Wastewater Reuse in Egypt: Opportunities and Challenges

Professor Dr. Rifaat Abdel Wahaab

General Director, Research & Development
Holding Company for Water & Wastewater (HCWW)
Egypt.
Email: rawahaab@yahoo.com
Dr. Eng.Mohy El-Din Omar
Planning Sector
Ministry of Water Resources & Irrigation (MWRI)
Egypt.
Email: mohy_omar2003@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Egypt covers a very arid region situated between the Sahara and Arabian deserts. Egypt
is extremely dependent on the River Nile, being the most downstream country in the
Nile basin. 97% of the population lives on 4% of the land of Egypt, around the river
Nile. The most pressing challenge facing water resources development in Egypt are
rapid growth and unbalanced distribution of the population, rapid urbanization, water
quality deterioration, governments policy to reclaim new land, and unsustainable
water use practices. Now Egypt is reaching its limits of available water and this will
not be possible anymore and Egypt will have to face variable supply conditions.
It is worth mentioning that the availability of renewable water resources in Egypt has
dropped from 2189 m3/capita/year in 1966 to 1035 m3/capita/year in 1990. At present
population growth rate, this will drop even further to 536 m3.capita/year by the year
2025, if the share of Egypt from Nile waters remains as it is today (55.5 BCM) and
levels of per capita consumption are maintained. Various demands for freshwater are
exerting excessive pressure on the available water supply.
The government of Egypt is committed to develop and manage its water resources in
the interests of all Egyptians by reforming the water and wastewater sector. The change
concerned institutional and financial aspects. Thus, a Holding Company for Water and
Wastewater (HCWW) along with its 23 subsidiary companies was established in 2004
by a presidential decree to develop and implement a holistic policy, which includes
expansion of the service delivery, the introduction of modern technology in operations
and maintenance as well as management, and increasing the private sector participation
in activities which are not core to its mission. Between 2005 and 2009, about 50 billion
Egyptian Pounds (around 9 billion US dollars) were invested in the water and
wastewater sectors. The Government of Egypt has also assigned 5 billion Egyptian
Pounds (around 0.9 billion US dollars) for networks' rehabilitation projects over the
coming five years. The capacity of wastewater treatment plants has increased by more
than six times in the last two decades.
Use of treated wastewater has become increasingly important in water resources
management for both environmental and economic reasons. Wastewater use in Egypt
is an old practice. It has been used since 1930 in sandy soil areas like Al Gabal Al
1

Asfar and Abou Rawash, near Cairo. Interest in the use of treated wastewater, as a
substitute for fresh water in irrigation, has accelerated since 1980. Currently, 0.7
BCM/yr of treated wastewater is being used in irrigation, of which 0.26 BCM is
undergoing secondary treatment and 0.44 BCM undergoing primary treatment. In
general, treated wastewater use is of tremendous potential importance for Egypt.
The agricultural sector is the highest freshwater consumer, utilizing about 86% of the
available supplies. The drainage water from agriculture and the effluents from
municipalities and industries are collected, transported and reused by an extensive
drainage network which is managed and planned by the Ministry of Water Resources
and Irrigation. Reuse of drainage water has already been practiced at a larger scale
during the last decades, whereby water from main drains is pumped into main canals.
Currently about 5.5 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM) of drainage water are being reused
after mixing with fresh water. This amount is expected to increase up to 9.6 BCM by
the year 2017. Reuse of drainage water in the Nile Delta started as early as 1930s.
Total number of official reuse pumping stations is 21 stations. 2.0 Billion Cubic Meters
(BCM) of unofficial reuse is taking place in many locations.
Laws and decrees have been issued including guidelines for mixing drainage water
with fresh water, regulations for sewage and industrial effluents, wastewater reuse,
cropping patterns, and health protection measures & standards specifications.
However, the major problem lies in weak regulatory compliance and enforcement.
Keywords: Wastewater, drainage water, reuse, Egypt.

1. WASTEWATER REUSE
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource in arid and semi-arid countries and
planners are forced to consider any source of water that might be used economically
and effectively to meet increasing demands for water. Whenever good quality water is
scarce, water of marginal quality will have to be considered for use in agriculture and
groundwater recharge. During recent years, the methodology for managing the reuse
of wastewater has shifted from conventional disposal strategies into value added
products. With the increase of wastewater reuse for different purposes, concerns over
the environmental and health implications of this reuse have also increased.
Water is the fundamental element for sustainable and integrated development in
Egypt. Horizontal expansion in agriculture is connected to the countrys ability to
provide the water required for that expansion. Moreover, the economics of water use
and its future on the long run require searching for alternatives and determining the
water resources available at present and additional resources we can obtain in the
future. The water sector in Egypt is facing many challenges including water scarcity
and deterioration of water quality because of population increase and lack of financial
resources. Fragmentation of water management and lack of awareness about water
challenges are also a problem. Further, more technical and financial assistances might
2

be essential at this stage for numerous ambitious programs. The national water
balance prepared for Egypt indicated that there was an overall deficit of
approximately 8 billion m3. This shortage was compensated for by raising the
efficiency of available water resources utilization through reuse of drainage water and
the use of ground water.
1.2. WATER RESOURCES IN EGYPT
Egypt is an arid country facing challenges due to its limited water resources. Nonconvention sources exist to meet part of the countrys water requirements. Agriculture
is the largest water consumer in Egypt with its share exceeding 8085% of the total
demand for water. Sustainable agriculture strongly depends on the countrys ability to
conserve and manage its water resources. Available water resources are:
Convention water resources, including:
Nile River55.5 BCM/year by agreement with Sudan in 1959
Rainfall and flash flood harvesting, estimated at about 1.0 BCM/year
Possible desalination of sea water, estimated at about 0.03 BCM/year
Deep groundwater extraction could be increased from 0.57 to 3.50 BCM/year
up to the year 2017
Shallow groundwater extraction in the Nile Valley and the Delta could be
increased from 4.80 to 7.50 BCM/year by the year 2017.
Non-convention resources, including:

Agricultural drainage water reuse could be increased from 4.7 to 9.0

BCM/year by 2017
Reuse of treated wastewater could be increased from 0.70 to 2.97 BCM/year
by 2017.

Figure (1) Water Resources in Egypt

3

The present per capita water share is below 1,000 m3/year (see Fig. 2) and it might
reach 600 m3/year in the year 2025, which would indicate water scarcity (water
scarcity level starts at 1,000 m3/year). In addition, rapid degradation in surface and
groundwater quality results in less water being available for different uses.
In a nutshell, the strategic problem Egypt confronts is that its renewable water
supplies cannot be expanded (and with the quality issues mentioned above, available
water suitable for some purposes may in fact decline), while at the same time
population is growing and the economy is expanding, with associated increases in
water requirements. By 2017, the National Water Resource Plan estimates that total
water requirements will exceed 90 BCM.

