o

^TEXT-BOOK
OF

CARPENTRY;

MODEM

C0MPRI8IN0

BDLE8

WITH

STRAINS

TO

IS

8TB1NGTH,

AND

STRnOTURS

subjeotbd;

^xmuti, ^nhgts, ^t. ;

'",aaU,

on

AND

GLOSSARY,

'

OF

TIMBER

EACH

WHICH

#b8tr"aiions

ITS

CALCULATINO

FOR

TABLES

AND

BUILDING-TIMBER,

ON

TREATISE

"

EZPLAININQ

LENGTH

AT

THB

TERMS

TECHNICAL

Ilf

USE

CARPENTERS.

ABOBinOT

W.

THOMAS

BY
or

TBI

KBW

CAFITOL

|JLLOWAY,
MOHTriUBE,

AT

TXRMOST.

^BOSTON:
CROSBY,

NICHOLS,

Street.

117, Washington
1868.

COMPANY,

AND

'
,

li3

AMONG

THB

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Entered,

according
BY

In

the

Clerk's

to

Act

of

Congress,

the

in

the

year

1868,

SILLOWAY,

W.

THOMAS

Office

of

District

of

Court

the

District

of

Blassachusetts.

BOSTON:
PRINTED

JOHN

BY

22,

SCHOOL

WILSON
STREET.

AND

SON,

PRE

of

work

following

The

for

reference

of

would

them

mulas,
for-

understood,

even

Having
and

important
avoided

mathematical

formulas

encyclopaedia

an

science.

the

of

Works

itself

as

distinguished

of

of

absence

student

omission

that

their

the

progress

worthy,

may

of

mechanic.

removes

the

have
did

been

less

learned,

An

extended

and,

perhaps

sulted,
con-

commend

not

utility

mathematics,

higher

the

which

practical

immediate

advanced

authors

selected

nothing

but

the

Beli-

means

scrupulously

to

the

scientific

large

belong

properly

more

ordinary

mathematics.

the

and

of

places

to

or

have

algebraic

abstruse

such

others,
of

in

we

as

and

works

reference

of

named,

above

class

and

book

and

the

mechanics

interests

the

view

in

of

versed

those

as

journeyman

appreciated,

be

by

the

with

written

cannot

except

for

of

reach

being

prepared

master-carpenter,

Tredgold,

the

and,

been

costliness

Kondelet,

beyond

as

the

The

apprentice.
dor,

has

instruction

of

manual

FACE.

while
the

regret
it

is

great

though
essay

presumed

obstacle

not

on

to

less

Car-

PREFACE.

IV

pentry

as

think,

is, we

of

and

mechanic

every

while

convey,

labors,

of

results
which

it

the
is

careful

of

aim

and

tical
prac-

and

great

privilege

which
his

they

ordinary

and

far

study

of

more

those

of

science

work

this

place

most

the

are

lightened,

experience

the

those

sufficing for

by

its

such

by

lessons

the

greatly

directed,

worthily

truth,

but

be:

work,

considered

been

all

perhaps

may

the

experience,

of

teachers

unnecessary

occupied

have

as

Practice

successful

of

nature

properly

more

suggestions
useful.

rendered

being

comprehensive

the

by

science

others,
and

embody

to

explain.
The

portion of

timber

states

through

authorities

field

wide.

that

writers
The

in

for

attending

our

work
the
it

of

has

variety of

of

the
;

and

in

"

He
an

each

in

kind

of

many,

work

that

and

the

the

few

comprehend

nearly

works

the

and

of

Hutother

many

America.

only

not

art, but
the

also

be

consideration
a

suggest
success

times

judged

bear

in

plify
exem-

to

all

at

"

to

of

amount

must

will, however,

important

at

observation.

are

selection

difficulty

arrived

believed

intended

are

efforts

much

been

and

imitation

reader.

much

Perronet,

Europe

principles

examples

and

value

Hamel,

illustrations
the

results

subject

the

building-

to

of

subject

the

practical
Du

both

devoted

is, however,
to

of

Barlow,

ton,

average

on

It

is

treatise

experiments

allotted

pages
all

an

many

The

this

small

in

of

mind
to

by
that

give

compass.

PREFACE.

of

the

text,

presented

now

sufficient

contains

its

of

companion

desirable

of

of

study,

well

as

business

man

dedicated

to

and,
their

as

in

to

the

readj
this

May,

1868.

it

public

in

the

imperfections
to

assistant

it

make

in

apprentice

hope,

it

to

is
fully
respect-

service.

THOS.

Boston,

part

and

information

hours

the

to

amount

labor,

value.

notwithstanding

that,

belief,

it

is

work

Our

much

corresponding

prove

may

of

result

of

hoped,

large

so

the

is

forms

which

Glossary,"

"

The

W.

SULOWAY.

his

the

CONTENTS.

Caepentbt
,

and

Nature

Properties

of

Timber
...
*

"

"

Kinds

Timber

of

in

use
j2

Timber

Foreign

2i

Timber

Felling

24

Seasoning

Timber
2^

Preservation

Timber

of

33

of

Durability

33

of

Strength

Rules

Timber

Timber
4j

for

its

determining

Tensile

Strength

45

....

Cross-strength
"

52

"

"

Compressive
"

,j

"

Strength

"

69
.

Geometry

65
,

Square

Root

Equilibrium

Scarfing

of

Timbers

Floors

Trussed

77

Strains

on

Timber

81

91

95

Beams

98

"

""

CONTENTS.

VIU

Page.

103

Roofs

Observations

on

Roofs

employed

Timbers

Iron-work

103

in

employed

Heavy

107

Roofs

in

Roofs

112

119

Roof-trasses

Domes

124

Bbidoes

129

Abch-Centerinos

134

Joints

Framing

in

139

Iron

141

Tables

for

Weight

the

calculating

of

Iron-work

148
.

Tables

for

IN

Glossary

ANT

calculating

GIVEN

the

StICK

Quantity

of

Timber

147

169

CARPENTRY.

of

parts

the

It

of

the

always

which

relates

frame

to

of

whole

the

It

the

to

human

is

self-evident

the

the

the

is

that

The

relation

same

of

of

writings

consideration.

bones

truth,

carpentry,

constructed

as

builder

but

principles

to

stone

brick

or

that

must

tion.
considera-

Vitruvius,

under

sustains

tion
atten-

and

scientific

of

gineering.
en-

the

to

do

system

body.

the

to

of

even

art

building
edifice

of

denumd

and

the

sciences,

portion

Palladio,

and

received

those

worthy

leading

the

architecture

and

in

of

one

of

claimed

unimportant

Delorme,

the

has

subject

is

sciences

masters

be

No

Carpentry

of

Art

THE

this

in

science,

for

the

may

is

edifice

no

accordance

which

therefore,

is

for

not

information;

be

to

ance
importproperly

Walls

subject.
their

ledge
know-

rules

those

still,
1

great

can

with

art

of

that

and

of

construction

all

buildings

CARPENTRY.

there

be

must

which
The

the

be

to

it is

quite

which
for

it is
the
is

the

to

what

It
is

to

next

and

see

design

best

the

determined

upon

may

is

it, and

to

what

with

If

"c.
consider

to

or

be

to

lack

but

tion
inclina-

covering,

is

it

adapted

generally,

or

may

erected,
what

below,
side-strains

it

end

the

as

to

the

and

strength

of

of

such

the

durability,

done

of

strains

rials
mate-

use

of

efl^ctually
tions
investiga-

as

knowledge

kind
the

both

possible

rules

value.
of

select

be

can

it is

beginning.

the

best

the

work,

any
as

to

so

This

properties
and

is

make

application
proved

well

as

since

enumerate,

commencing

employed.

means

to

unnecessary

consideration

design

have

its

have

plain, that, before

only by

the

will

the

is

pitch,

material

partition

the

carpenter

it

if

is, however,

The

nature

which

sidered,
con-

produced,

the

the

be

to

subjected.

important

the

rest

may

be

may

built,

employed.

be

and

particular

it may

support

weight

be

that

is to

struct
con-

design,

any

know

to

be

thing

span

whether

used

be

the

covered

for

purpose

possibly,

it

for

best

roof

know

purpose;

is

floor

If

be

to

will

executing

or

essential

as

partitions, to

important

attained.
to

and

carpentry

most

making

enough

is not

of

art

and

first
in

end

roofs, floors,

timber

to

of

the

used,
which

it

CARPENTRY.

will

subjected,

be

are

of

the

art.

nature,
of

tice

much

strength

third

One

parts.
of

treats

other,
The

the

make

next

the

degree,

which

in
has

many
with

the

into

art

two

and

of

timber

me

of

timber.

warranted
in

and,

on

artificer, is

to

has

things

incidentals

step

give

now

but

who

tion
construc-

to

the

useful,

the

determined

must

one

partial

carpentry^

or

one

never

it

is

the

yet

order

to

necessary

both.

addition, such

exists

can

others

properties

of

piece

interwoven

dependent;
of

knowledge

all

mechanical

good

Sir

and

divided

carpentry^

mutually

Having

the

like

have

mas
Tho-

regard

closely

and

is, to

understand

them,

is

nature

of

principles,

called

practical

are

is in

authors
is

division

thc!y

weakness."

of wliich
Most

others.

general

science,

prac^

design,

parts;

mechanical

each

parts,

the

like

successful

of

weakest

its

This

the

strength
be

may

of

things

remark

wise

consideration

involved

are

in

''the

produces

itself.

to

that

of

that

The

was

whatever

exceed

otber

many

moment

It

Seppings,
framing,

and

paper,
be

is

as

place
in

produced

thoroughly

the

to

as

informed

thing

ory
The-

and

imagination

the

with

work.

practice

of

himself

in

and,

connected

be

may

execute

to

or

suggested,

what

of
life.

on

the

To
the

CARPENTRY.

involved

principles

labor

his

of

part

execute

of

nicety

some

and

witnessing

design

the

than

gives

to

power

Over

the

That

our

Till

As

them

the

are

that

to

the

and

in

duced,
pro-

and

labor,

unfashioned

terials
ma-

care

endow

them

be
In

The

point.

and

the

stone,

end
in

fact,

soul

upon/*

for

essential
but

the

the

great

possessed

of
in

as

of
says,

all

Mr.
"

desire

arts,

ing
governthat

is,
of

to

the

his

excel

work,
in

"knowledge

Tredgold

Nothing

ment
attain-

important
and

part

every

the

most

throughout,
well

this,

look

we

involved

He

brain,
to

things

advice

control

dumb

form

understand
he

flings

and

cold

all, and,

profession.
power."

we

desired

principle

and

pleasure

become

many

the

workman

architect

out

which

senses

fixed

As

of

and

breast,

eye,

Chaining

of

by

it

as

"

"

There

who,

form

and

real

to

question

the

wrought

crude

comparatively

it is

whether

is

it

as

for

inspiring

and

this

ing
correspond-

as

more

mechanic,

condition
with

it ;

experience

engineer

the

be,

determine,

to

do,

to

entertainment

may

project

and

conceive

to

was

is

he

without

and

is, or

design

be

not

satisfaction

of

degree

will

work

the

in

will

is

his
is

apt, and

assist

the

CARPENTRY.

artist

of

will

and

time

same

Mrhich

them

govern

be

disposed

just

than

attained

be

and

familiar

to

ceptions
con-

nothing

more

copies

enlarged

the

involved,

design

good

the

mind

them."

make

at

to

objects

those

drawing

To

objects

the

render

than

forming

in

more

insure

will

to

make

of

to

study

and

the

success

the

designs

the

with

care

principles

to

attempt.

published,

the

that

who
any

one

rules

are

may

NATURE

AND

PROPERTIES

OF

TIMBER.

Timber

is

differ

Woods

hard,

and

work

for

of

is

three

are,

of

bark,

the

of

composed
CeUvla,

the

is

Epidermis

or

soft.

Thej

to

the

trees

thin

in

of

pith.

the

incases

the

distinct

entire

parts,

"

Liber*

the

skin,

that

composed

and

three

which

agreed,

are

wood,

of

variety

great

however,

and

kind

manner

which

covering

tough

the

to

trees.

the

being

extreme

covering.
Cellula

The

and

regard

branches

is

brittle

required.

are

All

the

is

are

all

being

some

proportional

in

"

Epidermis,

outer

the

and

and

The

they

formed.

Bark

wood,

properties

value

exists

parts,

The

of

of

substance

others

which

trunk

the

tbeir

while

opinions

wood

substantial

in

therefore,

are,

the

the

is

It

Epidermis.
is

formed

into

the

organic

answers

an

infinite

to

the

number

inside

next

matter

of

flesh

of

animals,

tubes.

OF

PROPERTIES

Liber

The
The

the

CiUis,

the

form

together

what

Liber

the

bark,

outer

or

bark.

formed

newly

or

Liber

the

and

Epidermis

is called

inner

the

is

TIMBER.

being

inner.

and

pith
wood,

Duramen

or

The
the

The
heart-wood

all

of

the

of

wood,

the

pith

by

the

be

lies
the

surface
or

by their
exist.

number

shoot

secretion

thus

into

bark,

wood.

into

and,

the

present

one

age

is

A
if the

fibres

series

of

ring

deposit

formed

across

the

the

annually

that

tact,
con-

cylindrical

hardens

so

in

as

of

The
is

off

which

are

but,

bark.

will

rings,

in

One

cut

bark

deposit

is made

nature

the

its centre.

them

ultimately

tree

they

and

kinds.

two

layers

which

the

and

pith

this

determine

at

which

other
of

trunk

part

between

substance

spongy

heart-wood

enlarges

the

and

between

cambium,

deposit

the

wood

it

is

soil

shoots,

new

extends,

and

the

by

without

made

dark

bark.

the

is the

is enclosed

between

AUmmum.

or

is

which

that

is

and

Pith

called

heart-

the
"

and

hard

the

between

pith.
Sap-wood

The

sap-wood,
the

is

exists

kinds,

two

the

and

Heart-wood

next

Li

is of

bai-k, and

the

that

material

is the

Wood

The

of

enabled
the

tree

of

secutive
con-

to

in

PROPEKTIES

It

is unusual

either

in

of

and

So
that

exact

the

the

the

sun,

of

quantity

with
solid

sap,

the

the

undergoes

of

pores

the

the

wood

chemical

the

through

that

side.

These

to

and

and

or

porous

of

vessels
called

passes

leaves,
is

the

fluid

the

change,

cellula,

is filled

forms

which

roots,

of

larger

substance

of

the

action

and

named.

by

of

nearer

the

only

conveyance

is absorbed

which

through

for

side

fact, that,

to

that

is

before

cells

the

of

the

exists

that

nature

being

governed,

entirely solid, but

and

the

the

others.
is

through

is

tree

no

pores

or

designed

are

it

of

tubes,

walls

is transmitted

sap

wood

The

from

mensions
di-

by

north

expanded,

are

the

heart-wood

exposed

more

pores

than

the

the

results

years

this

on

making

being

side

south

which

by

rings

This

side.

some

the

or

governed

respectively

the

thinner,

north

the

of

porous

deposit,

laws

the

are

the

being

the

each

to

part

is

trees

of

nature

alike,

are

thickness,

to

part

that

rings

whole

proportion

favorable

more

solid

TIMBER.

two

any

their

to

the

and
amount

find

to

regard

proportion

OF

where

then

part

up

of

turned
re-

the

bark.

Sap,

being nearly
through

it

when

the

as

leaves
thin

pores,

as

the
water

it either

is

roots,

meets

but,

as

with

very
it

limpid,
passes
substance

up

10

Those

and

the

wood

support,

of

that

three

those

serve

to

and

man,

periods,

During

As

however,

the

second

appear

soon

for

like

and

vigorous,
and

break

die, put
robes

The
less

grows.

the

who

man

away,

with

each

anew."

