'sexistence.
AsIsaidbefore,friendsoftheLeaguemusthavethecouragetorecognizethatthosewho
havegreaterdutiesandresponsibilitieshavearighttodemandgreaterinfluenceinthe
formationofdecisions.Butthatmustnotmeanthatthevotesofthesmallernationsare
ignored,andespeciallyitmustnotmeanthatdecisionsaffectingtheirinterestsshallbetaken
withouthearingtheiropinionandwithouttheirconsent.
ThisfrankstatementoftheweakpointsoftheLeagueofNationsdoesnotmeanthatitis
bankrupt.Tostateitsperplexitiesanddifficultiesisnottocondemnit.Idonotwanttobe
eitherthejudgeortheadvocateoftheLeague.Ionlywishtostatethefactsastheyappearto
me.TheexistenceoftheweakpointsanddifficultiestowhichIhavereferredisthefaultof
themembernationsthemselvesandnotoftheinstitutionassuch.
IV.THELEAGUEANDDISARMAMENT
ThetaskoffindingasolutionofthedisarmamentproblemwassettheLeagueinArticle8of
theCovenant.Itsprogressinthisfieldisoftentakenasacriterionofitssuccessorfailure.
Nowitispossibletocontinueforeverthetheoreticaldiscussionofthequestionwhether
disarmamentisthepreliminaryconditionofsecurityoritsconsequence.Theexperienceof
thepasttwelveyearsshowsdistinctlythateffectivedisarmamentcanbeandwillbecarried
outonlyasanaturalresultofageneralvictoryofthenewpoliticalmethodsinstitutedafterthe
war,andofthesincereapplicationofthenewinternationallegalsystemdescribedinbroad
outlinesabove.Inaperiodofconstantstrugglebetweentheoldandthenewsystems,inan
erawhichinthemainhasbeendevotedtocollectingexperienceofthenewinternational
method,theredoesnotasyetexistthemeasureofconfidenceandassurancenecessaryfor
areductionofnationalarmamentscorrespondingtoourwishesanddesires.Eventhosefifty
sixsignaturestotheCovenantandthosetwohundredtreatiesofarbitrationandconciliation,
theconstituentfactorsofthenewpolicy,cannotprovewhetherornotthewholemechanism
ofpacificmethodexistsmerelyonpaper,whetheritfunctionsonlyinspecialcases,and
whetheritwillfunctionalsoinextraordinaryanddifficultcases.
Letmeputthematterstillmoreexplicitly.Effectivedisarmamentdoesnotdependonthe
solemndeclarationofthegovernmentsconcernedthattheydespisewarandwishtosettleall
theirdisputessolelybypacificmethods.Itdoesnotrequireonlythateffectiveinstruments
existtobringaboutsuchpacificsolutions.Itrequireseffectiveandrealguaranteestocover
thecontingencythatthesaiddeclarationisnotkept,thattheawardsofthearbitralorgansare
notrespected,andthatdespitealltheprestigeofthenewlegalsystemsomegrossviolence
neverthelessoccurs.Inotherwords,effective,farreachingdisarmamentnecessitatesthe
completionofthewholestructureofthenewinternationallegalorderandtheorganizationof
internationalsecuritytoguaranteetheexecutionofArticles10,11and16oftheCovenant.
Iamnotemphasizingsomeonesidedthesisofsecuritysuchassometimesispropoundedin
France.Ilaystressonasystem,validforall,andsafeguardingthesecurityofcountriessuch
asGermany,HungaryandBulgariaaswellasofcountrieswhichwereintheAlliedcampin
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thewar.Disarmamentinthissensecanandwillbecomethecrowningmasterpieceofthe
workcarriedforwardbytheLeagueduringthesefirstyearsofitsexistence,aimingasithas
donetogiveeffectiveapplicationtothepoliticalmethodsandinternationallegalorderofthe
newday.
ItisclearthattheLeagueofNationshasalreadyaccomplishedsomethingusefulinthefield
ofdisarmament.Itsdeliberationshavecontributedgreatlytothegeneralelucidationofthe
problemandhavepreparedthegroundforitstechnicalsolution.Butthemostimportant
resultofthesedeliberationshasbeenthattheyhaveimprinteduponthemindsofthosein
powertheideathateventhequestionofnationalarmamentsisnotcompletelyaprivate
nationalaffair,thatitisdestinedtobecomeaninternationalaffair,thatassuchitwillhaveto
besettledinaccordancewiththecommoninterestsofallstates,andthatsoonerorlater
nationswillhavetoconcedetoaninternationalconferencetherighttodeterminetheextent
ofvariousnationalarmamentsandsystematicallytoinspectandcontrolthosearmaments
throughorgansappointedforthepurpose.
TheInternationalDisarmamentConference,whichhasjustconcludedthefirstphaseofits
workinGeneva,achievedapartialyetimportantsuccess.Iamoftheopinionthatifthe
Conferencewillcontinuetoworkwiththesamesinceritythatithasworkedhitherto,the
secondphaseoftheConferencewillseefurtherstepsforwardincarryingoutsocalled
"qualitativedisarmament,"inreducingeffectivearmedforcesandmilitarybudgets,ascalled
forintheconcludingresolutionoftheConference,andthusbringingintoeffectthefirst
internationaltreatyofdisarmamenteverdrafted.IftheConferencesucceedstothatextent,it
willmeanatremendoussuccessfortheLeagueofNations,whichhasbeenbusilypreparing
thegroundduringalltheserecentyears.