To cover the growing shortfall, the Plan calls for increased use of fossil desert
aquifers rising from 0.9 BCM in 1997 to 4 BCM in 2017. Still, the bulk of the
increase in requirements will need to be accommodated by more wastewater reuse For
that, there are both pluses and minuses.
1.3. WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION IN EGYPT: EXISTING SITUATION
Egypt is facing a number of environmental challenges mainly because of rapid
population growth and the necessity for extensive development to meet the needs of
the growing population. This has placed pressure on natural resources following
expansion in industrial, agricultural, and tourism activities. Consequently, Egypt has
directed significant concern to resolve the pressing environmental problems by taking
several measures including ratifying various international environmental
4

conventions and treaties that are to be harmonized into the national legislative
framework. In 2000, Egypt agreed to achieve the MDG by the year 2015.
As indicated in the fourth follow-up report on achieving the MDGs for Egypt, at the
national level, Egypt is on the right track to realizing most of the MDGs by the set
date of 2015, but regional disparities still need to be adequately addressed. Egypt is
making significant strides towards achieving these MDGs starting from the National
Environmental Action Plan (20022017) which emphasizes the changes needed in the
areas of water, sanitation, energy, and biodiversity. Egypt has taken serious steps
towards achieving the MDG by investing heavily in the water sector, through major
irrigation projects, drinking water supply, and sanitation infrastructure. It has also
played a central role in cooperating with other Nile riparian countries on water
resources.
The MDGs call for halving the proportion of people without access to improved
sanitation or water by 2015. In this regard, drinking water in Egypt is well supplied
with a high rate of satisfaction of the demand, reaching 100% in urban and rural areas
(Fig. 3a).
The per capita share of service increased from 130 l/day for drinking water in 1982 to
275 l/day in 2004. According to the data published by the Cabinet Information and
Decision Support Center, the total installed capacity of drinking water treatment
plants is 24 million m3/day in 2010. In rural Egypt, problems of low continuity or
reliability of piped water supply can be found.
Sanitation services in Egypt are less developed than water supply services. At present,
there are more than 323 wastewater treatment plants in the country. The capacity of
wastewater treatment plants has increased by 10 times in the last two decades. The
existing capacity of 12 million m3/day. Length of wastewater collection networks /
sanitation pipelines increased from 28,000 km in 2005 to 34,000 km in 2010.
Urban coverage with improved sanitation gradually increased from 45% in 1993 to
56% in 2004, reaching 100% in urban and 40% in rural areas by the end of 2012. The
low coverage in rural sanitation, in combination with a sub-optimal treatment, results
in serious problems of water pollution and degradation of health conditions because
the majority of villages and rural areas discharge their raw domestic wastewater
directly into the waterways.

Water
coverage percentage
Holding Company for Water and Wastewater
in Egypt
Cities (217)

Villages ( 4617)
100% in addition to
improving quantity and
quality with 40% reserve.

97%

100%

2004

July 2008

100% in addition to
improving quantity and
quality with 40% reserve.

100%

95%

2004

2012

July 2008

2012

100% Coverage has been achieved after implementing the urgent plan

Figure (3a) Water Coverage Percentage in Egypt

Capacity
Progress of Water
Holding Company for Water and Wastewater
production in Egypt
35

Production Capacity
MCM/day

33

30

25
25

21
20

18

This amount exceeds

the expected needs by
40% as a reserve
value taking into
consideration the
following Per capita :
Urban = 210 liters/day
Rural = 140 liters/day
Cairo = 490 liters/day
Alex.= 475 liters/day

16.4
15

10

1997

2002

07

08

2012

The added capacity is equivalent to the capacities added in the last ten years

Figure (3b) Water Production in Egypt


Wastewater
coverage percentage
Holding Company
for Water and Wastewater
in Egypt

Cities (217)
Villages ( 4617)
100% By the end of the
on going projects

100 %

56 %

40%
11% By the end of the
on going projects

4%
2004

2012

2004

2008

2012

2022

The GOE has allocated 20 billions to cover the demands for

1000 villages of high priority through the current fivefive-years plan.

Figure (3c) Wastewater Coverage Percentage in Egypt

Capacity
Progress
ofand Wastewater
Holding
Company
for Water

Wastewater treatment plants

Capacity
MCM/day

20
20

15
12
11
10

9
8

1997

07

2002

08

2012

The target capacity of the current plan is equivalent

to three times the sum of the three previous plans

Figure (3d) Capacity of Wastewater Treatment Plants

Unfortunately, the story is not so positive for rural areas which need more intensive
programs and policies in order to reach the MDG target. However, recent figures from
the 2010 Population Census reveal a decrease in coverage. Therefore, in spite of
continuous government efforts to extend water service to all urban and rural
population, the service does not catch up with rapid population growth, and hence
service coverage is worsening. Though the access level still meets the 2015 target, the
challenge facing the government is to sustain it. Moreover, these figures do not reveal
the disparities that exist between governorates.
However, the Government of Egypt has made a significant effort towards providing
sanitary and wastewater services for its people. Domestic and municipal wastewater
collection (sewerage systems) and treatment facilities are limited to the main urban
centers. Highest coverage was in the larger urban conglomerates: Cairo, Giza,
Alexandria, and the Canal Cities. Towards 2017, the coverage rate is expected to
increase significantly in areas outside these large urban areas. The low coverage, in
combination with sub-optimal treatment, results in severe water quality problems
around municipal areas.
It is worth mentioning that environmental problems related to municipal wastewater
in rural Egypt are mainly due to fact that sanitation services lag behind water supply
services by more than 10 years. Therefore, comparing with the progress in supplying
drinking water in Egypt, the achievement in targeted sanitation level are less in spite
of massive investment diverted towards establishment of sanitation systems.
The cost of providing sanitation services differs from town to town and from country
to another. However, according to the obtained information's, the average cost of
treating one cubic meter sewage water in Egypt is almost 5000 L.E. which is about
$840 before final discharge. Operation and maintenance cost (O&M) is at 15% of
investment cost.
1.4. USE OF TREATED WASTEWATER IN IRRIGATION
Treated wastewater (after primary treatment) has been in use since 1911 in agriculture
(Gabal Al Asfar farm: 3,000 feddans). Yet, experience of large scale, planned and
regulated reuse project is still limited. Large scale pilot projects (167,000 feddans) are
in East Cairo, Abu Rawash, Sadat City, Luxor, and Ismailia. In the mean time, most
of the sewage water drained to the agricultural drains is actually reused in one way or
another (indirect reuse).
Egypt has adopted a policy of wastewater reclamation and reuse in irrigated
agricultural land to alleviate the pressure imposed by increasing demands on
freshwater resources. It is becoming part of integrated water resources management
policy
The Egyptian water strategy comprises the treatment and reuse of treated wastewater.
Treatment of domestic wastewater is either primary or secondary. Currently, Egypt
produces an estimated 5.56.5 billion cubic meters (BCM) a year of wastewater. Of
that amount, about 2.97 BCM/year is treated, but only 0.7 BCM/year is utilized for
agriculture (0.26 BCM is undergoing secondary treatment and 0.44 BCM undergoing
8

primary treatment), mainly in direct reuse in desert areas or indirect reuse through
mixing with agricultural drainage water.
In 14 governorates and 2 districts, with 80,000 feddan of marginal desert land
allocated, 63 forests are growing that are irrigated with the effluents of WWTPs
whose designed daily discharge is about 1.9 million m3/day. The cultivated area is
about 12,000 feddan and the fallow land area is about 68,000 feddan. The Holding
Company for Water and Wastewater (HCWW) is preparing the necessary measures to
float the tender for these fallow areas. An overview of the wastewater reuse Marginal
Desert Lands is presented Tables (1a,b)