But,

being

unequal

degree,
Trees

its

engaged

of
of

all

the

grown

often

still

heart

nature

on

of

in

may

venerable

if

loath

rise

to

and

partakes,
the

soft and

no

to

soil

spongy

to

youthful

its

'^

fresh

vitality
hour

tempestuous

some

of

inapt

still

does

to

age

disease

diseased,

it falls

trees

be

spring,

old

then

life, as

to

returning

contest,

timber

so

it

begins

to

storm

tree

gains.

nor

is not

one

the

signs of

and

into

second,

loses

seems

whom

but

the

heart-wood

comparison

oak, clinging

on,

expended,
an

and

sweep

revered

and

the

as

like

age.

period,

neither

period ends,

old

an

first

has

is

old

and

Through

itself,and

maintains

soon,

the

increase.

to

decay,

of

whole

It

divided

be

properly

as

may

additional

tree

at

into

tree.

life of

the

while,

and

increased

infancy, maturity,

"

the

continues

simply

that

remarked,

substance

new

requisite

the

to

elastic

compressed

are

the

be

to

replenishment

which

give

need

receiving

its

back-bone,

or

well

been

time,

TIMBER.

which

tree

for

nature

same

hard

the

continually

are

proper

of

parts

porous

of

in

OF

PROPERTIES

more.

greater

on

which
soil

or

it

usually

OP

PROPERTIES

wood

produce
in

and

if

the

land,

of

all

there

it

is

be

It

are

the

the

top,

sometimes

thus

the

wet

land,

less

solid

and

tough

will

it

be

This

value.

diy

on

grown

stand

and

those

the

middle

the

alone,

portionally
pro-

fact

is

of

and

is

better

forest,

where

for

Hence,

air.

alone

stand

which

trees

where

or

scattered,

sun

those

well

be

may

produced
of

be

lar
irregu-

are

selected.

first

of

be

will

which

to

purposes,

some

is

in

exposed

trees

near

few,

grown

not

of

trees

but

that

building
to

of

are

than

and

oak

and

timber-trees.

wood

The

wood

and

poor,

true

if

soft

on

grown

soft

comparatively

is

Therefore,

fibre.

good

but,

that

11

TIMBER.

pines),
the

tree,

the

which

apart

mention

(as

and

near

be

to

of

action

wrenches

the

of

most

wood

fibres

often

is

the

the

the

of

wood.

are

trunk

the

This

twists

the

with

case

of

winds

heavy

wood
soft-

the

branches

base

shaky.

or

if

that

here,

large

very

found

by

cleaves

to

defect

on

the

the

but,

is

top
and

12

BUILDING-TIMBER.

There
for

but

are

in

carpentry

kinds

"ye

this

pine, oak, hemlock,

Spruce
of

North

is

America,
For

framing-timber,

These

indigenous
it

to

grows
which

qualities
it is

oommon

use

are

spruce^

chestnut.

where

most

in

wood

country.

and

{Abies)

of

excelled

by

varieties,

which

the

colder

in

great

parts
dance.
abun-

constitute

no

good
wood

other

in

use.

There
known

is

as

single

or

of

most

white,
The

growth
smoother
when

and

Uack

spruce
value

may

foliage

The

two

are

white

of

it

be
this

than

seasoned,

the

is

variety
of

wood

of

may

other

the
is

in

procured

is

Of

these,

darker

variety.

clear

the

than

larger
and

sticks.

heavier.

comparatively
be

black

the

tougher
much

white

and

niger)

much

being

spruce
but

aJbd),

{Pinus
;

{Pinus

double

or

familiarly

are

worked

small
much

Spruce-wood,

yellowish

white,

the

13

BUILDING-TIMBER.

annual
of

tint
A

the

foot,
and

pounds

seventieth

fourth

of

of

part

its

thirty-one
about

and

loses

weight.
of

principal defects

The

lustre.

seasoning,

dimensions,

its

darker

silk-like

in

shrinks,

It

by

weighs

seasoned,

when

half.

haying

and

color,

same

cubic

distinctly marked

being

rings

this

wood

its

are

liability

to

and

twisting

due

attention

care

is exercised

little

else

all

in

decay

to

is

be

need

done

composed

of

Fine

{Piniis)

is next

Of

frame.

this

this

and

hard

and

But

two

the

others,

of

the

wood

to

white

be

two

pine

White

the

Pine

fi*om
the

to

with

harder

nearly

Carolina

(Pinus

in

is

belongs
the

of

use

large,

most

pact
com-

white

pine.

attention

our

the

species.

many

largely

relatiug

varieties
most

for

partaking

Remarks

applied

named,

permanency

softest

claim

will

spruce.

varieties
and

it

framing-timber,
of

all

are

ranges

spruce

as

may

The

that

proper

material

as

which

to

kinds, however,

nature

value

there

wood,

all

comprises

and

wood.
in

family ( Conifera)

The

the

dency
ten-

where

exposures

insure

to

work

of

the

prevent

its

but

points,

these

to

and

sun,

situations

damp

paid
to

the

in

splitting

to

same

that

priety
pro-

pine.
are

known

as

pine.

strobus)

abounds

in

all

the

14

BUILDING-TIMBEB.

northern

the

tallest

for

the

of

The

whole

two

hundred

England
the

other

be

seen.

can

favorable
and

which

very

smooth,

the

warm

white.

little

of

and

as

"

being

It is the
is

instances,

liable
it is

to

Its

liable
it is

softer,

generally
some

hardly

it

twist
be

is

received

opinion

and, for

to

perceptible.

in

of

is

brownish

to

in

such

has

parts

dampness
The

spruce.
to

indentation

carpenters,

length;

pounds

It

spruce.*

liable

shrinkage

inches

dimension

exposed

more

of

gloss.

is

preferable

in

being, through

of

and,

bark

twenty-four

than

to

The

ashy

an

as

diameter,

fifteen

than

far

as

in

year.

decrease

or

in

growth,

wood

more

known

these, being

inch

an

with

limbs.

of

that

rapid

single

often

altitude

conspicuous

weighs

warp

wet,

to

of

clear

and

bottle-green

foot

are

continued

wood

wood

frame

of

seasoned

slightly

tendency

in

the

cubic

is

it

diameter

three-quarters.

seasoning

make

covered

of

color

early

increases

in

of

and

season,

The

and

less

is

forests, all excepting

decay

is

height,

are

which

as

In

is

remarkable

an

same

and

is

attains

is the

Fine

situations,

trees

trunk,

pine.

trees,

feet in

two

It

branches

all

It

high, entirely

Weymouth

top

its

frequently

feet.

States,

trees.

of

feet

tree

as

United

native

our

hundred

above

the

straightness

found

it

of

portion

though,

that
in

all

most

15

BUILDING-TIMBER.

joints;

the

at

general

its

nine

as

the

does

carpentry.

to

withstand
for

same

with

and
retain

the

its natural

of

best

any

or

pitch,
It

and

spruce
to

weather

than
in

care

proper

ailer^'ards,

vigor

and

others,

calculated

long

as

in

great

north

as

southern
and

wood

is

it

is

solidity

grain, making
named.

of

used

it

is

soning,
sea-

it will

the

as

for

great

value

with

its

intense

in

all

familiarly
of

up

known

easily
small

framing-

floor-boards

and
the

into

large

our

almost

be

may

into

and

most

saturated

cut

planks

in

described;

Timber

seldom

wood,
of

last

dimensions

for

the

and

sawed

not

is,

luxuriance

pine.

length

when

wood

is remarkable

which

grows

This

amtralis)

thoroughly

Virginia,

joists ; but,

last

and

the

of

obtained.

the

maj

that

and

sun

of

unlike

south

reasonable

timber,

better

(Pinus

compact,

fragrance.

the

is

protection

Pine

very

resin,

at

all

joinery

the

strength

entirely

respects,

States

oak.

Carolina

being

As

purposes

to

exercise

reasonable

for

not,

spruce.

excels

it

of

to

is

ten.

None

effects

the

stiff, it

framing

relation

sustains

to

Jinisking4umber,

For

this

for

value

average

considered

less

being

entirely equal

purposes,

whole,
be

and,

fineness

for

the

of

purpose

its

16

BUILDING-TIMBER.

In

all

but,

in

and

soon

wet

or

is

much

with

oak,

less.

This

stiffness

and

it

of

rival

fracture

This

is

and

and

seasoning,

shrinking
length

It

quarter.

of

either

in

more

the

making

rich

of

yellow

ap-

cubic

fifth

sixty-fiflh

liable

and

foot,

thirty-eight pounds

decreases

something

than

from

far

not

is

wood

finely variegated

weight

average

seasoned,

when

it

giving

The

is

planed,

newly

parts

pearance.

in

when

wood,

made

is needed.

toughness

where

weight

peculiar

solid

concussion

or

vigor,

years

brittle,

very

blow

sudden

oak,

to

resinous

the

late

lighter yet

is, however,

by

it inferior

where

oak,

of

has

its
its

to

strength,

while

added

quality,

its

tensive

nearly equal

is

loses

it

Its

decays.

resilience,

It

required.
to

and

durable

exceedingly

places,

damp

even

moulds

compared

is

it

situations,

dry

of

its

the

other

of

its

weight

dimensions;

direction

woods

of

in

its

common

use.

Oak
in

( Quercus)

are

in

native

known

general
of

perfection
Virginia

white

as

use

for

temperate
and

(the

wood,

Only

species.

many

commonly

is

vigor
northern

like

building

climates,
in

the
limit

and

is

United
of

those

"

yellow oak,
It

purposes.

and

the

ing
exist-

others,

however,

two,
oak

all

found

in

States,
growth

"

is

great
from

"

of

Ca-

18

BUILDING-TIMBER.

For

many

purposes,

euch

"

pieces^ kegs, treenails, "c.,

of

though
it

late

been

has

little

after

'V

the

wood;

but

it

is

kind.
for

and

this

of

and

of

of

planted
sup-

oak-framing

thing
some-

or

of

beauty
and

is

extent,

great

any

churches,

the

was

other

its

its

framing-timber,

value

it

gradually

finish-lumber,
as

ries
centu-

two

country,

natural

rich

first

of

to

framing-timber,

have

used

The

indispensable

exclusion

piece

new

durability

usefulness

the

of

timber-roofs

the

wood

the

pine

When

open

of

strength

now

seen.

for

For

entire

and

spruce

seldom

the

to

is

general

settlement

it, till
but

oak
"

used.

almost

employed

as

years,

strengthening-

as

lected
se-

great
insure

of

^'monarch

the

forest."
In

value

addition

the

and

the

familiarly

those

are

oak.

live
oak

yellow

to

produce

For
timber

the

the

but

the

Quercus

is

only

used,

and

habits
and

family.

is

of

very

of
in

important

for

to

equal
building.
shipwhite

tree

crooked

however,
an

allied

with

the

oak

Hack

respects,
used

in

next

nearly

nearly identical

purposes,
it

many

is

two

the

as

principally

is

small

the

known

former

is, in

nature

various
is

and

wood

The

oak;

The

oak

lAve

value.

foregoing,

the

to

tend

timber.
which

member

the

of

19

BUILDING-TIMBER.

{Canadensis)

Hemlock
kinds

cheaper

all

nearly
of
when

of

It

carpentry.

places

which

and

the

spruce

oflen

is

is

been

properly

carefully protected

from

the

considered

be

may

wood

as

tending

structure,
makes

it

either

tensile

It

while

exposed
wood

in

cleaves

of

action

either

sun

best

studding-joists
one

other

hard

adheres
if

driven

before
of

to

its

is

woods

viz., the

nail.
the
be

it

An

drawn

slating, clapboarding,
sap

is

usually

grain,

required.
if

and,

its

wood

heartthe

by

holds

oak

the

and

with

will

nails

or

of

it

nail,

cut

quality

common

the

which

length,

This
for

sesses
pos-

tenpenny

its

out.

small

Hemlock

tenacity

half

in

even

into

cut

with

ordinary

wood

firmly

culiar
pe-

where

(existing

common

recommendations
as

is

state,

boards.

in

can

first

boarding,

The

it

common

it

wind.

quality

into
it

or

sun,

Its

situations

tendencies

specimens),

is

timbers

surrounding

or

these

and

clefiish

or

unseasoned
the

the

wood.

strain

damp

an

from

Considering
the

in

of

large

compressive

or

quickly

decays

for

unreliable

entirely

to

dry situations,

action

twistish

to

the

tion
produc-

seasoned,

fourth-rate

the

to

In

light pines.

in

indigenous

favorable

are

has

the

used

part

is

one

rough

shingling,

"c.

possessed

of

an

intense

and

some-

20

BUILDING-TIMBER.

"

in

unseasoned

an

from

seven

less

The

cubic

pounds.

It

and

than

it

as

of

foot,

when

and

wood

in

is

light

twenty-

seasoning,

little

one-fourth

loses

mediately
im-

project

to

dry, weighs

shrinks,

spruce,

iron

begins

the

while

use

corrodes

it

color

for

unfit

is

where

part

wood.

the

brown

state,

the

at

It

odor.

unpleasant

what

of

its

'

weight.
Chestnut
and

is

is

in

and,

preferable

Like

years.

and

flexible:

is

other

of

that
but

quality
woods

is

liable

healthy

namely,

to

without,

possessed
when

once

by

in

which
of
the

are

ground,
forty

is

pact
com-

and

tough

brittleness,
while

pearing
ap-

within

contains
either

it

both,

of

wood

very

Chestnut

rotten.
not

is

trees

is

durable

in

the

For

chestnut

service

of

grain

wood

and
and

for

usually

rival.

those

set

solidity.
is

times

at

posts

good

young

old

decayed

valuable

For

the

oak,

sound
it

oak.

and

used,

in

so

partaking

considered

be

may

and

its

is

oak,

with

exceedingly

equally

places
to

oak

which

it is

with

side

by

While

situations,

damp

identical

regions,

value,

great

color, toughness,

side

for

of

wood

nearly

temperate

value.

equal

dry

in

of

purposes

of

is

respects

growing

most

it

most

native

found

is

in

it resembles

which
It

( Castana)

one

of

seasoned,

the
it

is

21

BUILDING-TIMBER.

but

slightly susceptible

The

weight

of

is

seasoned,

in

scientific

many

Europe

properties
in

on

and

common

these

of

himself
to

in

given,

the

Acacia
in

weighs

as

fectly
per-

America,
that

in

made

their

identical

general
those

with

brief

the

been

of

synopsis

carpenter

avail

may

by applying

results

the

timber.

locust

wood

"

foot,

cubic
It

forty-eight pounds.

known

commonly

is

when

seasoned,

slightly stronger

oak.

than

Christiana

Deal

allied

nearly
is

bear

have

are,

experiments

{RoUnn),

America

It

which

strength, nearly

be

when

wood,

experiments

corresponding

our

the

TIMBER.

woods

use

will

of

swelling.

or

forty-one pounds.

FOREIGN

As

shriDking

foot

cubic

of

to

somewhat

the

more

of

spruce

heavier

one-fiflh

abtes),

(Ptnus

and

strain,

and

wood

"

North

America.

tougher.

It

is

also

will

one-fiflh

stifiPer.
Cowrie
tree,

australis),

{Dammara
the

wood

of

which

answers

"

land
New-Zeawell

to

the

22

BUILDING-TIMBER.

pitch

yellow pine growing

or

States.

cubic

the

when

foot,

Its

fortj pounds.

in

New-England

is

strength

general

weighs

seasoned,
that

of

our

spruce.
Dantzic
white

Oak

oak,

lighter,
oak;

it

while

cubic
It

of

but

less

New

from

and

yellow

it is

tougher,

not

wood

considered

northern

tensile

same

"

as

pitch-pine.

thirty-eight pounds.

strength

wood

Forest

of

pines
of

nature

as

our

spruce,

nearly

It
New

spruce,

identical
well

answers

England,
in

the

to

but
stiffer

being

with
red

partakes
than

the

named.

respects,
more

four

and

dry, weighs

Mar

Norway

has

white

our

elastic

that

pines

when

Fir,

the

one-tenth

than

be

would

England,
spruce

the

Memel

of

one-fourth

is

"

foot,

is

rohur)

{Pinus sylvestris),

Fir

in

our

stronger.

stronger,

is

as

one-seventh.

by

between

cross

and

one-seventh

and

stiffness

same

{Qtiercus

Mar-Forest

which,

the

tougher

Oak

and,

stiff

as

is

but

English

of

is

Spruce
like

Riga

black

our

When

pitch.

pounds
Oak

to

{Pinus

is

cubic

abies) is,
It

spruce.

seasoned,

it

is

in

many

harder,

weighs

and

thirty-

foot.

one-seventh

stronger

than

our

23

BUILDING-TIMBER.

oak,

white

of

the

but

toughest

stiff.

less

Fir

red

is

nearly

andtjeUow
Pine

with

of

varieties

Weymouth

identical

one-seventh

It

is
one

Scotch

England

is

the

white

oak

in

identical

use.

with

New-

our

pine.