V.LEAGUEACTIVITIESINECONOMICS,SOCIALWELFAREANDCULTURE
Precedingpageshavemadeitclear,Ihope,thatIdonotoverratethesuccessesofthe
LeagueofNationsinthepoliticalsphere,andthatIamawarethatthegreatprogressofthe
ideaofpeace,representedespeciallybytheincreasingpopularityoftheideaofarbitration
andbytherejectionofwarasameansofnationalpolicy,doesnotyetmeantherealizationof
alivingandcompleteinternationallegalordereitherinEuropeorintheworldasawhole.I
willnotbeaccusedofpartiality,then,ifIemphasizesomeachievementsinother
departmentsinwhichtheLeaguehasbeenbusy,namelytheinternationaleconomicand
financialcoperationorganizedwithremarkablesuccessbytheLeagueduringthepast
twelveyears,andalsothecoperationwhichithasfosteredinhumanitarian,social,
intellectualandculturalmatters.Thereishardlyadepartmentofhumanornationalactivity
whichhasnotbecomeanobjectoftheLeague'ssolicitude.Asaresult,theLeaguehas
becomeanimportantinternationalcenterforcordinatingworkinallthesequestions.
IneedonlyrecalltheLeague'scoperationinthetaskofbringingeconomicandfinancial
relieftosuchcountriesasAustria,HungaryandBulgaria,anditsefforttopromotecloser
economiccollaborationbetweennationsandtoremovevariousobstaclesinthewayof
internationaltradeandtransport.Thisworkatpresentisundertheshadowofagravecrisis.
Butinthefutureitsurelyisgoingtobeextendedandmadeevenmorecomprehensive.
NormustIomittomentiontheextensiveactivitiesoftheLeagueinthesocialand
humanitariansphere,includingthecareofrefugees,thestruggleagainstepidemics,the
protectionofwomenandchildren,andthefightagainstdrugs,especiallyopium.Useful
resultshavealsobeenachievedinthecentersofintellectualcoperationfoundedbythe
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League,suchastheInternationalInstituteforIntellectualCoperationinParisandthe
InternationalInstituteforEducationalCinematographyinRome.Possiblymuchofthiswork
couldhavebeenundertakenwithequalsuccessbyprivateenterprisebutthepartofthe
resultwhichcannotbeminimizedisthefactthattheworkasactuallyorganizedhasbrought
thenationsintoofficialcontactperiodicallyandevenpermanently.Thisisnomean
psychologicalachievement.Theseactivitieswillnotbethesalvationoftheworld,andtheir
importancemustnotbeoverrated.Butthemerecreationofaclosenetofeconomic,cultural,
socialandhumanitarianrelationsbetweenmostofthenationsoftheworlddeservesour
sincererecognitionandgratefulsupport.
VI.THEFUTURE
AllthatIhavesaidinfavoroftheLeagueofNationsdoesnothidethefactthatitisnota
perfectinstrumentformaintainingpeaceandthatitdoesnotfulfillalltheexpectations
originallybuiltuponit.Ihavetriedtopointoutthechiefreasonsforthis.Someofthese
reasonsareofatemporarycharacter,othersgodeeperperhapstheyevenarepermanent.
TheConstitutionoftheLeague,thatistosayitsCovenant,needsimproving.Itshouldbe
broughtintofullharmonywiththeideasandmoralbasisofinternationalpeacepolicy.In
otherwords,anattemptshouldbemadetoprohibitwaraltogether,whichmeansharmonizing
theCovenantwiththeKelloggPact.Somemayalsodemandthatanattemptbemadeto
harmonizenotonlythesentimentsofthenations,butalsotocordinatetheirvitalinterests,
i.e.,togivegreaterexecutivepowertotheCouncil,sothattheprincipleofunanimous
decisionsmaybeabolishedandreplacedbymajoritydecisions.Thatwouldmeanthe
creationofasuperstate.Idonotthinktheworldisripeforthis.
TheLeagueofNationsisnotsomethingabstract.Itisaconcreteorganizationofnations
whichhavevoluntarilyassumedthedutiesofmembershipandwhichhavejoinedtogetherin
agreatcommontask.Thistaskcanbefulfilledonlyifallmembersremainactuatedbythe
desiretopursuethecommonaimandtorenounceonitsbehalfaimsandinterestsoftheir
own:thatistosay,ifallmembersseektoharmonizetheirspecialnationalinterestswiththe
interestsofothernationsontheplatformoftheCovenant.Whatmustbesoughtisacommon
denominatoroftwo,orthree,orevenofallfiftysixdivergentnationalintereststhis
denominatorcorrespondingtothecommonhigherinterestsofmankind.
Ifacrisisoccursthereasonwillnotbefartoseek,foritisnoeasymattertofindineachcase
thissynthesisofnationalinterestsnoristherealwaysadequategoodwilltofindit,so
easilydoegotisticalnationaltendenciesandaimsgainpredominanceoverthewillto
internationalcoperation.TheproblemoftheLeagueofNations,then,issimplyaproblemof
furtherinternationaleducation.Imyselfbelievefirmlyintheeventualsuccessofthisprocess
ofeducation.ConsequentlyIbelieveinthefutureoftheLeagueofNations.Whatwouldan
idealisticpoliticianwhobelievessincerelyingoodness,truthandtheprincipleoftheconstant
ifslowprogressandimprovementofthehumanrace,otherwisedoinpoliticsandinpublic
lifeingeneral,ifhedidnotcherishthisfaith?
[i]IshouldperhapsmentionatthispointthesuccessfulinterventionofAristideBriand,as

PresidentoftheCouncil,intheconflictbetweenBoliviaandPeruin1930,whichintheend
ledtoapeacefulsettlementofthewholedispute.
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