Table (1a) An overview of the wastewater reuse Marginal Desert Lands

Table (1b) Status of Manmade Forests Irrigated with Wastewater

Egyptian Sesban growing in El Hebeil consigned land, Luxor Governorate and Samples of
manufactured fiberboard of different thicknesses, Deshna Factory, Qena,Egypt

11

1.5. WASTEWATER TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES

Wastewater treatment systems were first developed in response to the adverse
conditions caused by the discharge of raw effluents to water bodies. With this
approach, treatment aimed at the removal of biodegradable organic compounds,
suspended and floatable material, nutrients and pathogens.
However, the criteria for wastewater treatment intended for reuse in irrigation differ
considerably. While it is intended that pathogens are removed to the maximum extent
possible, some of the biodegradable organic matter and most of the nutrients available
in the raw wastewater need to be maintained. There is a vast array of treatment
technologies that can be applied for wastewater treatment and use.
Generally speaking, treatment technologies can be grouped into either:
Onsite treatment or
Treatment at a central plant.
Criteria Affecting System Selection
The main controlling parameters that affect one technology, if compared to the others
are:
Availability of land
Availability of skilled labor
Availability of O&M finance
Availability of power supply
Performance efficiency
Capital and operational costs.
1.6. Technology Options
There is a wide range of innovative sanitation technologies to choose from:

In some cases it may be preferable not to install sewers, but to continue to use
existing on-site sanitation technologies such as cesspools and septic tanks.
In other cases, sewers may be installed only for a block of houses connected to
a communal septic tank.
Under certain circumstances, however, the high-cost solution of connecting to
a citywide sewerage network is the only feasible technical solution.

1.6.1. Selection of an effective treatment system

The first issue to be addressed when planning sanitation should be to decide whether a
drainage system and a collective treatment plant will be constructed or wastewater
treated will be treated using on-site facilities. Towns and cities are, of course,
equipped with sewers and collective treatment big plants.
Rural areas and city outskirts, on-site sanitation systems are more appropriate. In both
cases, a treatment should be performed before disposing of wastewater into the
environment, in order to protect streams, lakes, the sea or the groundwater.
11

The processes applied at central facilities range from relatively low technology
systems (usually in the form of waste stabilization ponds where land is available at a
reasonable cost) to more advanced treatment systems. It should be noted that a
combination of more than one process may be needed to attain the desired wastewater
quality, as is commonly recognized in water reuse guidelines and regulations.
1.6.2. Technologies Applied
In addition to the conventional wastewater treatment technologies (activated sludge,
trickling filter,etc), implementing of low cost wastewater treatment techniques that
can achieve significant microbial decontamination, offer very low O&M costs, and
limited sludge production have been applied such as:

Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB)

Septic Tank / modified septic tank
Stabilization Ponds
In-stream Wetland System
RBC (Rotating Biological Contactor)

In general, secondary treatment is the minimum standard of treatment needed for

most agricultural wastewater use schemes. The challenge facing decision makers is
therefore, to go beyond traditional classification between small, appropriate and
modern/advanced technologies and to develop rural and peri-urban sanitation with a
mix of scales, strategies, technologies, payment systems and decision-making
structures, that better fits the physical and human systems for which they are
designed. This does not mean that the macro-picture should not be considered. On
the contrary, the decentralization should take place after an adaptable strategic
macro framework has been defined to sketch out the overall direction for sanitation
service provision in the project area. Several options have recently been proposed
and appear feasible, but necessitate further development.
Therefore, the formulation of a National strategy for the use of marginal quality
water is of prime importance to protect the health of the people and the environment
1.6.3. Centralized /Decentralized Systems
Recent studies indicated that it may not be possible, due to economic reasons, to
provide sewerage facilities for all residents of rural and peri-urban areas, either now
or in the near future.
As a result, the focus of the field of wastewater management should change from the
construction and management of regional sewerage systems to the construction and
management of decentralized wastewater treatment facilities. Given the fact that in
the near future, increasing demands are being made on freshwater supplies, it is clear
that decentralized systems, will increase the opportunities for localized
reclamation/reuse. Centralized water based sanitation produces wastewater which
does not always meet the criteria required for sustainability and environmental
security.
Unbundling of sanitation projects into smaller-scale projects can bring benefits at an
affordable cost to those in greatest need. Unbundling is a way of dividing investments
12

into more realistic and more manageable components. Decentralized sewerage is an

example of horizontal unbundling that is particularly appropriate in areas with flat
terrain and high groundwater table like the Delta area in Egypt. Dividing such areas
into self-contained zones eliminates the need for expensive pumping stations and
interceptor sewers required to serve the whole area with a conventional sewerage
system.
Therefore, new configurations employing the best practices of sanitation
technology for rural areas are therefore needed.
1.7. WHY WASTEWATER REUSE?
Water reuse or the recycling of reclaimed wastewater for planned beneficial uses, is
emerging as an established water management practice in several water-stressed
countries and regions for the following reasons. Compared to freshwater, wastewater
has the following benefits and use of treated wastewater (TWW) is an attractive
option for several reasons:

Prevent surface water pollution, which would occur if the wastewaters were
not used but discharged into rivers or lakes
Postpone potentially more costly water supply approaches (storage, transfer,
or desalination schemes).
Eliminate or reduce the need for costly and complicated wastewater treatment
processes. In particular the removal of nitrogen and phosphorus is unnecessary
The quantity generated will rise with population and increased industrial
activity. At the same time, treatment capacity is expected to grow, as is the
level of treatment provided.
Substituting TWW in applications for which it is adequate serves to reserve
higher quality water for uses in which there is no acceptable substitute.
Potential non-agricultural uses include industrial cooling; irrigation of public
parks, schoolyards, highway medians, and residential landscapes; fire
protection; and flushing toilets in commercial and industrial buildings.
For agriculture, it can be mixed with fresh water, thereby economizing on the
use of the latter, or used to grow non-food crops in currently un- or underutilized desert areas, where it would otherwise serve no useful purpose. Put
differently, it enables horizontal expansion with little or no opportunity cost, at
least with respect to two key inputs land and water.
The nutrients in reclaimed water reduce the need for applying chemical
fertilizers, thereby reducing costs and environmental problems associated with
run-off of such chemicals.
Where well planned, it can serve as an environmentally superior alternative to
disposing of wastewater (WW) in the desert, the sea, or other water bodies.
It can be used to recharge groundwater, thereby supplementing fresh water
supplies for irrigation and other purposes, while at the same time storing water
without evaporation losses or the risks associated with dams. Where
conditions are appropriate, many contaminants in the effluent, including
suspended solids (SS), bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms, nitrogen,
phosphorus and heavy metals, are reduced or removed through an inexpensive
13

process known as Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) before it is mixed with the
natural groundwater.
At the same time, there are risks requiring that the quality of TWW be taken into
account in deciding on appropriate uses. Risks may conveniently be classified as
follows:

Health risks resulting from human exposure to pathogens in un- or

inadequately treated WW. Rises occur from irrigation techniques that
unnecessarily expose farm workers to the water, or from inadequate labeling,
packaging or information about the products produced. These risks affect farm
workers, processors of agricultural products produced using WW, and
consumers of such products.
Contamination of soils and plants through introduction of harmful chemicals.
Groundwater pollution from infiltration of contaminated source water.