(Finus

pine

strobus)
of

New

is
a

England.

wood

24

FELLING

The

fellingof

architects
vius

was

as

to

in

the

he
*^

the

imaginary

will
**

It

that

The

it."
be

in

the

end

to

is

the

at, and

there

vigor
be

be

my

"),

be

an

in

and

timber,

quaintly

says,

perfection of

trees

Evelyn
and

what

good

harm

no

upon

to

be

may

can

depend

John

celebrated."

attained

in

to

produce,

from

amount

good

oracle

supposed

be

largest possible

but

find

we

Roman

"

There

Sir

felled

be

suggestion (itbeing
of

to

subject,

this

on

and

moon;

am

felling should

timber-trees
the

when

observe
should

never

practice;

the

therefore,

should

laughed

advantage.

Yitru-

moment.

advice

opinion

been

has

much

the

by ancient

upon

giving

the

saying of

termed

following

in

of

decrease
Ware

This

of

timber

that

looked

was

matter

minute

so

urge

Isaac

timber

as

TIMBER.

of

the

management
a

sound

of

given- number,
and

durable

wood.

26

of

indications

as

sufficient

tend
is

that

As

at

in

each

the

to

prove

which

the

when

spring,

nutriment
wood:

new

when,

autumn,
the

wood

new

flows

of

the

the

and

is

in

dryest
;

the

for

then,

in

tree.

in

watery
Next

as

to

to

in

the

in

upon
will

by

again

should

of

table
vege-

heat

is, for

for,

formation

at

of

the

month
is

this
that

matter

leaves

evaporated,

there

and

decay.

vegetable

the

vessels

the

full

be

parts

August,

it

times

year;

and

this

of

gives

harden,

wood

for

which

these

the

supply

early part

acted

is in

material

States, August

fluids

the

motion

pores

the

"

exhausted

been

January

the

month
the

One

deposits

sap.

seasons

filled.

and

of

time

least
two

are

deposit
the

being

ferment,

of

wood,

wood

which,

the

the

gations
investi-

proper

stagnation

neither

best

most

in

vegetable

for, if

in

and

dry

to

New-England

purpose,

and

"

may

the

having

time

felled

moisture,

time,

the

At

juices,

In

after

wood.

is

fluid

is

the

be

trees

are

other

make

to

vessels

leaves,

the

All

contains
there

of

season

only

article,

the

the

to

of

is

tree

work.

the

tree

the

when

year

the

the

the

that

another

in

stated

is

for

favorable

most

that

felled.

be

consideration

next

year

and

decline,

to

age

The

sap

TIMBER.

FELLING

but

the
of
little

FELLING

The

which

at

age
suitable

most

there

The

from
This

these

trunk

is

rendered

have

experiments
strong

as

other

grown

on

the

on,

and

in

fact,

his

"

bark

naked

In
the

but

felled

in

trees

to

of

advice

full

the

that

variety of opinions
of

spring,
Emerson's

early
and

^^

architects

fell

Trees

the

and

trees

Shrubs

bark

and,
mended
recom-

in

Evelyn,

and

boards

and

should

you
let

so

them

felling."

It

exists.

remove

the

between

elapse
the

and

of

and

Hamel,

that

should

to

as

the

excellent

season,

bark

with
Du

some,

as

similar,

earnestly

before

year
time

the
of

fit

it, the

times

venerable

make

To

"

says,

removal

tree,

the

regard

respects

have

been

instances,

four

be

to

The

trees.

durable

and

Bufibn,

practice.

is the

your

stand

custom

it

soil,

bark

for, by

all

naturalists,

most

Sylvia,"

planks,

in

tention.
at-

the
the

particular
it

mined,
deter-

immemorial,

some

sheds.*

in

of

strong

shown

same

dried

the

in

wood,

branches

value

as

and,

of

time

inestimable

heart-wood;

the

from

the

claim

which

removal

the

and

been

having

things

principal

has,

of

sap-wood

is

and

practice

considered

other

felled,

be

work,

the

two

of

first
the

for

are

should

trees

time

27

TIMBER.

felling
the

was

the

succeeding
Massachusetts,"

of*

usual

bark

in

winter.

p.

88.

28

FELLING

Later

in

advance,

continue

The

hardened

into

the
that

from

is

in

entire

that

the

it

should

be

of
be

may
done

be

As

the

bark
while

spring,

off

taken

large portion of

material

such

only

to

at

it

out

run

the

be

incision,
matter

remain

is removed

as

by

addition

fermentable

would

so

manner,

can

In

at

around

roots,

this

felled.

and

new

it,which

with

out

pass

the

is

tree

for, in
than

easily

the

the

near

and

into

cut

tree,

discharged

permitted

it be

is to

the

more

after

evaporation
this, if

suggestion

trunk

sap

will

if

in

motion,

second

the

will

wood

becomes

closing

solid.

the

for

out

removed.

thereby

more

most

period.

The

been

gradually
;

better

in

leaf

has

substance
it

will,

and

wood

the

is

four, years

Trees

bark

making

freely

sap

expand

the

woody

and

sap-vessels,
separates

to

in

remaining

sap

one.

it

even

or

of

after

seasons

that

proved

three,

instead

situations,
several

work

this

perform

to

have

investigations

to

it

TIMBEB.

in the

would

wood
off

pass

by evaporation.
"This
to

felled
the

should

be

made

August

in

which

cutting

and

the
the

incision

heart-wood

premature

fall

possible,

as

of

should

the

tree.

in

the

the
be

made

without

winter

tree

as

is

vious
preto

be

deep into

inducing

a*

FELLING

'Many

suggestions

mechanical

tlie

these

familiar

mention

"will

strike

the

cleave

"wrenching,

injure

thereby

the

the

found

often

the

ground

as

grain

the

the

and,

mill.

not

be

discovered

when

which

become

it

by

and

wood,

defects,

has

moving
re-

branches

soned,
sea-

are

could

as

of

falls,-

it

Such

timber

but,

we

value

such

tree

of

workmen,

the

when

timber.

after

trees

intelligent

of

side

regards

as

felling

namely,

one;

the

made

be

in

all

to

only

from

i^ill

might

operation

are

29

TIMBER.

left

the

30

SEASONING

TIMBER.

Nothing

contributes

of

than

timber

The

objects

saccharine

the

remove

which

heat

by
cause

the

remove

all

moisture,

shrink

to

its
retain

to

To

wrought.
used

of

smallest

shape

attain

all

subjected
this

is of

most

the

to

means,

and

many

the

most

the

wood

and

timber

have

been

practical
properly

air,
and

perfectly seasoned,

abled
en-

been

be

and

be

it has

and

simple

to

may

thus

afler

water

and

second,

methods

If

value.
of

and,

that

place

this,

action

be

order

matter,

ferment,

dimensions,

but, fortunately,

them

by

in

first, to

are,

may

decay

to

seasoning.

vegetable

moisture

wood

its

loose

or

and

thereby

attained

be

to

value

the

judicious

and

thorough

principal

increase

to

more

it
at

may,
small

expense.
As

soon

immediately
this

is

as

it has
removed

impracticable,

been

to

and

felled,
the
the

timber

mill,
bark

and

should
sawed.

has

not

be
If
been

SEASONING

31

TIMBER.

it

removed,
into

river

the

till

remain
If

should

or

thej

is
be

dry spot,

some

and

covered

them

the

of
Afler
into

put

surface,

the

lumber

the

water,

for

place,

where

protect

it

has

sun

or

ground,

to

keep

of

strong

be

chained

from
rents
cur-

remaining

it
from

the

out

pass

for

and

out,

be

may

the

submerged

taken

piled
with

covered

direct

action

should

be

beneath

when

and

dissolved,

be

down

weeks,

two

it

sawed,

been

and

least

at

it should

named,

hot

the

trees

the

on

wind.

After

water.

of

action

to

placed

be

from

up

of

boughs

there

mill.

should

blocked

well

logs put

stream,
the

to

they

near,

with

will

matter

taken

be

can

the

off, and

running

some

stream

no

taken

be

of

its

vegetable
into

the

the
in

time

boards

both

dry
to

and

sun

wind.
It

for,
of

is
if

the

it be

closed;

dried,

will

And,

outside

will

to

be

so

pass

to

will
that

if

dry
heat,

off, and

become

it

within.
and

be

instead

Timber,
is

it

too

thus

quickly

large portion

thereby

hardened,

moisture,

badly,

to

great

further,

retained
cracks

attempt

subjected

carbon

timber.
the

well

not

dried
and
of

weaken

the

by

heat,

the

pores

passing
too

out,

suddenly

materially

jured.
in-

32

In

piling it, the

should

laid

are

and

wind,"

bent

sleepers

firm

and

their

in
made

to

retain

the

or

which

on

perfectly

be

so

remain

will
if

TIMBER.

SEASONING

solid

level

first

and

it

is

of

that
for

position;

before

pieces

"out

throughout,

original
wind

the

they

timber,
will

seasoned,

ft

generally

should

wood

of

be

piece directly

the

through

pass

shield

to

the

and

over

put

between

the

other,

whole

pile
from

timber

direct

action

of

and

air

form

same

when
the

for,

the

air

while

hot

moderate

it

sun,

freely

is

sary
neces-

of

wind

free

warmth

each

may

draughts

strong

of

and

sticks,

that

so

Pieces

dried.

culation
cir-

equally

are

essential.
More

smoking,

for
The

length

of

wood,

dry
still

it will
if

more,

be

and

the

upon

not

season,

sawed

into

exposed

to

the

as

air-

an

valuable

for

to

pensate
com-

seasoning

ber
tim-

of

while

his

by

sap

size

"c.,

exercise
that

such
"

expense.

requisite

its situation,

remembering

that

surfaces

time

should

carpenter

always

of

entirely

depends
kind

trouble

the

the

sufficiently

not

are

"

seasoning

exhausting

steaming,
"c.

pump,

of

methods

costly

large
and

smaller
action

the

stick,

The

drying.

judgment

dwn

stick

is

never

pieces,
the

so

shrink

consequently

of

the

and

air.

new

34

of

action
*

PRESERVATION

THE

for

as,

time

in

instance,
its

the

other

all

will

retain

the

adds

in

the

if

it

and

larger

part

but

the

subjected

be

of

timber,

same

aii^d nature,
it
for

insects

hj

is

or

almost

as

this

alternate

the

to

in

brittle.

considered

reverse

will

properties

injured
be

"

submerged,

its

of

Jiot

may

the

remain

and

it

it

become

of

heat,

"

properties

water,

water,

indestructible

in

fact, if

In

centuries.

oven,

and

piece

If

dryness.

continued

power,

identical
in

to

baker's

hand,

respects

immersed

be

over

elastic

lose

If, on

exposed

be

timber

of

stick

and

moisture

alternate

TIMBER.

OF

the

of

action

case

water

air.

As

soon

as

of

action

formed

parts

the

to

the

sort

of

of

the

wood

air,

of

exposures
which

wood

and

slime

fungus,

ends

coating
When

the

on

continual
induces

visible

destruction

entire

it

vital

series

is

posed
ex-

from

and

lives

the

to

saccharine

slimy

ferments

soon

the

in

and

exists.

which

itself.
kind

exposed

solution

this

this

is

vegetable

dissolve;

to

wherever

grows

the

moisture,

begins

matter

of

piece

of

of
cay,
dethe

timber.

Every

part

protected.
on

or

very

No
near

of

frame

work
the

should

should,

ground,

in

some

therefore,
where

way
be

earth

be

placed
can

in

THE

should

nor

of

steam

or

The

shielded.
timber

are

boards

is in

if

sills of
In

left

instance

when

it is

without

exposed

resorted

be

first

of

step

with

the

some

to

that

Thus,

by closing

is to

of

like

state,

this

preparation
much

the

valuable
heat

nature,

applying

evapo-

case

timber

with

the

miutt

be

moisture,

to

of

action

is

surfaces

and,

to

would

trary,
con-

"c.

weather

the

for

means

tak"n

be

When

wood,

artificial

with

the

on

exposed

exposed

as

work

Sometimes,

the

the

t"e

to

way

preservation

to.

thoroughly.
whole

where

necessarily

covering,

The

is

but

preserving

that

is oflen

as

of

but,

moisture

action

some

the

buildings, timber-bridges,

covered,

must

retain

it ;

in

effectual.

protection,

no

exposed,

every

also

Covering
instsftices

is

to

serves

porate

methods

numerous.

many

direct

heing

artificial

this

however,

the

to

without

vapor,

with

contact

suhjected

he

any

35

TIMBER.

immediate

into

come

way

any

OP

PllESEUVATION

the

has

will

the

pores,

been

the

done,

covered

be

strike

harden

piece

ber
tim-

the

season

should

possible,

as

to

outside.

the
is

the

into

pervious
im-

made

weather.

practice for
it

the

by burning

beneath

hot

charcoal,

and,

solution

of

preservation

something

it is in

while

of

or

an

ounce

ber
tim-

heated
and

36

THE

half

of

PRESERVATION

corrosive

the

with

of

the

two

scales

of

the

upon
will

iron

this

is

manner

Fyroligneous
in

stove-pipes

good
to

preservative

the

and

weather,

their

should

them,

repeated
clinkers

the

newly

is

tar

sifted

put

wood

since

from

be

anvil,

an

placed

made

dust

lie about

the

or

it

on,

prepared

good

named,

drips from
also

are

recommended

all

framing

In

that

mortise

that

liquor

condenses,

agents.

together

first

the

applied hot,

have

preparations

be

finely pulverized

vapor

every

tenons,

be

to

is

scarcely susceptible of decay.

acid,

soot

whale-oil

is

is

pamted

and

operation

durability,

which

of

decoctions

be
oiL

this

while

this

and

that

forge, or

great

possess

lead

timber

which

timber

it should

coal-tar

and

times,

blacksmith's

the

If

ground.

fords

aqua

After

water.

white

hot

all

to

three

or

from

in

benefit

great

near

of

solution

of

one

dried,

quality of

best

thin

well

TIMBER.

or

of

gallon

work

the

and

done,

sublimate,

in

(nitric acid),

OF

with

can

all

the
of

coating
before

the

hold
wood

strong
as

exposed
water,
about
of

the

work

is

put

wood

at

the

one

together.
It

unfrequently

not

lower
is

found

of

the

of

end
to

be

structure

occurs

posts, rafters, "c,

entirely decayed,
are

the

that

perfectly

of

church-steeples,

while
sound.

other

In

parts
almost

THE

all such

admitted
its

to

piece of

the

to

of

one

work,

the

the

the

condition

solutions

saturated

effectually to
evaporation

good

also

all moisture

Another

mistake

prevent
will

retained,

the

the

and

suggestion
of

nature

to

than

exemplification
The

that

suppose

longer

the

of

proper
soned,
sea-

corrosive

mate,
subli-

and

sanded,

remember;

to

paint

is
be

coated

from

be

from

prevented
be

may

or

any

thoroughly

impenetration

in

the

soned:
sea-

as

so

without,
within
wood

will

piece.

is

to

work

use

will

large

small
this

it

outside

the

roughly
tho-

thoroughly

applying

that

rot

then

and

well

before

should

with

be.

be

from

wood

to

treated

painted

can

would

refrain

to

therefore,

ever

it

caution

for,

as

thus

be

in

diluted

with

it

as

preparation

be

and

permanently

Wood

sanded.

felled, afterwards

durable

namely,

the

be

described,

and, finally,kept properly

One

to

should

it

first

and

when
well

as

fect,
imper-

down

mortise,

is

framing

weather,

painted

is

being

following

which,

filled

has

37

TISIBER.

wood.

