Biological Molecules

What you will learn

State the roles of water in living organisms.
List the chemical elements which make up
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins

Describe and carry out food tests.

State that large molecules are synthesized from
smaller basic units.

Water
Enables nutrients to dissolve
and be carried to the parts of
the body where they are
needed.
Is needed for all the bodys
functions, including digestion of
food, removal of excretory
waste, maintenance of body
temperature at 37C and
cushioning sensitive parts of the
body such as the brain.

Dietary Importance of Water

(Inorganic nutrient)
An essential constituent of protoplasm (70% of
the body weight)
Acts as a medium for chemical reactions to
occur.
Cushioning of delicate organs, such as brain.
Acts as solvent and transport agent for:
digested food, wastes, hormones etc.

Dietary Importance of Water

(Inorganic nutrient)
An essential/major components of: lubricant
found in joints, digestive juices & blood.
Required for hydrolytic reactions.
Helps to regulate body temperature (e.g.
sweating)

Water
Can be obtained by drinking it and
also by drinking milk, juices and
soup.
Is lost during urination,
perspiration and even breathing.
If not replaced, will lead to
dehydration, causing muscle
cramps and weakness.

The Need for Food

Importance of Nutrients
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals
are essential nutrients that are needed by the body
for:

Growth
Repair
Maintenance
Nutrients in canned foods
are listed on labels

The Need for Food

1. For growth
- synthesis of new protoplasm, cells and tissues
2. For repair or replacement of worn and damaged tissues
- replace red blood cells, skin
- repair wounds
3. As a source of energy
- Energy store in food is called potential chemical energy
- Released and used for chemical reactions that build
complex molecules activities, eg movement (kinetic energy),
heartbeat maintenance of body temperature (mammals, birds)
4. To maintain health and prevent deficiency diseases

Nutrients in Food
Nutrients are chemical substances in
food which nourish the body.
The nutrients in the food we eat may be
classified as follows:
Carbohydrates
Fats
Proteins

Organic Nutrients

Vitamins
Dietary fibre
Water
Mineral salts

Inorganic Nutrients

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic
compounds made up of the
elements carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.
They often exist in the
generalised formula, CnH2mOm
Carbohydrates food comes
mainly from plants and are good
source of energy for the body.

Carbohydrates
There are three main groups of carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose, fructose,
galactose)
Disaccharides (e.g. maltose, lactose,
sucrose)
Polysaccharides (e.g. starch, cellulose,
glycogen)

Monosaccharides
These are also known as simple sugars.
The most common ones (glucose,
fructose and galactose) have a general
formula C6H12O6.

Disaccharides
These are also known as complex
sugars.
Each molecule is made of two molecules of
simple sugars condensed together:
Glucose + Fructose Sucrose + Water
Glucose + Galactose Lactose + Water
Glucose + Glucose Maltose + Water

Glucose +
Fructose

Condensation
(water
Sucrose
lost)
Hydrolysis
(water

Polysaccharides
A polysaccharide is made up of many
monosaccharide molecules joined
together.
The process of condensing many similar
molecules to form a large molecule is
called polymerization.
Examples of polysaccharides are starch,
glycogen and cellulose.

Starch
It is made up of a very large number of glucose
molecules condensed together to form chains
of glucose units.
Starch can be fully hydrolysed by acid to
release the glucose units.
Starch can also be partially hydrolysed by
amylase to yield maltose.
Maltose can then be converted to glucose by
maltase or heating with acid.

Glycogen
Glycogen is the storage form of
carbohydrates in animals and fungi.
Glycogen is formed by numerous glucose
molecules condensing together to form
highly branched chains of glucose units.

Glycogen and Starch as Storage

Materials
They are insoluble in water.
They are large molecules.
They can be easily be hydrolysed to
glucose.
Their molecules have compact shapes.

Starch and Glycogen

Cellulose
Cellulose is the carbohydrate which forms
the greater part of the cell of the plants.
Cellulose is inert and very few organisms
can digest it.
Man cannot digest cellulose but cellulose
is still important to the proper functioning
of the large intestine.

Cellulose

Fats
Fats are organic compounds
made up of the elements carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen.
Unlike carbohydrates, they contain
much less oxygen in proportion to
hydrogen.
Fats can be split into simpler
compounds by hydrolysis.
e.g. Tristearin + Water Glycerol
+ Stearic Acid.

Hydrolysis of fats:
Fat molecule + 3H2O
Glycerol + 3 fatty acid
molecules
Catalysed by lipase

Functions of fats
As an efficient source and storage of energy.
As an insulating material.
As a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins, sex
hormones and related hormones.
As a constituent of protoplasm.
As a means to restrict water loss from the
surface of the skin.
Protect organs from physical injuries.

Types of Fats
Each fat molecule contains fatty
acids which may be saturated
or unsaturated.
An unsaturated fatty acid is a
fatty acid which contains less
than the maximum amount of
hydrogen possible. Very
unsaturated fatty acids are
known as polyunsaturates.

Types of Fats
Fats that are solid at room
temperature tend to be high in
saturated fats.
Saturated fats increase the
level of cholesterol in the
blood.