So, the strategic challenge for Egypt can be restated as follows how can the country
avail itself of the considerable potential to use water reuse as a means of bridging a
looming, and soon to be yawning, supply/demand chasm, while at the same time
avoiding, or at least mitigating, the potentially serious problems that such use can give
rise to.
1.8. WASTESWATER REUSE RELEVANT LAWS AND REGULATIONS &
CONCERNED AUTHORITIES
1.8.1. Concerned Authorities
There are several ministries and institutes with different roles in the wastewater
management and reuse in Egypt.
The Ministry of Land Reclamation and Agriculture manages agricultural
aspects.
The Ministry of Housing Utilities and Urban Communities is concerned with
the planning and construction of municipal wastewater treatment plants.
The Ministry of Health and Population assumes responsibility for sampling
and analysis of all wastewater effluents. It is also responsible for setting water
and wastewater quality standards and regulations in addition to its central role
as the custodian of public health.
The Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation allocates water for
reclamation areas.
The Ministry of the Environment and the Egyptian Environmental Affairs
Agency caters for environmental aspects.
Scientific institutions and universities conduct basic and applied research
activities.
1.8.2. Laws and decrees regulating the disposal of wastewater in Egypt as
follows:

Law 93/1962 regulates wastewater disposal and designates the responsibility

of constructing public wastewater systems to the Ministry of Housing which is
also responsible for issuance of permits regulating wastewater discharge into
14

public sewerage networks or into the environment. The Ministry of Health

determines the regulatory standards.
Decree No. 649/1962 and Decree No. 9/1989: Decree No. 649/1962 of the
Minister of Housing issues the executive regulations of Law 93/1962. It
specifies regulatory standards for wastewater disposal. It was updated in 1989
by Decree No. 9/1989 in which a distinction was made between wastewater
disposal on sandy soils and clay silt soils. Most prominent conditions included
that wastewater treatment plants should be located more than three kilometers
from the nearest residential area. Primary treatment was set as a minimum
treatment level required before final discharge. Reuse of effluent in the
irrigation of vegetables, fruits or any other crops eaten uncooked is strictly
prohibited. The same restriction is imposed on grazing of animals or milking
cattle on the fields irrigated with wastewater. In 1995 an amendment was
made by both the Ministry of Irrigation and the Ministry of Agriculture and
approved by the Ministry of Health. Nonetheless, it has not yet been issued by
the Minister of Housing. This amendment determined the minimum degree
required for wastewater treatment for the various reuse aspects. Tertiary
treatment was set as prerequisite for unrestricted irrigation of crops eaten
uncooked. Secondary treated effluents may be reused for irrigating palm trees,
cotton flux, jute, cereals, forage crops, flower nurseries and thermally
processed vegetables and fruits.
Law 48/1982 was passed for the protection of the River Nile and watercourses
from pollution. Decree 8/1983 is an executive regulation of Law 48/1982 that
was issued by the Minister of Irrigation. Under this law discharges to the Nile,
canals, drains and groundwater are controlled through licensing. The Ministry
of Public Works and Water Resources issues licenses to industries, sanitary
sewage treatment plants and riverboats. Licenses are issued provided that
discharges satisfy regulatory standards and requirements. A grace period of
three months is granted to violators to comply with the requirements. Failure
to comply can mean withdrawal of the license. The Ministry of Public Works
and Water Resources is empowered with administrative and policing means to
enforce this law. The Ministry of the Interiors water surfaces police have also
powers to ensure its implementation. The Ministry of Health is entrusted with
setting standards and monitoring the quality of discharges. Water quality
standards in this law are specified for various categories that include the River
Nile, treated industrial effluent to the Nile and canals, treated industrial and
sanitary water discharge to drains, lakes and ponds, treated discharge from
river vessels to the Nile and canals and drain waters to be mixed with the Nile
or canals.
Law 4 of 1994Environmental Framework Law by the Minister of State for
Environmental Affairs (MSEA). In Law 4 it is stated that all facilities
discharging to surface water are required to obtain a license and maintain a
register indicating the impact of the establishments activity on the
environment. The register should include data on emissions, efficiency and
outflow from treatment units and periodic measurements.
Decree No. 603/ 2002Decision of the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister
of Agriculture and Land Reclamation for the restriction of the use of
wastewater in the agricultural sector. It prohibits the use of wastewater,
whether treated or untreated, for irrigating traditional field crops. Irrigation is
15

only used in the limited cultivation of trees for timber and ornamental trees,
taking into account the measures to protect the health of workers in agriculture
when using this type of water.
Decree No. 1038/2009Decision of the Minister of Agriculture and Land
Reclamation to prohibit the use of wastewater, whether treated or untreated,
for the irrigation of all food crops. No permission to own new lands would be
approved, unless the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI)
confirmed the existence and suitability of a source of irrigation.
Other pertinent laws include Law 12/1984 that regulates the authority of the
Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources as the custodian of all water
resources.

1.8.3. Egyptian Code for the Reuse of treated Wastewater in Agriculture

(501/2005)
The Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and New Communities, supported by seven
technical committees, issued the Code for the Reuse of Treated Wastewater in
Agriculture (hereafter, the Code). The Code stipulates exact requirements in
planning and approval procedures, responsibilities, permitted use according to
effluent quality, and monitoring. The Code regulates only the direct use of
wastewater, not the wastewater discharged into drains.
According to the Code, the reuse of treated wastewaterirrespective of the treatment
levelis prohibited for the production of vegetables, whether eaten raw or cooked;
export-oriented crops (i.e. cotton, rice, onions, potatoes, and medicinal and aromatic
plants); as well as citrus fruit trees; and irrigating school gardens.
Restrictions are in place for type of crops, irrigation methods, and health precautions.
The existing reuse schemes are operated by public institutions, mainly ministries such
as the Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and New Communities, MALR, and MSEA.
Plants and crops irrigated with treated wastewater are classified into three agricultural
crop groups that correspond to three different levels of wastewater treatment.
Biological and chemical standards for these three levels of treatment are set as well.
The Code further stipulates conditions for irrigation methods and health protection
measures for farm workers, consumers, and those living on neighboring farms.

The Code classifies wastewater into three grades (designated A, B, and C) as follows,
depending on the level of treatment it has received, and specifies the maximum
concentrations of specific contaminants consistent with each grade., and the crops that
can, and importantly cannot, be irrigated with each grade of treated wastewater.
(Tables 2 & 3)
Grade A is advanced, or tertiary, treatment that can be attained through upgrading the
secondary treatment plants (i.e. Grade B plants) to include sand filtration, disinfection
and other processes.

16

Grade B represents secondary treatment performed at most facilities serving Egyptian

cities, townships and villages. It is undertaken by any of the following techniques:
activated sludge, oxidation ditches, trickling filters, and stabilization ponds.
Grade C is primary treatment that is limited to sand and oil removal basins and use of
sedimentation basins.