When

exposed

of

water,

end,

the

rotted

OF

part

some

cases,

has

post

PRESERVATION

We

light spokes

of

will

may

New-England

any
a

wheel

small

as

permit.

timbers

ones.

at

timbers

will

It

is

continue

see

an

house.
farmremain

38

THE

and

sound
to

cart

PRESEKVATION

If

timber

strain),

all

dictate,

since

finally, it

allowance

large

insure

should

be

part

so

exposed

surely

as

injure

of

Therefore,

the

ends

walls, also

all

surfaces

side
in

or

edge

mortises,

kept dry,

and

of

in

in

stick

one

""c.,

timbers

every

durability

The^llowing

are

of
a

proper

much

so

are

as

"

and

any

stick

will

part

built
where

another,

supplied

is

as

into
the

tenons

with

air,

properly protected.

way

OF

timber
few

in

unprotected

upon
be

DURABILITY

The

is

whole

contact,

should

"

it,

which

rests

that
because

qualities ;

the

destroy

or

of

And,

sound

the

injure

to

as

would

remembered,

Only
its

permanent

duration.

of

for.

used

dimensions

remain

retain

will

actually-protected

the

most

cared

well

for

longer

even

the

first

prudence

scrupulously

or

when

made

of

its

of

tongue

entirely decayed.'

that

certainly

not

and

done

increase

no

portion,

condition,

has

being

been

will

will

timber

the

sufficiently strong

is

has

piece

TIMBEB.

after

years

they belonged

(the requisite

the

for

Strong

which

OP

TIMBER.

is

aLnost

examples

for

incredible.

illustration.

for

vouched

being
and

others
The

of

the

wood

The
have

more

use

not

While

there

for

enclosed

to

digging
Park,

ton

believe

Paul,

and

now,

sound:

at

old

Rome,

after
and

and

planks
after

than

fiftyyears.
of

walls
in

Tunbridge
middle

the

of

had

which

been

roof

to

the

of

the

of

the

in

thousand

original

house

records

prior
out

discovered,

were

of

fi-amed

was

the

Lon-

and

ancient

there

The

more

years,

Place,

piles

bridge

timber

still.

Bridge

years.

which

placed

greater

Savoy

foundations

the

Windsor,
were

St.

still

for

London

hundred

old

an

durability of

The

even

of

timbers

rest

perfect preservation,

hundred

seven

the

hundred

timber-curb,

years,

decayed.

found,

was

of

chestnut

the

there

ing
hav-

condition.

seven

of

six

down

wall,

stone

of

for

taking

Some

than

state

inches

piers

and

after

hundred

ordinary

foundation

in

Castle, Kent,

sixteen

the

elm, beach,

been

having

Bondelet,

by Trajan,

materially

yet
the

found

while

its

in

Beneath

thick

in

under

don, oak,

Hamel,

petrified four

elm-piles

are

were

be

being

been

and

than

more

to

built

bridge

driven

found

were

Du

by Bufibn,

39

TIMBEB.

"

piles of

been

OF

PRESEBVATION

THE

the

Dit-

at

incline

year

us

1396.
is

ground
basilica

year
years,

cypress-wood

of

816;
it

is

doors

40

of

the

hundred

six

of

others

the

of

dome

its

Mark,

at

St

than

more

roof

of

of

fir,

fifty

years

The

enable

but

of

may

Many

good

old

arrises

while

decayed

to

in

America

white-pine
kept

the

which

is

and

properly
of

The

as

freestone,

badly

in

in

is

the

less

still

when

as

same

than

why
in

have

Europe.

were

neighborhoods,

years.

which,

been

hundred

sound,

they

fifty

timber

exist,

than

not

antiquity;

as

painted,

wood

good

like

here

more

does

exist

cornices

storms

years.

are

appears

durable

as

been

to

fifty

The

hundred

of

examples

to

reason

be

not

having

though

old.

settlement

country's

our

refer

to

us

no

good,

ago.

age

timber-

years

four

than

more

by

decay

or

Paris,

at

more

The

still

fifty

and

Convent

executed

was

rot

odor.

is

use

replaced

from

Venice,

Jacobin

the

when

original

hundred

eight

in

being

free

perfectly

retaining

TIMBER.

were,

years,

brass,

wood

after

building,

same

than

OF

PBESEBYATION

THE

posed
ex-

and

and

the

made;

has

42

STRENGTH

obtained

passed

TIMBER.

that

and, provided

be

OF

with

safetj

are

sufficient

approximations

limits

which

pointed

out,

the
be

direct

to

not
can-

these

their

tice/'
prac-

"

Mr.

Peter

Nicholson
have

authors
follows

as

On

"

of

able

I
"

assisted

have

have

Experiments
until

day,

late

of

science

and

remains

of

piece
accuracy

"

fact, however,

timber

may

for

Tredgold*8

all

"

be

Elementary

general

my^endeain

versed

timber
to

have,

reform

the

has

been

rash, experiments

than

that

more

the

with

of

of

strength

any

sufficient

In

purposes.

Principles

It

written.

been

determined

practical

of

well

little

have

which

metical
arith-

an

and

of

Probably

perhaps

works

the

all

by

strength

carpentry.

by bold,

done

the

but

been

unsuccessful.''

been

tended

to

all

gentlemen

hitherto

on

have

should

that

lament

some

Carpenter's

'

tional
propor-

gave

my

certain,

several

by

mathematics,

to

scantlings

consequences

application.

that

hopes

theory of

the

of

rule

dors,

in

in

remarks

the

"

which

on

quent
subse-

libitum)

subject,

calculations

was

reduce

to

subtile

works

whose
ad

timber,

and

observations

Guide,'

borrowed
that

strength

(from

the

Carpentry,"

ex-

art

68,

p. 29.

**

Carpenter

and

Joiner's

Assistant,"

pp.

vL

and

vii. (Preface).

OF

STRENGTH

amples

of

framing

dimensions

for

experience

has

all

comprise

of

the

rules

These

for

this

work,

wood,

Hampshire,

or

as

the

as

may

just

Maine.

average

experiments

be

have

considered

principles

the

prepared

been

made

pressly
ex-

the

founded

on

are

on

specimens

The

the

New

reliable.
as

lected
se-

were

kinds

respective

carefully

were

and

dry

Massachusetts,

either

of

the

to

use,

common

exhibiting

and

in

grown

regard

tables

in

experiments

many

sound

given,

But,

need.

can'

in

kinds

tables

of

results

tables

be

examples

these

informed

fully

as

carpenter

various

will

involved.

and,

be

may

given

are

and

such

work,

this

timbers

approved

that

he

strength

and

several

any

that

in

published

the

43

TIMBER.

made,

the

44

TIMBER-STRAINS.

Timber
strain

Ist,

subjected

three

to

kinds

of

"

When

force

the

direction

the

be

may

of

tends

its

length:

force

tends

to

pull

the

this

is

called

piece

in

tensile

strain,

When

2d,
of

its

the

depth,

known

Sdy
of

its

as

When

or

to

of
in

following

an

inch-square

common

use

fibres

is called

tion
direc-

the

this

is

monly
com-

of

rod

or,

in

the

compressive

direction
strain.

STRAIN.

exhibits

table

it in

compress

TENSILE

The

it in

cross-strain,

what

or

the

across

it tends

length,

bend

to

each

other

the

of

the

words,

tensile
kinds

the

strength
of

power

wood

each

45

TIMBER-STRAINS.

will

resist

asunder

when

in

the

Kind

of

Black

applied

so

direction

of

tend

to

as

its

length

Wood.

in

8,300

Pine

White

12,000

Oak

13,200

Hemlock

9,100

Chestnut

10,500

PROBLEM

TO

Poonds.

10,260

Pine

Carolina

it

tear

"

Weight

Spruce

White

to

DETERMINE

THE

I.

OF

STRENGTH

TENSILE

RECTANGULAR

TIMBER.

Rule.
inches

by

weight

set

"

will

Depth,

of

the

wood

in

the

product
the

force

will

be

by

table.

in

in
the

The

pounds

required

inches

spruce,

the

thick

to

pull

and

10

The

70

10

horizontal

distance

side, from

the

is

the

top of

commonly
top

to

lbs.

718,200

Ans,

across

position,

Breaking-power.

10,260

70

the

and

piece

deepP
Thickness,

of

be

force

What

tie-beam

inches

"

of

the

of

resist

Example.

asunder

inches,
kind

obtained

so

will

piece

in

the

against

product

depth

its

thickness

the

Multiply

"

the

the

called
under

beam,
its

part,

when

Ihichness
its

dqrth.

it is
;

and

in
that

46

STRAINS.

TIMBER-

PROBLEM

DETERMINE

TO

Rule.

the

PIECE

OF

TDCBKR

SIDE

ONE

STRAIN,

GIVEN

the

force

table
be

to

the

be

by

be

must

thick,

in

the

of

ONLY

kind

of

divide

and

The

quotient

required.

side

of

depth

the
resist

to

inches,

product.

this

inches,

in

inches

side

given

the

against

set

sum

the

resisted

What

"

pine,

by

dimension,

Example.
white

the

Multiply

"

in

will

RESIST

OF

GIVEN.

BEING

wood

DIMENSIONS

THE

WILL

THAT

U.

beam

of

stram

of

232,400

pounds?
8,300
4

Breaking-weight

33,200)

Thickness.

of

Ans.

following

various

named

Kind

of

English

kinds

Beech

"

Ash

"

Elm

"

inches.

table
of

exhibits

wood,

as

the

given

by

tensile

by

the

inches.

strength
authors

"

SciSi""I?ditV

wood.

Oak
......

"

(7

232,400

33,200

The

232,400

"

ExperimenWlst.

19,800

Bevan.

17,300

Muschenbrock.

22,000

Bevan.

17,300

Muschenbrock.

16,700

Bevan.

12,000

Muschenbrock.

14,400

Bevan.

13,489

Muschenbrock.

47

TIMBER-STRAINS.

16,000

Bevan.

20,582

MuscbenbrocL

Locust

"

7,800

Bevan.

8,130

Muschenbrock.

7,200

Bevan.

6,641

Muschenbrock.

Pitch-Pine

7,818

MuscbenbrocL

Larch

8,900

Bevan.

Teak

8,200

Bevan.

Walnut

"

Poplar
"

Mahogany

21,800

Bevan.

Lancewood

23,400

Bevan.

The

following
of

strength

that

2d,

position
of
the

one

sition,

length

must,

be

of

than

more

the

by

periment
ex-

as

of

is

in

the

it

liable

quick

as

is
in

strength

the

level

supposed
;

short,

to

while

throughout

piece being

addition

of

it

perfect timber,

tensile

short
in

or

fourth

perfect timber,

strength

nearly

in

of

long

piece

is

to

subjected

be

not

properly supported,

tensile

place

established

should

break

would

and

piece

been

timber

strain

piece

equal

Sd,

one

of

piece

permanent

power

have

timber,

relation

in

"

1st, A
to

corollaries,

and,
to

to

whether

part

in

another.
in

vertical

po-

proportionate
stronger,
power

be

since

applied

to

to

its

long
the

48

TIMBER-STRAINS.

lower

sustain

end,

when

Athf

In

timber,

only
is

instance,

having

through

it, should

inches

struts,
and

or

the

across

then

but

5th,
with

its

are

about

pine,

and

as

right angles
length.
the

to

drag

fibres,

This

when
it

post

the

out,

and

the

but

of

ends

into

down,

inches,

and

at

will

it would

both

ends,
be

thereby

thereby

soft

is

power

pin
it

which

split

as

ones,

to

exerts

has

pinned
the

to

applied

applied

is

and

sixteenth

which

which

oak

as

the

when

as

through

tenon,

passing

the

cut

two

from

is that

power

of

wood

driven,

the

to

be

woods,

hemlock,
when

ten

one-tenth.

eighth,

strong,

by

deep.

hard

an

if

vertically,

and

stick.

measuring

supported

placed

tough

twentieth,

inches

cross-strength,

6th, The

spruce,

beam,

beam

rectangular

in

chestnut,

the

sured
mea-

entire

rod

and

be

eight

as

kind,

the

eight

diagonal

reduced,

thick

of
of

top

measure

the

measuring

half

thing

any

should

considered

be

wood

of

piece

any

inch-and-a-half

an

and

of

throughout

tie-beam

inches,

six

the

hence,

top.

strength

of

continued

the

near

the

much

so

and

weight;

own

part

calculating

as

For

will

breaks,

it

its

wood.

in,

at

their

on

been
tends

"

50

CROSS-STRAIN.

If

beam,

will

support,

four

feet

will

long
A

each

to

If

will

ends,
hundred
that

if

amount

centre,

of

points

will

support

distributed
A
will

end,

Experiments

made

to

of

progression
more

its

to

its

than

length.

length,
half

the

and

at

if

but

amount

it will
which

each

points
that

its

will

centre,

be

weight

fixed

in

the

to

in

when
dimen-

same

that

prove

the

geometrical

exact

actually
would

wall,

weight,

tend

decrease

if

therefore,

much

of

one

that

well

length.

end

as

the

the

entire

BufTon

not

the

equally

beam,

one

will

and

at

at

the

points,

its

by

does

beam

as

of

placed
named

fourth

the

strength

half

only

sustain

placed

pounds),

pounds

but

twice

side

will

pounds

over

having

beam,

applied

"

equally

eight

(or 3,200

feet).

of

centre

it

last

thousand

two

support

the

be

thousand

either

amount

those

be

the

at

weight

pounds

Again

(two

support

beams

equally well

from

pounds

from

half-way

and

length.*

support

between

that

hundred

sixteen

centre,

feet

support.

twice

support

one

long, supported

hundred

eight

half-way

"

its

at

four

each

pounds,
hundred

two

their

as

feet

it will

pounds,

points,

of

inversely

support,

long,

rule, therefore, is, that

sixteen

beam,

but

feet

two

hundred

five

support

third

other

and

square

its centre,

at

fifljpounds.
are

inch

an

bear

break

thing
some-

one

of

6l

CROSS-STRAIN.

the
is

both

with

sions

placed

weight

which

sustain

the

to

Should

of

with

wall,

the

least
and

most;

beam,

the

actual

basis,
of

the

third

if

it

the

level

or

at

of

wall,

the

the

inclined,

end

should

beam

would

tain
sus-

the

strength

of

it

placed

the

between

of

inclined

an

of

the

be

taken

beam,

as

if, instead

beam,
in

at

""as the

length,

which

were

right angles

mean

strength

the

angle

downwards,
a

one

"

same

upwards

inclined

the

in

end

one

at

one,

from
the

at

one

horizontal

with

give

being

that

calculating

length
will

break

will

it

unsupported,

inclined

that

"

distance

right angles

left

end

weight

In

of

length

would

fixed

upwards,

the

two.

weight

supported,

that

be

oth^r

and

the

the

entire

end

one

amount

inclined

downwards,

the

over

beams

the

them

When

and

middle.

three

and

wall,

supported,

manner

middle.

only

the

twice

applied

the

at

has

like

in

distributed

equally

beam

the

ends

horizontal

position.
From

by

the

aid
the

data,

foregoing

the
of

tables

strength

and
of

it

rules,

inclined

will
it is

as

be

seen,
to

easy

well

that,
mine
deter-

tal
horizon-

as

timbers.
The
of

each

following
of

the

table

several

exhibits
kinds

the

of

wood

cross-strength
;

the

pieces

52

CROSS-STRAIN.

dry,

being

inch

an

of

points

the

between

support

5d0
648

Pine

White

684

Pine

Carolina

738

Oak

White

in lbs.

Bnakiog^weight

Spruce

Black

Hemlock

426

Chestnut

595

m.

PROBLEM

CROS"-STRENOTH

THE

DETERMINE

long

"

Wood.

TO

inches

twelve

and

square,

OF

STICK

OF

TIMBER.

Rule.
inches

by

the

MvUiply

"

the

of

square
the

the

prodttct

by

the

quotient

multiply

the

against

kind

breaking-weight

in

Example.

What

"

long,

inches

of

thickness

its

length

the

of

the

and

weight

thick, and

Depth.

64
6

the

the

in

stick

and

in

divide

With

feet.

that' is set

table

will

product

be

will

inches

spruce-beam,

deep,

sustain

18

Breaking-wdght.

18)384(21.3

590

36

21.3

Square.

24

177.0

Thickness.

18

590
1180

384

the

pounds.

Length.
8

inches,

piece

in

sum

wood

in

depth

the

of

60
54

12,567.0

lbs.

feet

53

CROSS-STRAIN.