Healthy artery

Diets rich in cholesterol and

saturated fats increases the
risk of heart disease.
Damaged artery

Proteins
Proteins are very complex organic
substances containing carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
Sulfur and phosphorus are also
often present.
Every protein molecules is built up
from simpler compounds known as
amino acids.
There are 22 naturally occuring amino
acids in plants and animals.

Protein
(3dimensional)

Polypeptides

Amino acids

Functions of Proteins
Essential for the synthesis of
protoplasm for growth and
repair of worn-out cells.
Used for the synthesis of
enzymes and some hormones.
Used in the formation of
antibodies to combat diseases.
A source of energy.

Enzymes

What you will learn

Explain enzyme action in terms of the lock-and-key
hypothesis.
Explain the mode of action of enzymes in terms of:
an active site
Enzyme-substrate complex
Lowering of activation energy
Enzyme specificity
Investigate and explain the effects of temperature and
pH on the rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions.

What is an enzyme?
An enzyme ...
is an biological catalyst, made of protein.
alters the rate of chemical reactions
without itself being chemically changed at
the end of reactions.
different types of
amino acids

chemical bonds

What is an enzyme?
An enzyme ...
is very specific reacts with one or only a
few types of molecules (substrates)
is usually named by adding the suffix
ase to the name of the substrate the
different types of amino acids
enzyme acts on

chemical bonds

Digestion
(an enzyme-catalysed reaction)
Many food substances are insoluble in water
and non-diffusible, thus unable to be absorbed
by the body.
Food needs to be broken down or digested with
the help of enzymes into simpler and diffusible
substances to be absorbed by the body.

Digestion
(an enzyme-catalysed reaction)
Enzymes helps to speed up the action of
digestion. Such enzymes are known as
digestive enzymes.

Examples
Starch is digested to sugar by an enzyme
called amylase.
Protein is digested to amino acids by
protease.
Fats are digested to fatty acids and
glycerol by lipase.

How does an enzyme function?

Enzymes are highly specific in their action, eg amylase
will only act on starch, and not on proteins or fats.
The substances on which the enzymes act are called
substrates, eg starch, proteins, fats.
The specificity of an enzyme is due to its very precise
three-dimensional shape.
This shape includes a dent, which is exactly the right
size and shape for a molecule of substrate to fit into.
This is called the active site.

How does an enzyme function?

The specificity of the enzyme
explained by the lock and key
hypothesis.
In the lock and key
hypothesis, the enzyme and
substrate must fit precisely for
the reaction to proceed.
Enzyme

The site to which a substrate

binds to an enzyme is known
as the active site.

Substrate

How does an enzyme function?

substrate
B

active site

enzyme

enzyme-substrate
complex

enzyme

A. Break-up of substrate to form two or more products

How does an enzyme function?

substrates
B

A
active site

enzyme

enzyme-substrate
complex

enzyme

B. Union of two or more substrates creates one product

The action of enzyme is in the following order:

1. Binding of substrate molecule(s) at the active
site of the enzyme molecule.
2. Formation of the enzyme-substrate complex.
3. Chemical reactions that convert the substrate
molecule(s) into product molecule(s).
4. Separation of product molecule(s) from the active
site.
5. Free, unchanged enzyme molecule combines
with more substrate molecules.

How does an enzyme function?

Effects of temperature on enzymes

An enzyme is inactive at very low
temperatures.
As temperature rises, the molecules have
more kinetic energy and this increases the
chances of successful collision.
Usually, the enzyme is TWICE as active
for every 10 oC rise in temperature until
the optimum temperature is reached.

Effects of temperature on enzymes

Beyond the optimum temperature,
the enzyme activity decreases.
If temperature rises above 50 oC, the
enzyme becomes denatured or
destroyed.
As enzymes are made of proteins, it
undergoes changes in its shape. Most
enzymes are completely denatured
above 60 oC.

Effects of temperature on enzymes

A rise in
temperature
increases enzyme
activity as
reactions occur
more frequently.
When the
temperature rises
above 50C,
enzymes are
denatured the
reaction stops.

6.0
5.0
4.0

Rate of
reaction
of
amylase 3.0
acting on
starch
(mg/min) 2.0

1.0
0
0

10
20
30
Temperature (C)

40

50

Effects of pH on enzymes
Under conditions of constant temperature,
enzymes function most efficiently over a
narrow pH range.
The optimum pH is that at which
maximum enzyme activity occurs.
When pH is above or below this value,
enzyme activity decreases.

Effects of pH on enzymes
If extreme pH is encountered by the enzymes,
then the enzymes will be denatured.
This is because, its three-dimensional structure
is disrupted or altered, thus the active site is
changed such that the substrate no longer fit.

Effects of pH on enzymes

Rate of
reaction
of
amylase
acting on
starch
(mg/min)

An enzyme that
functions optimally at
pH 7 will be inactivated
when its environment
becomes too acidic or
too alkaline.

The effects of changes in

pH on the activity of
enzymes are reversible.

Effects of pH on enzymes

Summary I
Most enzymes are proteins in nature.
Enzymes are unchanged at the end of the
chemical reaction.
Enzymes can be used over and over again, thus
they are required in small amounts.
Enzymes are specific in their action.
Enzymes are sensitive to changes in
temperature and pH. Each enzyme has an
optimum temperature and pH at which they
work most efficiently.