Table (2) Limit values for Treated Wastewater Reused in Agriculture (mg/l)

Table (3) Classification of Plants and Crops Irrigable with Treated Wastewater

1.9. DISTRIBUTION OF FOREST TREES IRRIGATED WITH

WASTEWATER
Egypt, with land extending about one million square kilometers under arid and hyper
arid climatic conditions, is endowed with varied agro-ecological zones with specific
attributes of resource base, climatic features, terrain and geomorphic characteristics,
17

land use patterns and socio-economic implications. The zones could be identified as
follows:

North Coastal Belts: including North West coastal areas and Northern areas
of Sinai.
The Nile Valley: encompassing the fertile alluvial land of Upper Egypt, the
Delta and the reclaimed desert areas in the fringes of the old valley.
The Oases and Southern Remote Desert Areas: including East Owaynat,
Toushki, and Darb El Arbien Areas and Oases of the old Nile valley
The Desert Inland: including the plateau and dry valleys of Sinai and
elevated areas in the Southern Eastern Desert

With an active participation of Egypt, the formulation of the UN Convention to

Combat Desertification (UNCCD) adopted in Paris in 1994, gave emphasis to
combating the major threats to sustainability in countries of dry land. The main
objectives of the Convention include the following:

Prevention and/or reduction of land degradation.

Rehabilitation of partly degraded land.
Reclamations of decertified land.

Commitment by parties to UNCCD includes preparing of a National Action Plan

(NAP) to combat desertification. According to the convention, NAP should identify
the factors contributing to desertification and prescribe the practical measures to
combat it. Active factors of desertification and their impact are necessary varied. NAP
of Egypt comprised of sub-components, each of which is geared to address the
specific attributes of each agro-ecological zone distinguished.
Desertification and Man-Made Forests
The desertification of irrigated agricultural lands in Egypt with wastewater is the
result of various practices. One such practice is that of urban development, and
building on fertile agricultural lands. In addition, despoliation of agricultural land
through the erosion of the surface layer of the soil, has left the agriculture land
infertile and rendered it unsuitable for cultivation. Likewise, the pollution of soil from
wastewater, or from the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizers, and the salinization
of agricultural soil are factors contributing to desertification.
Egypt is currently witnessing
many new projects aimed at
expanding the green stretch in
the deserts. This is to be achieved
by establishing forest plantations,
i.e. man-made forests. Man-made
forests in Egypt are irrigated by
18

treated sewage water, resulting in the production of trees with high quality timber.
In addition, Egypt has developed, and is currently implementing, a strategy for
combating desertification. This includes the establishment of nurseries for the
afforestation of new roads, the improvement of existing plantings along roads, and the
stabilization of sand dunes through tree planting.
The main objectives of this National Program or NAP are as follows:

Solve the problem of 2.4 billion cubic meter of accumulated wastewater;

disposal of
such quantity
represents a
major
environmental
problem.
Benefiting from
this huge water
quantity and
not squandering
a water
resource that
could be
exploited
economically.
Limiting
the
discharge
of
wastewater into
the River Nile
or in seas in
order to prevent
bacteriological
and chemical
pollution
of
water
(from
heavy elements
and
harmful
organic
compounds),
and
the
degradation of fish wealth, river and marine bio-ecological systems.
Discharging into open desert also pollutes both surface and deep underground
reservoirs.
Preventing adverse practices related to the use of untreated wastewater in
producing agriculture and food products.
Contributing to the provision of health benefits to individuals as a result of
eradicating reproduction sources of insects and disease vectors caused by the
accumulation of stale wastewater.
Transforming an area of 400,000 feddans from desert into ecologically rich
areas.
19

Participating in cleaning air pollutants, adding climate soothing factors in arid

and semi-arid areas mostly adjacent to desert boundaries, and protecting cities
and housing areas from sand dispersion and dust storms.
Participating in restoring the equilibrium of the biosphere components through
increasing oxygen quantity and absorbing quantities of carbon dioxide.

Crop/tree species, soil types and irrigation methods for successfully irrigating areas
in Egyptian Governorates with treated wastewater in Egypt are indicated in Table (
4 ).
Table (4) Crop/tree species in Egyptian Governorates Irrigated with Treated
Wastewater

21

Table ( 4 ) Continue.

Table (4) Continue.

21

Table (4) Continue.

Table (4) Continue.

1.10. Case Study / Success Story- Jatropha Curcas Cultivation in Egypt

Jatropha plantation in Luxor desert, irrigated with wastewater is one of the first
Jatropha projects was started in Egypt, not far from Luxor city. It is part of a very
large forestation scheme in Egypt. This is due to the relative advantage of planting
Jatropha to produce bio-oil in desert lands using treated wastewater. Therefore,
22

planting Jatropha forests is expanded to Luxor (120 feddans), Sohag (150 feddans),
and Suez (400 feddans) as shown in the following pictures.

Training Youth on Producing Jatropha curcas

Irrigated by Treated Wastewater

Jatropha plantations project in Luxor desert are completely depending on irrigation

with treated wastewater. This is what they receive: (drip irrigation) 10 litres every 20
days in winter. 20 litres every 10 days in summer. Calculated on a 50/50 base, these
plants get 456 litre/plant/year. This means, based on a density of 3x3 (1111/ha)
506616 litre per ha, which is 50.6 litre per m2, which is 50,6 mm/m2. This seems very
little, but since drip irrigation usually gives you an efficiency of at least 90% over rain
or surface irrigation, the 50.6 mm/m2 should be compared with roughly 500 mm rain,
which is the absolute minimum.
It is worth mentioning that the yield per hectare is up to 5 tons seed given about 1.85
tons of oil in the year. Therefore, the Central Administration for Afforestation at the
Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MOALR) is now taking up
cultivation of Jatropha curcas in many sites of the country, especially in the South.
1.11. WASTEWATER REUSE CONSTRAINTS
The main constraints facing use of wastewater are:
Financial constraints (related e.g. to high costs of treatment systems and
sewerage networks, high operational costs especially for electricity, low
prices of freshwater compared to reclaimed wastewater, low user willingness
to pay for reclaimed wastewater).
Health impacts and environmental safety especially linked to soil structure
deterioration, increased salinity and excess of nitrogen.
Standards and regulations, which are in some cases too strict to be achievable
and enforceable and, in other cases, not adequate to deal with certain existing,
reuse practices.
23

Monitoring and evaluation in both treatment and reuse systems, often related
to lack of qualified personnel, lack of monitoring equipment or high cost
required for monitoring processes.
Technical constraints, including, for instance, insufficient infrastructure for
collecting and treating wastewater, inappropriate set up of existing
infrastructure (not designed for reuse purposes), improper functioning of
existing infrastructure.
The low coverage with sanitation systems in combination with a sub-optimal
treatment, and
The implementation of large-scale centralized treatment facilities which
produce large amounts of wastewater which in turn cannot be used for
irrigation and is often discharged into receiving water bodies.
Institutional set-up (especially poor coordination at relevant intra- and
intersect oral levels) and lack of appropriate personnel capacity
Lack of political commitment and of national policies/strategies to support
treatment and reuse of wastewater.
Lack of communication and coordination among the many authorities
working in wastewater treatment and reuse of treated effluents.
Absence of programs to monitor the quality of reclaimed wastewater, before
or after reuse, for possible health risks for farm laborers and end users of
products.
Public acceptance and awareness, related to low involvement and limited
awareness of both farmers and consumers of crops grown with reclaimed
wastewater (and/or sludge).
Consequently, reuse of water is a lost opportunity, as wastewater is either
buried away in cesspools, or discharged into receiving water bodies.