PROBLEM

TO

THB

DETBBMCTE

SUSTAIlf

WILL

DEPTH

WEIGHT,

the

weight

"

the
divide

product

the
The

of

of

the

length

by

the

stick

chestnut,

sustain

19

27,251

TIMBER

THB

THICKNESS

he

sustained

feet

in
the

of

thickness

depth

"

of

OF

THAT

AND

the

the

table.

the
tiply
Mul-

stick

in

feet,

of

the

stick

in

be

the

quotient

long

and

will
3

be

inches

required
thick,

pounds?

290.066

Ans.

by

wiU

and

inches.

in

What

IlXAMPLE.

wood

of

square^oot

the

to

kind

by

quotient

inches.

depth

the

against

set

sum

STICK

GIVEN.

Divide

Rule.

OF

GIVElf

BEING

LENGTH

IV.

5^^Q

inches

nearly,

to

that

it

stidL
may

54

CROSS-STRAIN.

V.

PROBLEM

TO

DETERMINE
WILL

THAT

Rule.

the

Divide

GIVEN

weight

against the

kind

the

quotientby

the

the

STICK

OF

TIMBER

THE

WEIGHT,

LENGTH

GIVEN.

BEING

"

OF

set

divide
The

THICKNESS

SUSTAIN

DEPTH

AND

sum

THE

product by

quotient wiU

of

wood

in

the square
the

of

sustained
the

the

length of

be

he

to

table.

thickness

the

ply
Multi-

in

feet,and

depth

in inches.

stick

the

by

the

of

beam

in

inches.

Example.

"

hemlock-beam,
may

sustain

should

What
feet

21

long

the

be

and

12

thickness

inches

144

Ans.

therein

6^1^

followingtable

of various

inches

exhibits

of wood

kinds

named

deep,that

it

weight of 19,170 pounds?

12

The

of

as

Depth.

Square.

nearly.
the

breaking-weight

given by

the

authors

"

_.J^

55

CROSS-STRAIN.

Experiments

on

the

J
KIND

Woods.

.a

WOOD.

OF

of

Strength

"3

4
Oi

old

Oak,

tree

Oak,
young
ship-timber

English

old

from

187

482

2.5

1.6

264

1.38

218

Tredgold.
""

tree
....

"

quality

medium

2.5

284

2.5

219

Ebbels.

"

Oak

Green

Riga

from

Oak,

11.75

Oak

Qreen

1.25

8.5

a.2

357
25812

Tredgold.
Buffon.

Ebbels.

2.5

Alder

2.5

212

Plane-tree

2.5

243

2.5

214

2.5

2.5

2.5

324

25

2.38

314

25

i.16

2.5

192

2.5

249

25

170

2.5

255

2.5

195

2.5

2.5

1.6

228

Tredgold.

Teak

4.0

820

Barlow.

WiUow

2.5

8.0

BIreh

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5
2
7

quality

medium

Beech,

Sycamore
Chestnut

Qreen

from

Ash,

tree

young

Elm
Witch-Elm

Qfeen

180

Tredgold.

Ash
Common

271

Ebbels.

....

Acacia
"

Sp.

seasoned

Bfahogany,

Hond.

"

"

Walnut

Green

Poplar

Lombardy
Abele

Tredgold.

"

Ebbels.

131

....

Poplar

146

Tredgold.

207

Ebbels.

2.75

165

Tredgold.

1.3

212

115

218

1.125

896

55

360

Barlow.

2.5

1.76

283

Tredgold.

2.5

157

Ebbels.

0S37

343

Tredgold.

1.312

285

2.5

186

Ebbels.

1125

829

Tredgold.

2.5

3.0

253

2.5

2.5

Fir

4530

Pine

8780

TellowPine

2756

Cowrie

4110

POODA

8990

of

Cedar

dry

Libanus,

Fir

Riga

Fir

Memel

Fir,

Norway

fr.

Sd.

Long

Fir

Blar-Forest

Scotch

Fir,

""

Engl,

growth

Christiania

white

Deal
.

American

white

Spruce
.

Spruce-flr,
American

Luch,

British

Pine,
choice

g^wth
Weymouth

specimen
.

quality

medium
"

very

Riga
Red

young

223

wood

1.76

129

Fincham.

""

56

CROSS-STRAIN.

It

of-

has.

the

decided

been

with

will

be

weaker

timber

to

is

its

Bj

that

that

stronger

all

solidity.

examples

of

as

of

of

'of

those

it

is

is

old

mean

heavier,

not

creasing
in-

producing

ultimately

wood

deflection,

cause

examination

an

discovered

than

in

and

time,

set

permanent

it

will

breaking-weight

fifUi

that

experiment,

by

exactly

table,

the

is

trees

much

also

age

that

though

the

proportionate

crease
in-

58

COMPRESSION.

and

specimens,

in

situations

would

variable

so

for

size

exact

reliable

give

to

as

all

if

confuse,

only

in

different

geometrically

so

none

the

ascertaining

is

timber

length

its

to

for

of

strength

sive

tionate
proporrules

data,

and

purposes

the

deceive,

not

mechanic.
The

of

power

great,

that

from

the

serious

no

of

use

collar-beams,
when

in

and

the

is, that
bear
tensile

in

rule

only
the

the

that

strain

its

compression),

of

pieces

will

as

purlins;
of

make

value

work

should

subjected

to

any

those

to

will

as

and

considered

be

for

timber

(these being,

"c.

tie-beams

may

proportion

cross

whatever

of

state

compressed
a

or

with

agree

such

of

dimensions

such

so

apprehended

be

need

danger

is

compression

to

truss-raflers, struts,

use,

generally

resistance

the

whole

truss,

uniform

design, comparatively

in

pearance
ap-

throughout
The

following table, prepared

designed

was

timber

when

The

timber.

It

reliable

grown

in

susceptible

aid

in

determining

compressed

length.

as

to

calculations
is

for

presumed,
timber

England,
of

in

since

mathematical

the

the

strength

in

of

direction

however,

in

Tredgold,

made

were

grown

Mr.

by

for

they

America

neither

is

demonstration.

its

foreign
quite

are

as

of

for

their

that
truth

59

COMPRESSION.

Kind

Wood.

of

ProportioniU

Oak

English

0015

Beech

.00195
.

Alder

0023

Green

Chestnut

00267

Ash

00168

Elm

00184

Locust

00152
Fir

Riga

00152

MemelFir

00133

.-

Spruce

Norway
White

00142

Pine

00157

Larch

0019

PROBLEM

TO

DETEBMUVB

THE

Rule.
amount

then

product

If

the

will

may

be
be

be

wUl

column

diameter,
too

the

weight

the

feet
the

small

determined

kind

in

in

by

wood

of

the

the

Problem

in

1.7

times

the

table

product

by

the

square-root

of

the

the

of

than

case,

by

pounds

ascertained

which

THAT

WEIGHT.

shorter

be

and

COLUMN

ROUND

of

diameter

dimensions

the

GIVEN

squarerroot

^n

height

or

against
the

multiply

length
last

set

OF

SUPPORT

MtHtiply

"

VI.

DIAMETER

WILL

the

Strength.

the

VIIL

post

in

ten

times

by
true

inches.

this

its
rule

diameter

60

COMPBESSION.

PROBLEM

DETERMUfB

TO

SIZE

THE

product
the

in

the

of

square

thickness

the

post

Vni.,

According
wood

being
the

to

to

resist

grain)

in

feet,

the

by

kind

the

the

by

this

and

wood

of
breadth

quotient

is

Kind

wiU

in

be

by

the

high,
Problem

CRUSHING.

experiments,

crushing

(a

Wood.

cube

applied

power

the
inch

an

to

the

"

ReelBtaaee.

1284

Elm
Pine

American
White

diameters

determined

TO

follows:

as

of

ten

Rennie's

the

and

used,

than

be

BESISTANCE

of

the

pounds

directed

before

as

post

product

is less

will

dimensions

the

in

against

of

THAT

WEIGHT.

weight
the

POST

inches.

in

case

the

cub"root

the

GIVEN

set

Divide

and

of

number

table.

inches,

In

length

the

by

the

Multiply

"

RECTANGULAR

OF

BUPPOET

WILL

Rule.

Vn.

Deal

EngUshOak

1606
1928

3860

power
square
end

of

61

COMPRESSION.

Vni.

PROBLEM

LOAD

THE

DETERMINE

TO

FOST

THAN

LESS

OF

HEIGHT

IN

DIAMETER

ITS

TIMES

ANT

TEN

SUPPORT

WILL

OUT
WITH-

CRUSHING.

RuLK

Multiply

"

the

wood.

of

Only

or

as

from

hard

^Ye

hundred

to

resists

to

where

the
bolts

further

be

may

have

truss, rafter,

wood

push
is

will

off

from

the

square-inch.

thrust

is

straps

suggestions

wood

one

of

should

are

more

be
uncalled

and

six
As

dependent
alone

the

resist

chestntit,

the

lateral

that

and

for
than

to

soft
force
the
nine

piece

no

on

the

support,

ordinary

employed,
for.

wood.

the
the

pounds,

be

stands

it

called

proved

it

between

hundred

of

or

this

would

carpentry
adhesion

or

pine, "c.,

oak

as

safety.

which

on

slide,

to

seven

pounds,

good

moment,

which

the

on

tie-beam

spruce,

woods,

simple

being

kind,

Experiments

woods,

greatest

wood

which

to

by the foot of

exerted

the

adhesion.

with

bear

the

by
kind

the

of
is

product

inches

in

post

noticed.

of

quality

the

square4nch

strains

be

end

The

and

wiU

the

tendency

but,

post

the

thing of

the

of

the

need

the

of

of

is that

any

and

fourth

other

two

subjected
One

crush

load

permanent

of

area

mil

that

weight

the

rules

62

COMPRESSION.

The

made

is

fibres

of

(See

corollary

on

from

oak

hundred

in

6,

48.)

show

pounds

from

to

the

six

of

this

square-inch,

hundred

spruce

pounds.
"

their

to

and

and

the

length.

made

resistance

fifty

been

asunder

Experiments

and

hundred

has

tear

direction

the

page

chestnut

nineteen

to

power

wood

the

reference

which

to

tends

the

where

and

hundred

and

strain

other

fifty

be

to

twenty-six

white

to

pine

twelve

GEOMETRY

AND

SQUAEE-ROOT.

66

GEOMETRY.

PLATE

Fig.
at

1.

To

"

From

the

another

to

2.

its

above

AB.

be

3.

this

line

point

tersecting
in-

arcs

draw

to

to

another

required.

perpendicular

AB,

from

as

the

the

the

of

extremity

C,
the

the

and

Ime

From

describe

where

point

draw

line.

centre,

centre

arc,

the

the

the

which

DB,

arc

the

cuts

arc

from

any

pomt
be

will

"

To

draw

equilateral

an

triangle

to

any

base.

AB

the

represent

the

B, with

C, draw

lines

the

From

the

triangle required.

Fig.

4.

AB

"

To

describe

centres,
of

the

intersection,

the
arcs

set

and

CB,

of

given

side.

From

AD

and

off

EC

points

cutting

arcs

CA

the

square

construct

represent

From

base.

describe

AB

radius

C.

point

the

describe

the

required.

Fig.

Let

AC

From

line

the

AD

cuts

line

Let

will

Through

AD

given

D.

line

the

Draw

where

at

draw

represent

DBA.
line

radius

from

extremity.

Let

point

To

"

C, equally distant

the

other
which

line DB,

Fig.

with

B,

each

the

perpendicular

and

points

given point

at

line

given point.

the

draw

and

BC.
ED

each

and

other

which

at

produce

mensions.
di-

given

any

and

From

equal

B,
E,
to

as

the

EF,

GEOMETRY

Pi.

c
.A.

Fig.2

Hgl.
FiiC.3.

r^
I

-B

A;

rD

A"::

yr-'

--I)
\

"""".

.B

...N

/
Fig. 5.

Fig.6.

: IE

Fi^.4.

JB
B
"...*

Tig.

r"

7.

JM^

"B

-"

^i)
n

"

"

iD

y.
"^-""~-

-y

y.

^/
'/

H^.IO.

Bi

|A

""Titii

rT,.

t"

r-.-,-'-.- ''.1.,

'

67

GEOMETRY.

which

points

are

one-half

the

figure

Fig.

5.

AD

describe

CD.

describe

of

radius

draw

To

6.

within

given

the

Apply

figure

or

the

diagonals

the

points ADBC,

From

and

From

octagon.

the

on

square.

*^
^

is formed.

octagon

i,

of

points

the

exhibits

when

of
AB

is

arc

is

side
and

points AC,

the

of

the

also

for

and

dC

line

the

'

the

for finding

given;

base,

the

the

On

CB.

and

AC

lines

from

line

the

and

the

around

times

of

centre

describing

ment
seg-

height.

represent

the

method

given

AB

six

equilateral triangle.

an

an

circle

the

line

of

of

at

as

side

Fig.

triangle

or

circle,

Draw

hexagon.

hexagon

regular

radius

circumference,

Let

the

draw

AE,

diagonals,

"

circle

of
then

the

cutting

octagon^

Fig.

the

the

dimension.

given

diameter

the

intersection, draw

is

regular

the

With

arcs

from

draw

then

EA;

figure ADBC;

the

and

AB

sides,

represent

this, draw

line

CABD.

To

"

of eight equal
Let

the

the

duce
Pro-

height
A

points

and

B, with
,

radius

of

and

gh.

ef

the

section,

or

8.

figure
Draw

other.

"

and

which

To

will

inscribe

of five equal
two

Divide

lines, AB
the

and

mn

radius

be

the

in

the

with

the

points

cutting

arcs

scribe
de-

radius,

same

the

no,

each

of

inter.

other

at
,

required.

centre

circle

describe

AC

line

Through

Id,

lines

the

the

point C,

the

ij

arcs

the point

Fig.

On

draw

half

than

more

regular pentagon,

sides.

and
A"

CD,
into

perpendicular
equal

parts,

to
as

each
at

a.

68

GEOMETRY.

On
Cc

as

then,

the
to

and

be

of

figure

Fig.

This

9.

be

timber

of

in

the. stick
divide

which,

which

BC;

points
the

of

Fig.

To

10.

AB
AC

divide
and

CD
each

two

into

Then,

from

the

shown

in

figure

will

them,

be

the
and

track
we

have

stickf

fg

of

five

the

mining
deter-

of

rectangular

greatest

which

shaU

weight

when

of

determine

of

the

erect

log)

into

diculars
perpenat

the

points

AD,

elliptic

arch

by

being

given.

the

give

stick.

height
and

AC

the

height

of

equal

parts

number

parts,

same

number

the

as

at

of

E.

points

Trace

curve.

figure

where

AEB.

secting
inter-

vide
Di;

Divide

parts

described,

points

the

To

stick,

or

circumference

with

equal

the

log

the

and

the

base,

and

of

diameter

cut

any

the

BD.

the

round

an

the

into

into

of

points

and

base

BD

lines

method

therefrom.

together

represent
and

D"

the

describe

the

or

the

form

(the

"

lines,
Let

AD

required

the

decagon,

each

outline

cut

produced,

which,

comers

be

On

parts.

scribe
de-

completed.

the

the

to

line

the

equal

three

Be

intersection
A

with

arc

position.

represents

ABDC

and

is

supporting

horizontal

circle

The

from

cut

of

capable

lying

thus

and

dimensions

of

by drawing

exhibits

figure

"

the
stick

described

the

radius

the

pentagon.

figure required

till the

sides

the

describe

point

the

proceeding

then

and

of

is

sides,

with

"om

and

aC

radius

centre,

side

ten

gCt

as

cd,

arc

will

on

the

with

centre,

as

AC

then
CE

and

draw

lines

these

intersect

line

as

through

69

GEOMETET.
.

DEFINITIONS.

The

its

diameter

and

centre,

rence,

fig.
An

the

as

AB,

from

drawn

half

the

the

diameter
as

is

fig.

quadrant

half

is

as

drcumfe-

the

joining

extremities

the

of

an

of

bounded

circle

by

an

arc

6.

is

line

part

any

semicircle

sector

of

portion

any

7.

fig.

segment

radii

drcumfe-

2.

right

ABC,

as

through

the

by

line

right

being

is

fig.

is

chord

circle

DB,

as

is

circle

circumference,

of

ference;

arc

drawn

8.

arc

end

each

at

line

right

8.

of

the

to

C6,

fig.

radius

centre

is

circle
a

terminated

AB,

as

The

of

of

part

any

fig.

pns,
is

circle
;

circle
a

as

ACB,

fig.
by

bounded

8.

an

arc

and

7.

quarter

of

circle
a

as

A"D,

fig.