It is worth mentioning that in Egypt many people remain suspicious of reuse since
they are uncertain of the quality of treated water. Perhaps most importantly, the fact
that reclaimed water cannot be used for high-value vegetable crops. It has been
indicated that social acceptance, regulations concerning crop choices, and other
agronomic considerations strongly influence decisions about water reuse.
1.11. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION (Wastewater Reuse)
The use of treated wastewater should be considered an integral component in
countrys national water strategic plan. Recent studies indicated that it may not be
possible, due to economic reasons, to provide sewerage facilities for all residents of
rural and peri-urban areas, either now or in the near future.
As a result, the focus of the field of wastewater management should change from the
construction and management of regional sewerage systems to the construction and
management of decentralized wastewater treatment facilities. Given the fact that in
the near future, increasing demands are being made on freshwater supplies, it is clear
that decentralized systems, will increase the opportunities for localized
reclamation/reuse. Also, the use of anaerobic treatment as a first step offers good
potentials for both on-site and off-site sanitation.
24

Furthermore, anaerobic pre-treatment, complemented by low-cost post-treatment

techniques offers cost-effective method for reclaiming domestic wastewater for
agricultural production and increases the coverage with appropriate sanitation systems
At the same time, experience has shown that only skilled operation, maintenance and
control of small treatment plants can guarantee satisfactory performance. Lack of
trained operators is often claimed to be the major reason for malfunctioning of small
plants. Different approaches are possible to improve the situation by:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Applying treatment systems which require low levels of maintenance and

control,
Enforcing service contracts for regular maintenance by skilled operators and
manufactures,
Forming an appropriate operator organization and,
Establishing regular training programs for plant operators.

In general, Wastes can and must be transformed from a disposal-based linear system
to a recovery-based closed-loop system that promotes the conservation of water and
nutrient resources and contributes to public health. It is worth mentioning that both
the knowledge and the technology that can enable this transformation exist.
There is a gap, however, between the current availability of innovative technology
and the promotion/financing of demonstration level projects as well as, the
development of complementary, socio-economic methodologies to facilitate their
implementation in Egypt. It is therefore, recommended to encourage the
implementation of demonstration projects for evaluation under local environmental
and socio-economic conditions.
In conclusion to enhance reuse potential in Egypt, priority actions shall include:
separation of industrial effluent disposal systems, provision of adequate treatment
facilities to those communities connected to sewer systems, provision of collection
stations for the vacuum trucks (rural areas), search for simple low cost treatment
technology, horizontal expansion based on reuse of treated sewage, and awareness of
the health risks involved with direct or indirect contact with the water.

------------------------About the Author (Wastewater Part I):

Dr. Rifaat Abdel Wahaab is Professor of environmental sciences at the National Research Centre,
Cairo, Egypt. He began his professional career in industrial pollution and control and since then
he has continued to work in diverse areas of environmental management and strategy. He actively
managing and participating in many of Egypts environmental plans. Dr Rifaat is now the General
Director of Research and Development (R&D) at the Holding Company for Water and
Wastewater (HCWW), Cairo, Egypt. Dr Rifaat can be reached by e-mail at
rawahaab@yahoo.com, rifaat.abdelwahaab@hcww.com.eg, (Tel.+2-012 51 87 971).

25

2. DRAINAGE WATER REUSE

2.1. Drainage Network
Agricultural wastewater forms the largest amount of the wastewater in Egypt. It will
obviously continue to be the largest during the next decades. The agricultural drainage
in Egypt comes from canal ends, leakage from waterways or removal of unused water
from agricultural lands by flow over or through the soil. The agricultural drainage
water and the effluents from municipalities and industries are collected and
transported by an extensive drainage network. This system comprises field drains
(open drains or sub-surface drains), collector drains, and main drains which convey
the water into irrigation canals and the River Nile where it mixes with fresh water for
further downstream use. The drainage system is largely by gravity flow, except for a
number of pumping stations in the Northern Delta.

Figure 5. Drainage network in Egypt

Figure 6. Main drainage canals in the Delta

26

2.2. Types and Volumes

Capturing and mixing drainage flow with water of main canals and the River Nile at
centralized mixing pump stations is called the official reuse. Another type of official
reuse is called the intermediate reuse where the water can be mixed from smaller less
polluted drains with lower order irrigation canals. These types of reuse are planned
and managed by the ministry of water Resources and Irrigation with good records.

The total amount of official drainage reuse increased from 6.86 billion m3 in 2008 to
6.98 billion m3 in 2010. This amount is expected to increase up to 8.7 billion m3 in
2017. Included in this reuse are a number of gravity feeders from drains to tail ends of
irrigation canals in the Middle Delta. Direct pumping of nearby drainage water by
individuals farmers is called the unofficial reuse. It is impossible to measure this type
of reuse because of its spontaneous nature, but it is estimated to be about 2.7 billion
m3. The unofficial reuse is observed along Bahr Baqar, Bahr Hadus, Gharbia, Edko
and Umoum drains.

Main drain

Branch drain

Branch canal

Main drain reuse

Intermediate reuse

Mesqa
Distributary

Main canal

Figure 7. Schematic presentation of main drain and intermediate

reuse
There are 89 agricultural drains which directly flow into the river Nile. Most of them
collect volumes of wastewater either municipal or industrial. The following table shows
all agricultural drains with their locations as a distance from High Aswan Dam in
Aswan (Km) and discharges.
Table 5. Main drains flowing into River Nile
Location

Qdrain

Qdrain / QNile

Km

m3/sec

Khour Sail Aswan

9.9

1.20

0.075

El Tawesa El Bahary

43

0.58

0.036

Drain Name

27

El Ghaba

46

4.95

0.309

Abu Wanass

46.5

2.08

0.130

Houd Benian

47

0.92

0.058

48.7

0.28

0.018

50

0.42

0.026

51.4

1.16

0.073

Meneha

55

0.23

0.014

Main Eklet Kebly

57

0.62

0.039

Main Eklet Bahary

62

1.57

0.098

Berk El Ragama

64

2.31

0.144

Fares

65

1.60

0.100

Fetera

70.6

23.15

1.447

Khour El Sail

70.4

3.24

0.203

Abo Hoor

73

0.23

0.014

Main Kagook

76

0.65

0.041

Selwa Bahary

87.3

0.70

0.044

Radisia

99.85

0.80

0.050

Waslet Hager Edfo 18

100.5

0.80

0.050

Waslet Hager Edfo 8

109

3.35

0.209

Ateya Shenoda Kebly

112

0.53

0.033

Edfu

121

5.00

0.313

El Adwa

117

3.00

0.188

121.6

0.17

0.011

Hager El Bosilya

136

1.43

0.089

El Hagz el Bahary

138

0.69

0.043

Houd El Sebaia

144

2.45

0.153

El Sharawna

147.5

0.25

0.016

Khor El Halla

165.5

0.50

0.031

Draw El Bahary
El Berba
Kom Ombo (Houd Zaki)

El Mahamid

28

Mataana

190

8.20

0.586

196.7

0.61

0.044

Salameia

209

0.47

0.034

Main Armant

224

7.60

0.543

Al Zinnia

236

0.25

0.018

Habil El Sharky

241

6.20

0.443

Danfeek El Sharky

244

1.23

0.088

Danfeek El Gharby

254

1.69

0.121

Main Hegaza (Sheikhia)

267

5.00

0.357

El Ballas

273

2.47

0.176

277.8

4.35

0.311

Dandara

300

0.96

0.069

Hamed

325

11.10

0.793

340.35

6.94

0.496

El Rawy

356

2.31

0.165

Naga hamadi

381

10.92

0.910

Main Salam

382

8.61

0.718

El - Khyam

392.75

3.75

0.313

Mazata

392.75

3.75

0.313

Esawia

432.7

3.75

0.313

Main Souhag

444.55

19.58

1.632

Akhmeim El Kebly

454.7

1.96

0.163

Akhmeim El Bahary

473.85

2.15

0.179

Main Tahta

486.7

9.83

0.819

Main Abu Tig

513

14.14

1.178

Al Badary

522

7.04

0.587

Zenar

545

7.67

0.639

557.4

2.22

0.185

Al Ghorira

Keft

Magrour (El Marashda)

Abanob El Kebly

29

Main Mankabad

562

1.60

0.133

Abanob El Bahary

569

3.01

0.251

Manflot

574

0.98

0.082

Main El Gabal

581

14.00

1.167

588.6

7.00

0.583

Masara

607

1.30

0.108

Khety

628

1.00

0.083

642.75

0.70

0.058

El Serw

645

0.65

0.054

Makosa

682.5

3.96

0.330

Etsa

701.15

19.24

1.603

Tamaress

725

0.20

0.017

Tabaa

743

1.85

0.154

747.5

1.10

0.092

Al Okda

752

0.86

0.072

EL Sheik Ziad

755

1.25

0.104

Awlad El Sheik

764

0.29

0.024

Mghagha

774

0.41

0.034

Abo Rahib

775

15.63

1.303

El Sharahna

779

7.20

0.600

Ahnsia

808

23.00

1.917

Main El Rafaa

842

31.35

2.613

Magror Garaza

848

3.58

0.298

Atrab

857

1.15

0.096

Seil EL Wady

866.3

0.00

0.000

Seil El Askar

868

0.00

0.000

874.5

1.28

0.107

878

8.88

0.740

Bany Shaker

Dir Abo Hanin (El Rayramoun)

Abo Hasiba

El Barmeel
El Massanda

31

Ghamaza El Soghra
El Moktatafya
Khour Sail El Tibeen

884.5

1.63

0.136

886

1.08

0.090

898.1

0.60

0.050

2.3. Regulatory Arrangements for Reuse or Disposal

2.3.1. Monitoring Network
The Drainage Research institute of the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation of
Egypt has carried out a long- term monitoring program for monitoring the quantity
and quality of drainage water in the main and branch drains in the Nile Delta and
Fayuom with a monthly frequency. The current monitoring network consists of 232
sites. The number of parameters is increased to 31 parameters, including
toxicological, microbiological, oxygen budget related and extended ions, metals and
trace elements as well as the classic parameters.
2.3.2. Supreme Council for Protection of Nile and Waterways from Pollution
The Supreme Council for Protection of River Nile and Waterways from Pollution has
been created according to the decree of the prime minister No. 3318 in 2009. The
minister of Water Resources and Irrigation is the council coordinator, head of the
technical committee which includes members of the representative of different
ministries related to the council. The activities of the supreme council are:
1. Defining and updating pollution sources on water ways including agriculture,
domestic and industrial sources in the form of maps.
2. Conducting studies on "Pollution of Waterways in Egypt" as well as efforts
made on River Nile and waterways for pollution control.
3. Preparing an Implementation Plan (until the year 2017) showing the effect of
institutional reform and water quality management including solid waste
management and cleaner production method on the improvement of the status
of water quality in waterways.
4. Preparing a study on the existing monitoring system on the river Nile in order
to strengthen the monitoring role of the stakeholders.
5. Studying the treatment priorities for all wastewater sources based on the
impacts of industrial drainage on the public health.
2.4. Legislations Concerning Drainage Water Reuse
2.4.1 Law 48/1982 regarding the Protection of the Nile River and Waterways
from Pollution
- Article 12: Reuse of Drains water shall not be allowed either directly or by
mixing with fresh water for any purpose unless it is proven usable for that
purpose. The Ministry of Irrigation, after consulting the Ministry of Health, shall
take the actions necessary for processing the drains water that are to be reused.
31

2.4.2. Ministerial Decree 8/1983 on Law 48/1982 Concerning Reuse of Drainage

Water
- Article 65: Standards for mixing drainage water with canal water (reuse) by the
Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation as in Table 6.
Table 6: Standards for mixing drainage water with canal water (reuse)
Parameter name
Abbreviation
Acid balance
pH
Alkalinity total
Ammonia
NH4
Arsenic
As
Biological Oxygen Demand
BOD
Cadmium
Cd
Chemical
Oxygen
Demand
COD
(Dichromate)
Chemical
Oxygen
Demand
COD
(Permanganate)
Coliform bacteria (total)
Copper
Cu
Cyanide
Fluoride
F
Iron
Fe
Manganese
Mn
Mercury
Hg
Nitrate
NO3
Oxygen dissolved
DO
Phenol
Phosphate
PO4
Temperature
Total Dissolved Solid
TDS
Zinc
Zn

Standard (mg/l)
7 - 8.5
50 - 200
0.5
0.05
10
0.01
15
6.0
5000 MPN/100 ml
1.0
0.1
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.001
10
5.0 (minimum)
0.02
1.0
5 oC above normal
500
1.0

2.4.3. Law 12/1982 regarding the Irrigation and Drainage

- Article 31: The Ministry of Irrigation shall establish a network of covered or
open field drains provided that all the lands within the scope of the drainage unit
should be connected with a series of main and secondary public drains.
- Article 48: The use of drains water shall not be allowed for Irrigation purposes
unless with a license from the Ministry of Irrigation and according to the
conditions determined by the Ministry.

2.4.4. Ministerial Decree 44/2000 regarding the Amendment of the Executive

Statutes of Law 93/1962 on the Drainage of Liquid Wastes.
32

- Article 15: Treated waste water shall not be used for land irrigation except after a
permit from the Ministry of Health. The lands into which the wastes are drained shall
be located at a distance of not less than 3 kilometers from the city or village cordon.
The data concerning degree of treatment for cultivation of vegetables, fruits, plants, or
lactiferous/milker animals or cattle be bred on these farms are given in this article.
2.5. Current Projects for Treatment and Reuse of Drainage Water
2.5.1. The Constructed Engineered Wetland in Manzala
The project was designed to demonstrate the use of engineered artificial wetlands to
treat wastewater. The project has the capacity to treat 25,000 cubic meters of water a
day from the Bahr El Baqar drain. Following treatment the majority of the water is
used for irrigation, while some is diverted into basins designed for fish farming. The
engineered wetlands system also provides local livelihoods through support services
and small-scale manufacturing ventures such as plant harvesting and seedlings
propagation for stocking the wetlands, production of fuel and animal feed pellets from
harvested biomass, and harvesting of aquatic plants from the wetlands.

Figure 8. Engineered Constructed Wetland Location at Manzala

33

Figure 9. Scheme of the Engineered Constructed Wetland at Manzala

2.5.2. Drainage Reuse Expansion Projects
The Ministry of water resources and irrigation is undertaking major projects for
horizontal and expansion to divert considerable amounts of drainage water to newly
reclaimed areas after blending with fresh water. El-salam canal project and Umom
project are two major drainage reuse expansion projects that have been planned since
early 1990s.
2.5.3.El-salam Canal Project
The project provides the water to irrigate 220,000 feddan in the Eastern Nile Delta
and 400,000 feddan in Sinai. The water for this project mixes 2 billion m3 from
agricultural drainage water from Bahr Hadous and Lower Serw drains with 2 billion
m3 of fresh water from the river Nile (Damietta branch).