8.

70

GEOMETRY.

PROBLEM

TO

FIND

ABEA

THE

SQUARE,

BE

Rule.

height,

OF

and

RECTANGLE,

the

PARALLELOGRAM,

the

Multiply

"

I.

RHOMBUS,

length

wiU

product

the

be

FIND

Rule.

height,

half

and

AREA

the

the

OF

AREA

THE

FIND

base

product

OF

side

each
the

of

the

be

will

product

SIDES

TWO

TO

GIVEN,

Case

When

of

THREE

the

Multiply

three

SIDES

the

tract
sub-

half-sum

and

the

required.

area

sides

together,

the

and

square-root

IV.

FIND

sides

two

"

area.

GIVEN.

TRIANGLE

RIGHT-ANGLED

OF

the

WHOSE

PROBLEM

ANT

perpendicular

the

be

wUl

TRIANGLE

severally.

remainders

three

TRIANGLE.

by

half-sum

the

From
"

perpendicular

in.

ARE

Rule.

BOID.
RHOM-

area.

PROBLEM

TO

IT

n.

THE

Multiply

"

OR

the

by

PROBLEM

TO

WHETHER

SIDE.

THIRD

given,

are

BEING

to

find

the

hy-

pothenuse.
Rule.
the

"

Add

square^oot

the

of

squares

the

sum

of
will

the two
be

the

legs together,

hypothenuse.

and

72

GEOMETRY.

As
of

the

foregoing
it

decimals,

is

table

extends

for

enough

exact

^ve

to

places

all

practical

purposes.

PROBLEM

DIAMETER

TH^

OF

Vn.

CIRCLE

BEING

TO

GIVEN,

FIND

THE

CIRCUMFERENCE.

Rule.

product

the

the

of

diameter
will

diameter

diameter

circumference
is

by

quotient
the

the

methods

these

of

the

multiply

part
be

will

by

Or
seventh

the

Multiply

"

be

by
the

to

sufficiently

the

divide

rence.
circumfe-

and

3,

product

obtained

as

and

22,

add
the

before.
for

correct

sum

Either
common

purposes.

Vm.

PROBLEM

CIRCUMFERENCE

THE

OF

THE

Rule.
the

product

by

22

the

BEING

AND

CHORD

quotient

Rule.

of

square
the
dins

height

of

To

"

the

the

of

OF

the

square

height^
the

circle

RADIUS

THE

segment
when

FIND

the

be

will

and

divide

diameter.

IX.

HEIGHT

FIND

by 7,

circumference

PROBLEM

THE

TO

GIVEN,

DIAMETER.

the

Multiply

"

CIRCLE

and

OF

THE

of

the

divide
:

BEING

SEGMENT

the

it is less

TO

CIRCLE.

add

half-chord
the

quotient
than

GIVEN,

sum

will

by
be

the

semicircle.

the
twice
ror

73

GEOMETRY.

PROBLEM

TO

FIND

ABEA

THE

OF

X.

THE

CIRCLE,

DIAMETER

BEING

GIVEN.

HuLE.
the

Multiply

"

and

diameter,

half

the

the

prodtuit

circumference
will

PROBLEM

TO

FIND

HuLE.

by

half

THE

the

length

will

product

be

OF

the

the

SECTOR

radiiis,

the

of

FIND

THE

AREA

CHORD

HuLE.

divided

by

twice

he

will

sum

SEGMENT

THE

of

length
the

nearly

the

FIND

AREA

THE

CONJUGATE,

OF

OR

of

CIRCLE,

BEING

the

the

of
of

cube

THE

GIVEN.

prodtuit

the

add

height^
the

ARC

segment

the
;

base,

height
the

and

area.

XHL

PROBLEM

TO

the

and

sector;

OF

THE

OF

two-thirds
the

by

multiplied

the

diameter^

Xn.

HEIGHT

To

"

the

half

or

CIRCLE.

area.

OF

AND

area.

OF

of

arc

PROBLEM

TO

the

XI.

AREA

Multiply

"

be

half

by

AN

ELLIPSIS,
AND

LONG

THE

TRANSVERSE

AND

BEING

DIAMETERS

SHORT,

GIVEN.

Rule.

gate, and
area.

"

Multiply
the

product

the

axis

transverse

multiplied

by

.7854

by

the
will

conjube

the

GEOMETRT.

PROBLEM

TO

Rule.

the

OF

area

and

height;

perpendicular

the

ABEA

THE

FIND

Multiply

"

XIV.

PRISM.

of

the

the

produ^ct

base,

end, by

or

will

the

be

solidity.

PROBLEM

Rule.

perpendicular

will

be

the

Multiply

"

the

SOLIDITY

THB

FIND

TO

the

XV.

area

of

the

and

height;

FIND

base,

third

of

end, by

or

the

product

solidity.

PROBLEM

TO

PYRAMID.

OF

XVI.

SOLIDITY

THE

OF

FRUSTUM

THB

OF

SQUARE

PYRAMID.

Rule.
ends

add

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multiplied
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by

rectangle

the

To

"

sum

the

their

of

height,

of

sides
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squares.

third

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the

of
sum

product

the

two

being
will

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solidity.

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TO

Rule.
and

the

the

FIND

"

THE

SOLIDITY

Multiply

product

XVn.

will

OF

the
be

cube
the

of

SPHERE,

the

solidity.

OR

diameter

GLOBE.

by .5236,

75

GEOMETI.Y.

PROBLEMx

THE

FIND

TO

KuLE.

the

To

height
wiU

thre^
base

the

product

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HuLE.
the

SUFERFICE

OF

AND

the

Multiply

"

will

product

be

FIND

CIRCUMFERENCE

Rule.

the

sidcy and

FIND

half

the

CONE,

THE

SLANT

product

SIDE

tuUl

Rule.
ihe

slant

"

and

the

by

length,

RIGHT

CONE,

the

THE

GIVEN.

by

the

slant

area.

XXI.

OF

OF

THE

BOTH

FRUSTUM

OF

AND

ENDS

THE

GIVEN.

Multiply

side,

GIVEN.

BEING

be

SUPERFICE

BEING

circumference

CIRCUMFERENCES

SIDE

CYLINDER,

BEING

OF

SLANT

the

CONVEX

THE

.5236

area.

PROBLEM

TO

by

the

XX.

AND

Multiply

"

RIGHT

circumference

SUPERFICE

CONVEX

THE

LENGTH

PROBLEM

TO

by

sum

XIX.

CIRCUMFERENCE

THE

and

CONVEX

THE

of

square

multiplied

PROBLEM

TO

that

meter
dia-

solidity.

the

give

the

add

Multiply

the

the

of half

square

segment

same.

GLOBE.

OF

SEGMENT

the

the

of

and

namedf

THE

times

the

of

height

OF

SOLIDITY

"

of

XVni.

the

half

sum

the

of

the

product

circumferences
will

be

the

area.

by

76

GEOMETRY.

'

PROBLEM

TO

FIin"

THE

XXn.

SUPERFICE

OF

CIRCUMFEBEMCE

Rule.

by

the

and

.3183,

BEIHG

the

Multiply

"

of

will

he

PROBLEM

TO

FIND

AND

ITS

SUPEBFICE

DIAMETER

THE

GLOBE,

HEIGHT

Rule.

To

the

the

add

of

square
.7854

by

OF

THE

FIND

of

twice

the
the

give

the

WHOSE

To

Rule.

the

product

Multiply
multiplied

OF

THE

diameter

SEGMENT

and

the

of
the

hose
tiplied
mul-

sum

superfice.

OF

of

thickness
the

by

sum

9.869

AN

ANNULUS,

DIAMETER

INNER

"

diameter.

O^

SEGMENT

XXIV.

AND

THICKNESS

THE

height^

SX7PERFICE

CONVEX

THE

superfice.

BASE

PROBLEM

TO

circumference

GIVEN.

square

will

the

the

OF

BEING

"

THE

XXm.

CONVEX

THE

GLOBE,

GIVEN.

sqimre

product

OB

SPHERE,

the

by

the

u"iU

be

OR

ARE

ring

add

thickness,
the

RING,

GIVEN.

the
and

superfice.

inner
the

77

SQUARE-ROOT.

As

required
rule

be

it

being

presumed

made

himself

workman

has

for

designed

Rule.

figures
the

figure

at

figure

towards

in

right
the

dovm

of

the

the
the

period
next

Zd, Double
the

the

left of

the

with

the

works

number

point

then

rules

especially

over

into

periods
the

over

first
other

every

and

named,

for

place

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root

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the

manner

square
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to

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dividend

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left-hand period,
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timber,

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strength

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principles

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calculate

to

will

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the

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place
Find

how

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78

SQUARE-BOOT.

this

times

many

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in

figure

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the

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81

ON

STRAINS

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EQUILIBRIUM

TIMBER.

of

KNOWLEDGE

sustains

frame

importance

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frame

piece

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acted

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sufficient

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great
of

for, if ignorant

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designed.

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the

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the

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strength

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of

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POSITION.

strains

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are

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position
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forces.
6

of

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will

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82

STRAINS.

OF

EQUILIBRIUM

PLATE

n.

To

side

the

affix

passing

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the

assume

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down

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parts

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to

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weight

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drawn

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weight

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words,

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the

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weights.

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pounds

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weight

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"t

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the

position

number

number

the

in

pounds

to

pulUng

portion

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line

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part wiH

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the

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the

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pulleys,

affix

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which

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the

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lighter than

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beam,

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two

point

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:

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of

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ing
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STRAINS

ON

TIMBER

FLU

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Eig.5.

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EQUILIBRIUM

of

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the

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demonstrated

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STRAINS.

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the

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ike

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weight proportional

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stead
in"

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weights

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determine

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supported

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inclination.
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apex

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exert

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an

84

tends

Fig. 3,

supposed

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we

thrust,

direct

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ends

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rest

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an

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this, AB

represents

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as

the

exert

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so

be

it will

walls,

the

on

therefore,

and

position,will

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the

and

Figs.

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at

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weight,

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STRAINS.

OF

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have

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it remains

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cut

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on

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THE

DETEBMIKE

in

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and

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TIMBER.

facts

foregoing

enabled

is

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of

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EXERTED

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the

exact

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framing

subjected.
it be

Suppose
each

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of

Each

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part

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five

Measure
it

line

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the
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hundred
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contains,

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the

Fig.

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From

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draw

cb

five

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line

vertical

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any

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to

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suming
As-

ceed
pro-

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ab

equal parts,

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of

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to

determine
at

draw

from

weight

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to

shown

meet,

length
the

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pieces

pieces

convenient

as

required

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divisions

pounds
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represents
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again

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the

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ten
a

hundredth

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whole

five

represent
;

it into

Divide

weight.

last named

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the

many

the

pounds.
parts

number

as

of

86

crane

subjected

are

timbers

various

the

While

the

crane

iully illustrates
in

will

time.

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exert

for

substitute,

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permit

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machine,

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authors

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CE

strut

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Fig.
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representing
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strain

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o",

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we

ascertain

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the

weight*

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of

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strain

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the

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weight

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illustration.

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most

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identical

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OF

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give

bers
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against

calculation

slide

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wall,

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at

Fig. 7,

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will

is
so

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angle

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to

overcome.

is of

great value

rule, will
which

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to

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truss-raflers, struts,

the

forty-five degrees,

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less

beam

discovery

with
wood

to

entirely

This
the

inclined
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end

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on

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the

by

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beam

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Ah

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would

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strain

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ance
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piece

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nature

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specimen

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part
who

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simpler

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upon

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dicular
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ment
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calculating

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ag

beam,

remembered,

framing

the

comprehends

of

the

strain

foregoing

of

should

into

cib

tensile

timbers

of

named.

represent

relative

is

line

will

principles

it

the

be

thereto,

abutment,

parts

of

centre

presses

the

centre

the

beam

the

line

to

end.

and

the

divide

we

lower

which

of

draw

a,

ab

line

the

d, draw

at

draw

a,

then,

in

direction

beam

the

From

beam

at

at

AC.

to

at

of

centre

87

STRAINS.

OF

EQUILIBRIUM

has

by

cient
suffi-

following

quantity
of

ceptible
sus-

of

framing,

SOABFING,
TEUSSED

FLO
Bl

91

SCARFING.

frequently

It

single lengths

that

two

termed

or

when
in

equal

nicely

strength

of

surface

each

part

the

corresponding

all

may

have

resisted

by

Methods
we

the

may

attain

shall
in

end

and

resist

be

to

scarfed

the

this,

come

the

technically

it

is

of

other

force

the

entire
with

contact

piece

uniform

the

necessary

that
in

tained
at-

stick

single piece

the

carpenter

process

indentations,

direct
to

to

for

that

so

bearing,

and

should

that

be

another.

of

truly

imagination
of

part

made

be

none

the

together,

To

the

case,

principal

put

adjust

to

which

carpentry,

short

too

are

The

dimensions.

same

80

in

of

practice

timber

scarfing.

be

the

pieces by

more

is, that,
shall

of

required;

distance
unites

in

occurs

the

scarfing
say,

of

are

that

their

the

artist

mechanic*

various

design
than

and,

savors

the

of
more

sober

many,
of

rience
expe-

92

SCAKFING.

it is not

As

whole

the

of

demand

more

made,

it is

Beams

always

strain
the

is, when
the

beam

in

is

power

of

In

force

in

the

or

The
bolts

the

plate

scarf
as

of

to

seen

of

of

part^

by

passing
;

and

its

of
strain

that

the

strain

as

duced
pro-

is,

other

break

or

sag

the

of

be

should

attention

which

to

One

depth.

method

exert

tie-beam

which,

a.

piece of

neither

the

removal

of

materially

weaken

bolts

the

scarfing,

the

beam

are

held

to

is

the

most

the

nor

such

an

the

3.
be
amount

timber.

Care
so

into

of

as

wood

taken

be
to

the

other,

each

should

large

in

shown

as

sliding past

parts

keys

stick,

together

frequently put

are

Figs. 1, 2,

that

scarfing

through

oak-keys

prevent
at

of

two

scarfing.
to

to

are

than

more

as

tends

that,

utility.

length,

meet

subjected.

be

to

on

will

merely,

the

upon

power

selection

particular kind
liable

proved

indentation

to

beam's

the

consideration

paid,

have

of

applied

so

direction

the

as

these

expense

act

by truss-rafters
the

things,

of

exposed

which

direction

when

these

remarking

forms

the

at

seldom

are

of

given

complicated

when

kinds

be

illustrate

to

in

useful, presuming

most

reasonable

every

work

this

experiments
will

only

themselves

of

purpose

rauge

methods

such

in

the

require
as

will

94

SCARFING.

PLATE

Plate

exhibits

m.

Figs.
in

2,

and

4,

to

and

should

resist

this

is

also

oak
;

if

strength

either

to

is

practice

the

In

either

of

admit

example

and,

1,

Fig.

at

is

work

the

of

called

by

well

more

ters
carpen-

beam."
a

to

observe

particularly

being
are

well

of

planks

This

methods.

Figs.
depth.

its

to

strain

and

of

short

too

are

in

beam

direction

the

white

equal

the

resist

to

The

dry

adapted

ing.
scarf-

of

examples,

or

of

length

pieces

is

best

in

one

good

^fishing
It

specimens,
are

the

the

scarf

complicated

methods.

of

be

done,

of

5,

other

the

five

and

3,

direction

the

Figs.
of

1,

in.

capable

adapted
of

that

here,

to

sufficiently

resist

the

examples
a

resisting

cited
strain

longitudinal
a

vertical

one.

as

SCARFING

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95

FLOORS.

of

construction

The
which

does

demand

not

If

the

timber

quantity,

and

the

that
the
rules

as

to

support

at

floor

times

should

therefore

proved

should

be

practice,

in

to

will

floors

floor-joistsextending

from

four

feet;

the

which

from
fourteen
fifteen

case,

three

inches,
to

be

twenty

and

by

thirteen

they

inches

are

apart

is

of

for

plished
accom-

this,

ever,
how-

of

such

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be

placed

timben
inches

and

is

should

often

kind,

eighteen

from

size

instance, may

It

usually

The

proper

strains,

of

in

valuable.

probably

timbered.

long

in

to

selected

great

constructing

all

himself

warehouse-floor,

heavily

be

avail

has

sufficient

effect

To

carpentry
tion.
considera-

size,

done,

desired.

subjected

be

scientific

proper

that

of

branch

well

weight

any

them.

upon

work

experience
a

of

be

be

can

is

much

carpenter

of

timbers

floors

to

the

to

use

twentyin

vary
to

five

placed
centres.

mensions
di-

by

from
A

96

FLOORS.

church
a

covered

floor,when

hall

or

with

is loaded

standing position,packed dose,

twenty-five pounds

and

Timbers
not

more

from

three

by

than

ten

centres,

dimensions

twelve

feet apart,

generally

are

if the

used

foot.

square

bearings are

weight;
in

in

dred
hun-

placed sixteen

the

sustain

will

each

to

inches,

people

inches
these

and

buildings

of the

kind.
The

floors

be

nine

flfieen
:

purpose

two

eight inch,
The

from
which

below.

are

feet, two

by

ten

is

apt

to

break,

crack

the

lighter.

size

should

lengths being

frequently used

liabilityto

the

will

joists, and

to

be

may

by twelve

inch

principal objection
its

The

decreased.

much

to

dwelling-houses

materially longer,

joists are

If the
not

of

in

the

answer

two

even

by

cheap buildings.

light timber
but

from

from

plaster

arises,not
its vibration,

of

the

ceiling

FLOOR.^

Pl.IY

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Kiiight St TaYV"i'-J''i'f

98

BEAMS.

TRUSSED

It

frequently happens

support
a

wide

and

space,
In

such

beams

while

weight,

great

that

to

necessary

to

across

from

neath.
be-

truss

the

support

no

it is

cases,

extend

they

have

can

required

are

work.

V.

PLATE

Fig. 1,
by

the

pieces

use

of

of

two

the

inch

in

on

of

the
work

inch

of

the

beam

the

At

rod

is well

done,

bb

rod

the

example
and

the

the

iron

are

This

the

becomes

girder
of

the

bolt,

cuu

and

beam,

rod

longer

be

strong

subject
or

which

employed

the

the

work

shorter.

an

rests

but

to

as

thirty-fivefeet.

to

is

1, the

bent

sq

may

posed
com-

Fig.

plates,through

method

beam

are

at

rod

the

through

trussing
beams

points

twenty-five

contraction
the

trussed

apart,

pass.

is from

as

All

at

passes

span

and
variation

an

diameter,

ends

where
the

sag

In

of

method

rod.

pieces.

truss-rod.

the

the

iron

an

placed

are

take

V., exhibits

Plate

If
pansion
ex-

to

-^-H

...1L

tij

TRUSSED

Figs.
iron

keys

should

and

screw

nut

like

also

inches

whole

bolted

strong

beam,

with

the

and

should

is

to

together

the

made

let

and

with

abutments

into

wood,

the

of

be

be

truss-work

in

bolt

between

an

thick

iron,

ordinary

It

of

with

three

them,

beam.

is

the

often

be

four

and

tice
prac-

together,

five-eighths

or

very

The

them.

between

and

the

and

spruce

strength

unusual

two

produces

pieces

inch

wrought

built

method

two

pieces,

the

value.

great

Should

may

as

of

oak-keys,

with

into

This

an

diameter.

beam

with

be

inch

an

The

built

inch

an

.together.

oak-board

in

beams

work.

iron,

beam

half

an

inch

the

cast

let

carpentry

bolts

of

represents

square,

in

be

the

should

tighten

to

wood

the

leaving

keys

oak-parts

into

let

cast-

oak.

the

Fig.

at

and

side,

The

apart

should

dd

each

on

The

rod.

inches,

four

inch

of

and

oak-pieces

where

instead

by

an

half

examples

are

used

two

of

and

are

be

quarter

at

and

99

BEAMS.

of

required,
pieces,

even

the

whole

an

bolted

ROOFS,

PARTITIONS,

AND

DOMES.

104

B00F8.

cellent Treatise
let the

to

on

of the

ends

other, and

each

; but

of iron

to

principal rafters

suspend

the

straps

successful

work,

sides.

"

^^This

method,"

use."

in

best

Treatise

attention

Nicholson, made

us

valuable
not

appears,

'4s

in

each

in

Young)

his

other,
their

to

perhaps the
work, entitled

On

1844.

lished
pubof

154

page

Mr.

suggestionof

"

says,

for

before.
There

is

The
a

very

He

ties.
abroad'

(*Carpenter'sAssistant,'p. 68).

situations

send

made

against

adds,

few,

that

Mr.

all other

the tenor

design

pend
de-

public by

iron

to

forty-sevenyears

proposes

of

been

standard

ingenious project offered

Nicholson

had

is called to the

(Dr. Thomas

writer

he

valuable

Edinburgh

work,

the

should

Architecture, Building,"c.," was

on

in

king-postsby straps

reader

rafters abut

against

suspended by planks bolted

is

beam

the

and

the

where

abut

to suppose

experiments

refers the

afterwards

he

proposed

possible." From

as

of his remarks, it is reasonable

if any,

has been

piece of good carpentry

little on

as

Carpentry,^It

for

rods

We

for

that,up

the

king-posts,queen-posts, and

where

perform

beams
in

abound

iron ;

building-timber. This

project.

overrate

to

At

the

its value."
to a

late

same

From

but

the
we

office
must

is,therefore,

time, however,
the

let

it
foregoing,

day, but littleadvance

v^

had

105

BOOP8.

been

made

looked

what

first

he

G.

Hall,

of

now

Englishman
engineer,

by

associated

of

that

of

direction

Mr.

day,
these

all, of

itself

commended
who

Benjamin

in

was

great

On

and

the

plates

designs calculated

for

pitch, as

building;

will

each

and

work
various

accommodate

having

of most,

than

been

them

so

and
to

soon

tects,
archi-

of

Mr.

reform

pertaining
spans,

it

other
work

the

portant
im-

tion
considera-

universally

are

economy

this

or

of

the

and

steadily advanced,

has

of

rise,
of

value

Under

under

published

sooner

no

which

commenced,

it ;

adopted

turn

came
be-

tect
archi-

freely used,

thus

and

soon

roofs

the

judgment

the

to

He

large

in

an"

architect

eminent

many

principle

Being

employed.

was

are

the

which,

HaU,

Farris.

erected,

were

Mr.

an

Alexander

Charles

Mr.

1823.

with

gentlemen,

buildings
if not

in

Benjamin,

to

able

an

business

is uncertain.

Asher

Mass.

and

first

was

indicates, that,

suggestion

America

in

idea

however,
Mr.

being

new.

country,

Roxbury,

in

the

this

by

the

birth,

arrived

than
the

in

published
for

eonstraction

whom,

evidence,

indebted

was

by

out

of

burden

favor

or

carried

of

methods

more

time,

practically

although

old

with

upon

At

The

the

until

its

ledged.
acknow-

to

of

any

designed

roofs
such

style
that

106

ROOFS.

timber

properly support
Of

little

are

so

that

together

will

pitch of

The

should

slates,

of

width

the

will,

snow

crevices.
less

case,

severe

If

the

of

will

the

be

that

strength

give
and

uniform

may

on

is

thickness
be

allowed

to

of

should
for
in

be

it

Fig.

be
if

is

of

lead,

to

joints
the

of

extent

in

govern

order
is

to

great,
it,

truncate

Where
and

whole

the

span

best

or

which

in

degree,

the

1.

shingling,

demands

The

matched,
the

the

used

roof,

the

If

through

copper,

certain

truss.

IX.,

the

and

building
tin,

or

rain

less,

driven

the

of

desired,

Plate

boards

the

the

to

it be

required.

form

and

roof

low

shown

used,

is

cases,

one-fourth

twenty-fourth

'

shingles

with

should

nature,

amendments

particular

than

be

covering

above

inclination

in

all

them

suggestions

those

for, if

of

design

buildings

required.

storms,

all

will, however,

span

the

span

like

rifee

any

span

as

entire

in

with

less

be

never

for

few

roof, covered

any

inclination,

something

as

information

all the

give

roofs,

several

illustrate

to

themselves

naturally presenting

the

designs

work.

the

which,

made,

be

since

will

as

slates.

heavy

attempt

an

encumber

only

of

pitch, of

or

said,

be

varied,

would
will

need

dimensions

such

covering

inclination^

the

but

of

used

be

may

slating
planed

are

passage

left

to

is

open,

of

air

107

ROOFS.

in

when,

snow,

sign of

carries

openings

the

through

ordinary

roof

and

purlines,

the

at

to

is exerted

and

In

themselves.
should

be

allow.

laid

of
the

rods

The

of

will

weakest

roof.

They

be

in

in

its

will

exerted

resist

the

part

be

by

beams

little wood

as

the

will

case

being simply

use

If

place.

is

followed,

of

sufficient

the

weight

the

of

proper

work

this

is the

the

upon

their

which

other

by

nature

small,

design

is that

tie-beams,

the

as

the

usually

are

the

which

across

One

load

mortising

down

strains

extend

produced

or

piece

each

and

strain.

be

may

may

each

retain

"

strutSy

long timbers

principal rafters

removed

Tenons

figuring

the

the

ceiling below,

the

resist

of

kinds

the

by

following timbers,

and

large

position,

base

two

cross-strain,

beams

no

rafters.

horizontal

subjected

to

exhibit

rafters^ coUar-beams,

the

are

building

of

diy

or

ROOF.

the

employs

common

Tie-beams

OF

principal

tie-beams,

in

rain

defect.

trussed

lie

it

it would

storms,

TIMBERS

with

inclined

the
size

parts,

the
tieto

and

cross-strain.

of

tie-beam,

and

hence

the

108

ROOFS.

demanding

one

foot

the
is

The

beam.

extend

of

wood

to

the

To

building.
valid

benefit

the

named

The

the

practice
rods

till the

its
than

to

partaking

counteracted
A

beam

give
of

when

obviated

the

the

is curved

for,

if

of

nature

first

by injury

to

thoroughly

is put

sufficient

the

together.

by tightening

upwards,

an

be

cannot

is

camber

strength

arch,

this

walls

of

is

the

leading

the

beholder

to

by

more

ing.
build-

large ceiling, if entirely level, presents

optical delusion,

are

objection

additional

beam

the

weigh
out-

tie-beam,

of

to

by

work

the

camber

moment

The

in

decay

objections

these

sufficient

have

seam

or

walls

the

on

extent,
of

VI.)

Plate

effect

in

to

beyond

produce

are

thrust

cambering

advisable;

considered

produced

of

feet

joint

and

produced.

pieces

the

present

entirely

be

may

painting

is

half

as

strengthening-pieces

they
a

the

length

three

to

white
of

thick

sufficient

it

part,

side

as

of

gather,

certain

neither

but

under

be

they

because

the

and

of

exerting

beam,

strong

(See S, Fig. 2,

may

also

pieces of

to

use

about

bolt

rafters.

dampness

where

ends
this

thereof

because

its

at

strengthen

beam,

the

is

To

should

end

to

made,

the

the

the

Objections
been

pine

the

from

heel

to

pieces
of

depth

the

practice

Carolina

or

the

rafters.

the

usual

the

oak

of

attention,

most

an

believe

109

ROOFS.

surface

the

that

such

fulring
feet
is

has

named,

remember

that

shrinkage

of

solid

of the
the

that

the

the

four-Mhs

examples
Fig.

named

would

of

be

framing,

rafter

one

is

case,

of

should

oak-board,

four
an

both

inches

inch, leaving
for the

should

be

grooves.
with

bolts

let
the

passage

inclined

and

by

rafters

rafter

five-eighths of

an

in which

inch

of

bolted
in

pieces
and

five-eighths of

them

be

XI.,

thick

tightly driven

should

some

Plate

on

another

air between

timbers

inches,
In

three-eighths

and

about

ten

five-eighths

each

should

they

size, having

same

and

into

of

upwards,

large

shown

above

the

the

counteracted.

seven

that

kept

be

by eight inches.
as

found

has

tie-beam,

beam

placed
of

the

the

completed,

purlins

as

perfectly dry,
The

should

the

the

inch

an

wide,

apart

be

rods

are

seven

part

be

may

To

deep.

from

slightly curved

be

thickness

as

rafter

the

should

the

should

he

each

is

of

either

nature,

work

twenty

carpenter

settlement

the

support

same

like

the

the

for

till

Rafters

which

of

be

when

beam

Principal

be

will

Hence

tendency

timbers

of

timbers,

and,

any

there

bearing.

tightened
centre

or

in

inch

an

beams

cambering

purposes

of

rise

In

curve.

difficulty. While

the

in

cautious

downward

or

sag,

ceilings,

obviate

will

inch

an

the

pieces

into

the

together

diameter.

110

ROOFS.

Collar-beams
Ke between
also
to

rafters

the

dimensions

be

strengthen

cases

may

of

this

beams

at

seen

top-truss, being needed

rods

of its

may

framed

with

The
a

sloping ft-om
be

as

it

the inclined

are

principalrafters.

and

rods

remarked

this to

an

inch

here, that

the

(whatever their position)should

shoulder
the

of like nature,

need

they support,
to

keep

not

be

short

pinned
tenon

to

In

required.

should
a

of the
ends

the

always

half

wide,

piece.

It

of all braces

formed

be

in

itself;the

support the

and

being all

the parts in their proper

of

rods.

proportionalto

piece. Struts,being always

thereby

XI.

be

in

struts

end

lar-beams
col-

truss, will require

other

the

Plate

A,

example

pieceswhich
of

they

where

an

complete

ends

shoulder

sag,

at

seep

will

being suspended by

Struts

be

make

to

named.

C, Plate

and

kind, separate

own

timbers

is

use

tie-beams, and

as

are

other, theb

unfrequentlyoccurs

principaltie-beam
be

They

liable to

are

which

their

each

struts, as

The

main-beam

As

the

as

serviceable

the

kind

same

with

not

case

are

this

these

supported

The

VIII.

principalrafters.

approaching

the

be

may

designs where

should

timbers

straining-beams.

as

prevent

In

of

the heads

kpown

the horizontal

are

with

size of

the

state

beam
that is

of
or

pression,
com-

piece

required

place. The

width

112

ROOFS.

should

purlins
of

like

are

the

Rafters

roof, and

simply
loaded,

and

purlins,

not

and

posts

girts

should

be

into

sliding off the

purlin

the

depth
should

They

purlin

by

two

their

keep

or

bearing

be

may

more,

the

but

IRON

bolts

The

used

not' be

should

diameter,

nor

of

more

inch

an

better

and

they

the

rafters.

to

at

less

three-fourths

is

If

to

the

over

eighteen

increased.

half-inch,

quired
re-

are

from

them

itself

should

entire.

remain

one

is

it

proportionally

notched

than

more

boarding.

jointed

centres.

where

but,

the

light pieces
be

of

timbers

support

eight feet, they

than

inches

outside

only

from

apart

more

to

placed

never

inches

twenty

it

the

always

they should

but

six

used

are

uniformly

Being

be

braced,

side-walL

Common

is

be

in

the

than

of

rods

of

inch

an

be

set

which

most

in

poses,
purwhen

and,

sufficientlystrong,

number

the

best

inch

an

For

is

is not

rafters

principal

inch.

an

diameter

always
The

foot

five-eighths of

than

increase

should

"

WORK.

at

than

the

right angles

support

the

size,
with

beams

113

ROOFS.

of

be

must

may

sufficient

the

from

work,

in

diameter

in

vary

size

to

vibration,

prevent

the

according

to

of

inch

five-eighths

an

but
of

nature

to

inches

two

diameter.