Figure 10. Crossing El-Salam Canal with Suez Canal through a siphon

34

2.5.4. Umoum Project

Similar to El-salam canal project, the Umoum Project reuses 1 billion m3 of drainage
water to irrigate 500.000 acres in Nubaria after mixing with fresh water. The water
reuse for the project is based on collecting the drainage water from the three subcatchments of Umoum drain and directing it in a channel from north to south. These
sub-catchments are Abu-Hummus, Shereshra and Truga. The Abu Hummus is drained
by gravity to the Umoum drain; however, the Shereshra and Turga are drained by
pumping station (PS).

Figure 11. Location of the Umoum catchment's area

2.6. Recommendations (Drainage Water Use)
The water quality of the River Nile and canals in Egypt is affected by the reused
drainage water, containing salts, nutrients, pesticides, and industrial and municipal
effluents from all towns and villages. The average salinity of the reused drainage
water increased from 1005 g/m3 in 2008 to 1166 g/m3 in 2010 (16 %) as a result of
repeated reuse. Therefore, in order to increase the potential amount of drainage water
reuse without deteriorating the water quality requirement, public health and
environment, a comprehensive monitoring program should be implemented to be used
for modification of reuse policy in Egypt.
Many studies reported that, constructed wetlands or detention ponds are nearly the
only effective means for agricultural drainage water treatment before mixing with
fresh waterways. Therefore, further research projects should be carried out to
investigate how constructed wetlands or detention ponds can be more applicable,
effective and sustainable in Egypt, where high salinity of drainage water, water
scarcity and evapotranspiration water loss are found.
The intermediate drainage reuse is mainly to mix drainage water with fresh water of
branch canals located within the irrigation directorates which means that this system
can be controlled by the irrigation directorates. Subsequently, this reuse system can
replace the unofficial reuse practices and hence reduce its negative impacts on public
health and environment. In addition, the intermediate reuse system could replace the
35

main reuse system which causes environmental problems in many main canals.
Therefore, a long term policy should be followed for supporting and encouraging the
intermediate drainage reuse.
REFERENCES
Abdel Wahaab, R.(2010) Assessment of a Combination of UASB and DHS Reactors
for Wastewater Treatment and Reuse. HCWW -1st International Conference &
Exhibition on Sustainable Water Supply and Sanitation, July 25-27th, 2010,
Cairo, Egypt.
Abdel Wahaab, R.(2003)Sustainable Development and Environmental Impact
Assessment in Egypt: Historical Overview The Environmentalist, 23,49-70
Abdel Wahaab,R.(1995)Wastewater Treatment and Re-use: Environmental Health
and Safety Consideration. Inter. Journ. Environ. Health Res.Vol.19, 230-241.
Abdel Kader, A.; Abdel Rassoul, S. (2010): Prospects of Water Conservation in Egypt
(Special Reference to Wastewater Reuse), Fourteenth International Water
Technology Conference, IWTC 14 2010, Cairo, Egypt
Ban Ki-moon. (2008): Address by the UN Secretary-General to the session Time is
Running Out on Water, of the Davos World Economic Forum, Davos,
Switzerland, 24.01.2008. www. un.org/apps/news/infocus/speeches.
CEDARE (Center for Environment and Development for Arab Region and Europe)
(2004) Wastewater management and reuse assessment in the Mediterranean.
Part I Final Report Prepared by Dia El Din El Quosy
Egyptian Ministry of Economic Development (2008) Egypt achieving the millennium
development goals, a midpoint assessment. Available at : http://www.
undp.org.eg/Portals/0/MDG %20Links/Egypt%20MDG%20 Mid% 20Term
%20Assessment%20Report%202008.pdf
Elsaesser, D.; Hauck, E., Schulz, R. (2007): Mitigation of Pesticides Pollution in
Vegetated Agricultural Surface Waters: The Role of Vegetation. 2nd
International Symposium on Wetland Pollutant Dynamics and Control
(WETPOL 2007), 140: 302 - 304.
FAO (2005). Global Forest Resources Assessment Progress Towards Sustainable
Forest Management. FAO, Forestry Paper No.147.
Fatta, D., I. Arslan Alaton, C. Gokcay, I. Skoula, A. Papadopoulos & M. Loizidou
(2004) Wastewater reuse in the Mediterranean basin Problems and challenges.
In: Harmancioglu,N.B., O. Fistikoglu, Y. Dalkilic, A. Gul (Eds.): Water
Resources Management: Risks And Challenges for the 21st Century. Izmir, 2
4 September 2004. Proceedings. 499.
Housing and Building Research Center Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban
Communities (2005) The Egyptian Code for Using Treated Wastewater in
Agriculture.
Kadlec, R.; Wallace, S. (2008): Treatment Wetlands- 2nd Ed. ISBN 978 - 1 - 56670 526 - 4.
MWRI/USAID (Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation/US Agency for
International Development) (2000) Policies and procedures for improved urban
wastewater discharge and reuse. Report No. 34, Appendix 2. Health impact and
water quality standards in wastewater irrigation
36

Omar, M. (2010): Improvement of Detention Ponds with Respect to Salinity, PhD

Thesis, Faculty of Planning Building Environment, TU Berlin; in preparation for
publishing in Book Series of Institute of Civil Engineering.
Reinhardt, M.; Gaechter, R.; Wehrli, B.; Mueller.; B. (2000): Phosphorus Retention in
Small Constructed Wetlands Treating Agricultural Drainage Water. Journal of
Environment Quality, 34: 1251 - 1259.
Shaalan NS (2001) Egypt country paper on wastewater reuse. Joint FAO/WHO
consultation for launching the regional network on wastewater reuse. Amman,
Jordan
Steidl, J.; Kalettka, T.; Ehlert, V.; Quast, J.; Augustin, J. (2008): Mitigation of
Pressures on Water Bodies by Nutrient Retention from Agricultural Drainage
Effluents Using Purification Ponds. The 10th International Drainage Workshop
of ICID Working Group on Drainage Helsinki, Finland/ Tallinn, Estonia, July 6
- 11 th 2008. ISBN 978 - 951 - 22 - 9469, 5: 187 - 194.
The National Water Resources Plan for Egypt (NWRP) - 2017. (2005): Policy Report:
Water for the Future, Planning Sector, Ministry of Water Resources and
Irrigation, Egypt.
WaDImena (2008) Water brief - Wastewater Reuse for Water Demand Management
in the Middle East and North Africa. Available online at:
http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-57064-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
WHO (2006) Guidelines for the safe use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater
Volume 3: Wastewater and excreta use in aquaculture.
World Bank (2007) Making the most of scarcity: accountability for better water
management results in the Middle East and North Africa. MENA development
report. The World Bank, Washington DC.

------------------------About the Author (Drainage water Part II):

Dr. Eng.Mohy El-Din Omar is working at the planning sector, Ministry of Water Resources &
Irrigation (MWRI). He actively participated in the national water resources plan and now he is
participating in implementation of Center Water Quality Management strategy. Dr Omar can be
reached by e-mail at: mohy_omar2003@hotmail.com (Tel.+2-010 32 96 219).

37