Great

using

cast-iron

to

other

great

indent

Where

with

of

piece

truss

as

the

fibres

is

the

be
the

heated

to

to

use

principal rafters,
will

be

of

subjected

the

wood

to

that

however,

rare,

the

metal

should

be

filled, and

is liable

work

the

is

blue

of

quality

best

properly done,

is

of

framing

before

should

this

It

selection,

instances,

some

ends

causing

other.

|o dampness

over

the

ings
box-

absolutely necessary.

are

\ron

of

parts

pressure,
each

the

at

in

material.

practice, in

boxings

such

best

very

common

exercised

be

the

but

none

It is

and

should

care

exposed

together, the

put

well

and

heat,

of

the

oiled

If

oil.

linseed

raw

pores

be

to

will

iron

effectually protected

be

against

corrosion.

Straps

of

shrinkage

the

the

work

old

carpentry,

methods

of
the

but

is

liable

used

sparingly, if
leaves

WQod
to

these

framing

settle.

them

In

with

and

rods

necessity for them,

rarely employed.
8

used

so

that

the

as

loose,

and

of

examples

most

freely

were

all ;

at

but

bolts

they

modern
have

are

viated
ob-

now

114

ROOFS.

PLATE

Fig.
from

forty

of

this

it

construction,
The

feet

the

and

Being

span.

be

not

more

rafters

common

for

design

than

twenty

roof

than

eight
inches

its

other.

any
ten

or

of

in

simple

very

used

frequently

more

should

trusses

apart,

is

exhibits

plate

sixty

to

VI.

apart,

feet
from

centres.

Table

of

dimetuioHiy

in

inches^

of

timbers

for

roofs

of

various

spans.

Fig.
that

at

B.

exhibits

in

detail

the

framing

at

A,

and

Fig.

FuOOFlS

PI

: :
.

0"l

mr^

SxmiJi.'Kia^in.

"

^IVqjpaoi.
En^

116

BOOFS.

Vm.

PLATE

exhibits

Fig.
beams,*

perfect
for

success,

halved

are

should

less

be

with

bolts

centre

rod

should

part

passing

so

long

the

made

which

them
the

as

forked
of

the

at

intersection

bolted

in diameter.
the

lower

plank,

with

intersection.
from

place, or

It
D

to

thrust

the

to

The

end,
an

one

eye

bolt, crossing the

distance
take

at

each

passes

the

at

inch

an

tie-beams

The

chestnut,

or

reliable

entirely

as

tiewith

times

many

planks

oak

outside

settlingcan

no

same,

on

beams,

is apparent,

the

remains

be

exerted

on

side-walls.

the

"

This

roof

Somerville,
by

be

down

supporting

that,

and

five-eighths of

tine, through

and

executed

inclined

seventy-five feet.

white

dry

of

beams

each

than

together;

roof, ^th

considered

be

may

of

span

any

been

having

and,

for

design

the

B.

stuccoed
years,

is

as

first
year

leading

the

Pope,

ceiling

the

in

Mass.,

author;

Augustus

executed

was

is

perfect

appended
as

when

from

1860,

idea

minister

the

at

having
of

the

Unitarian

suggested

society.

it, but,

first

bujlt.

afler

very
a

of

furnished

drawings

been

to

church

test

byBev.
heavily
of

six

-I'Sll'S

^vf.-*

"aj.!:;-....:.,;

ROt)FS

?l.IX

//.*

"

"/i

Smiih.XoiiJhi8c Titppan.Kii^

117

ROOFS.

PLATE

Fig.

from

size

of

Fig.
twenty

Plate

on

The

span.
of

1,

the

rods

feet

for

or

diminished

The

Some

designed

of

roof

according
in

of

to

the

drawing.

for

one

be
tended
ex-

may
in

increase

the

cast

engraving
should

and

and

hundred

to

culated
cal-

are

increased

be

be

should

design
with

short

pieces

of

made

of

two

two-inch

them.

in

bearings
of

wide

width.

its

to

this

the

on

feet,

between

the

be

eighty

planks,

intervals

at

of

timber

It

proportional

figures

hundred

tie-beam

of

feet.

from

four-by-fourteen-inch
planks

dimensions

roof

low
a

timbers.

The

of

one

by

and

span.

for

seventy-five

to

design

the

feet

shows

show

sixty-five
ninety

is

IX.,

figures

to

IX.

iron,

each

will
as

of

be

these

discovered

examples

are

by

sulting
con-

118

BOOFS.

PLATE

Plate

of

tie-beams
between

into

Fig.

be

span
should
be

of

rib.

The

they

are

increased

Fig.

the

in

shown

should

will

be

line

The

dimensions

rise

eighty
a

span

hundred
in

by

there

its

for

upon,
seen,

AB

and

of

rather

the

than

segmental

be

of

span,

increased

and

feet,

twenty-five

feet,

proportion.

of

the

the

be
and

tie-beams.
the

the

as

floor-joists
tie-beams.

plate, that

at

work

the
in

complete

itself;

require.
for

are

increased

rods

tre
cen-

trussed,

with

one-fifth

designed,

so

the

figures

to

seventy

the

which,

the

at

iron.

circumstances

as

"

and

inches:

roof

be

into,

roof,

should

hundred

cut

tie-beam,

designated by

feet

and
same

may

V.

curved

the

the

must

examination

an

is

rods

may

by eight

six

firom
is

the

timber

two

proposed,

as

Plate

on

cast

above

room

the

of

It

span.

the

If

trusses

by

to

of

denote

the

of

six

are

roof

feet

between

it, comprises

above

for

of

top

be

finished

examples

bridge

It

the

the

flush

be

feet.

The

the

66, "c.,

at

with

great,

size

firmness

give

be

beam

the

are

cross,

figures

rafters,

the

should

twenty-five

be

the

below

design

may

span

and

aaa

to

room

of

at

The

one-seventh.

inches

bearings

and

plank

may

seventy-five

ninety feet,

two

shows

of

span

apart;

designed

hundred
that

feet

The

about

purlins

joints.

If

to

notched

sides

roof.

segmental

increased

ten

they

their

that

so

two-inch

where

struts,

The

roofs.

beams.

the

for

placed

inches,

the

timber

be

curved

pieces, with

two

other,

1 represents

size

in

and

for

designs

two

are

each

of

those

the

each

them;

notched
with

exhibits

X"

X.

roof

one-eighth
for

being

one

of

increased

"

.J

119

ROOFS.

PLATE

The

figures

State

the

receive
of

white
is

with

the

other,

them,

as

the

posts

two

feet

front

and
and

others,

the

in

manner

by

several

the

dome,

These

of
1857.

will

which

together

trusses,*

eighty

Mr.

direction

construction,

Robert
of

Thomas
from

nearer

require

the

presented
re-

fourteen
from

named

will

differently

stand
be

forty-

the

tw6

than

the

constructed

examination,

on

strains

framing

feet
the

Powers,

drawings

those

resisted

are

work.

thousand

E.

Each

octagonal,

discover,

with

Gunnison,

are

crossing

together

particular
the

of

last

being

readily

the

parts

employing
by

the

student

like

finished,

are

sixty-

trusses

another

beams

frame

posts

rear

consequently

The

truss.

Its

of

extending

with

when

which,

diameter.
two

the

the

placed

are

ones

"c.,

Upon

dome,

the

of
in

A.

at

seen

beams

aa,

is

spruce.

sections,

transverse

bearing-pieces
being

or

The

at

as

timber

and

of

dome

span

walls,
The

parts,

short

apart,
to

one

two

designs.

the

by
inches

of

composed

the

The

the

the

design

support

below.

of

rest

the

Vt*

between
from

the

which

Montpelier,

at

support

oak,

exhibit

plate

trusses

inches

four

no

truss

large

Capitol

feet

seven

this

on

the

of

portion

XI.

of

of

the

timber,

were

furnished

the

by

cuted
exe-

under

master-carpenter,

Esq.,

and

roof

superintendent
the

author

in

120

ROOFS.

PLATE

Fig.
the

of

this

and

wide,

hundred

entirely

rods

by

people,

with

pounds

at

The

Fig.

trusses

the

shows

in

executed

from

architect

of

from

part
of

as

timb^

of

roof

when

This

built;

it

used,
on

part

is

The

each

as

of

taken

loaded

twenty-five

and

ever.
what-

road
Rail-

Maine

Boston.
Mr.

It

Bichard

trusses

remains

and,

considering

as

was

Bond,
twelve

are

roof

firm

in

the

feet

every

quantity

roof.

good

by

been

centres.

Boston

made

feet

supported

settlement

from

Square,

year

eighty

and

apart

the

is

has

any

the

building.

first

each

feet
of

drawings

centres.

It

without

oyer

from

in

(some

hundred

Haymarket

the

figures

The

of

ten

Hall

long)

tie-beams.

foot,

are

feet

roof

executed

was

G.

fifty

average

square

Depot,

apart

an

the

to

the

of

building

the

and

from

It

Charles

of

floor

design

city.

Mr.

by

second

The

1848.

the

this

in

furnished

drawings

shows

plate

Depot

Fitchbui^

Xn.

these
from

designs
actual

exhibit

measurement.

the

sions
dimen-

ROOFS

J^Jiii^
ll"l2

rm

iii.y:;Vli" "S: Tnppaa.Engr^

mfmm^^^

n^

ift

3""x:

Fijf.'*.
\
"

^
\

1)

Fij?.5.

rtL

Saaio;

"

Kuiglit

A-

Tappaa

Eu""

121

ROOFS.

Xm.

PLATE

Figs.

and

into

these
of

points
line

last

from

BH

the

intersection,

is

back
Let

of
AB

the

which
the

of

of

edge
e

at

draw

ea

is
BH

draw

lines

From

the

with

angles

the

1, 2, 3, 4, measuring
the

through

of

CD

equal

and

points,

On

and

the

the

c,

the

e6, which

be

will

the

point
the

Draw

ab

fed
angle

of

the

pendicular
per-

draw
back

dicular
perpen-

radius

semiciTcle

C,
DE

determine

with

draw

this

To

centre

From

from

follows

as

roof.

from

required.

describe

rafter)

hip-roof.

and

AB

length

the

ascertaining

of

to

proceed

we

of

pitch

rafter

CD.

the

method

draw

CD,

is the

to

to

line

the

plan,

rafter,

equal

angle-rafters

the

to

EC,

the

represent

of

comer

right

at

which

formed.

illustrates

abed
Trace

AH.

to

angle-rib

and

draw

and
FB.

angle-line

and

on

of

Divide

1, 2, 3, 4,

the

of

DEFG.

plan,
as

method

the_gutline

roof,

the

to

exhibit

plate

parts,

points

named,

Fig.

of

of

number

through

this
of

portion

any

of

angle-ribs

the

drawing
AH;

and

1, 2,

cb

(the

then

from

the

rafter

e.

Where
not

sides

the

parallel,
of

the

the

work,

plan
it

of

is

roof

roof

shown

be

of

at

bounded

is

by

practice, in

usual

the

may
as

the

A,

order

inclination,

same

Fig.

lines

4.

which
that
to

are

the
cate
trun-

122

ROOFS.

XIV.

PLATE

Fig.

of

The

large

increase

be

of

of

span

the

size

of

feet

The

centre

three

seen

at

inches

AB.

of

span

should

between

portion

plank

as

beam

be

the

thick

bolted

dimensions

may
and

twenty-five

in

made

two

trussed,

rods

to

safety

with

it

hundred

the

top

ber
tim-

of

proportionate

timber,

of

roof

for

With

and

rods

extended
over

the

feet

eighty

design

designate

figures

span.
for

exhibits

plate

this

the

sections,
and

of

an

the

oak-

beam,

124

DOMES.

To

frame

of

the

is

dome

of

one

It

of carpentry.

art

day, thought

simplest

branches
till

however,

was,

and

ingenuity

require great

to

the

late

scientific

skill.
A

dome

its

plan,

strength
is

is, in

its

nearly

at

the

posts

inches
these
twelve

on

the

at

the

is

than

fine

its

dimensions,

three

inches
other

circle,

the
All

inches.
and

where

the

alternate

taper

they

about

to

are

is

ones

placed

are

of

cut

the

floor

of

the

timber

no

and
the

at

the

framing.

exception

thick,

rib

of

dome

lantern,

great

lightness

from

height

the

of

its

specimen

of

centre

possessed

The

support

Every

the

constructed,

with

and,

which

wide.

top,

is

it

properly

Boston

same;

larger

used

hence

fifty-one feet,

is

from

directions

recommendation.

House

span

four

if

and,

greatest

State
Its

arch

an

all

twelve
base

of

two

by

being
three

feet

eight

inches

against

is

apart
wide

curb.

125

DOMES.

about

there,

being

incnes

twelve

from

apart

centres.

scarfs

The

bolted

are

plank

of

ribs

the

The

rough

enduring

the

the

of

size

increased,
the

whole.

detracted

the

desired

and

so

simple

been

thought

merit

as

of

pervade
have
all

since

present

involved,

that

one

that

them

illustrate

to

the

been

would

the

by

principles

necessary

have

arch

the

design,

its

to

larger,

framing

accomplished
the

adapted

necessarily

not

after

century,

dome

complicated

its

are

well

the

principles

more

is

be

not

would

from

can

itself

Were

since

meter,
dia-

each

on

and,

half

than

more

proved

its timbers

and

in

spiked

horizontal;

is

of

purpose.

inch

an

thick,

XX.,

scarfing.

boarding

has

intended

the

over

storms

structure

half

bolts

inches

two

2, Plate

Fig.

to

with

together

with

side

similar

are

it has

by

an

engraving.
Where
of
if

the
the

provide
in

order

dome

Capitol
structure

rests

at

Montpelier,
stands

in

to

strengthen

the

drum,

high
it

may

exposed

an

of

skeleton-frame

upon

posts,

work.

be

like

that

necessary,

situation,

girts, braces,

to

"c.,

129

BRIDGES.

The

designing

of

wooden

intrusted

to

the

years

considered

been

As

be

must

are

given

them

which

descriptions

other

to

this.

part

the

by

carpenter,

of

illustration

been

have

remarks

well

in

done

for

designed

have

been

of

framing

of

has,

of

the

ing
bridge-build-

few

this

late,

to

examples

Most

province.

his

many

belonging

properly

mechanical

the

for

was

but

architect,

more

as

"^

engineer.

bridges

and

work

of

those

in

made

will

reference

apply

to

equally

130

BRIDGES.

PLATE

as

**

this

1 of

Fig.

Howe*

bolted

Fig.

ends, they abut

against

DD,

Fig.

stringers

with

the

long

as

the

twelfth

the

stringers

height

of

that
three

each

end

Fig.

sectional

the

of

in

wide

of

the

the

practice

Fig.

to

place

to

wider

of

The

below

the

at

be

inches

two

the

nut

Fig.

bridge

3,

figures

be

feet

ten

required,
It

the

on

for

and

high,

in which

one-

timber

of

floor-joistson

the

put

increased.

be

must

stringer

should

and

HL

feet

long, eight

as

between

Fj

dimensions

the

at

3.
at

line

the

is

as

be

struts

rods

wide,

work

the

the

C,

flush

must

the

at

span.

out

of

at

should

the

come

the

Fig.

g,

Should

be

exhibits

at

of

oak-piece,

half

to

and

An

as

trusses,

depth

of

and,

section,

measuring

truss,

on

sections

will

twenty-five

of

that

stringer, instead

balustrade,

as

each

cross

oak,

oak-pieces

width;

struts.

feet

of

the

diameters

rod,

to

enough

its

and

white

length

The

the

the

clear.

number

entire

lengths

into

of

thick,

struts

cut

sides, or

wide.

of
of

the

and

struts,

denote

hundred

the

upper

wide

detail

is the
detail

be

inches

engraving

bridge

the

The

ef.

as

and

of

stringers are

one-fourth

the

the

two-thirds

be

at

of

sides

should

thick

should

number

of

height

one-twelfth

The

in

two

are

The

3.

about

be

rods

The

inches

The
or

piece

inventor.

different

broken.

notched

being

2.

of

are

its

three

planks

well

be

known
fiuniliarly

from

name

planks

other, without

each

their

should

joints

of

are

These

together.

the

and

and

its

taking

is

what

plate represents

Bridge/*

stringers

The

XV.

is

often
of

top

the

rails, or

case,

required.
a

design

forty-fivefeet

for
span.

short

bridge

It is made

of

from

by placing

J'J.W

BRIDOKS

v"

CT

^
p.

;^

'^
c*"

:-d**2t

T-----

---ABC-

j:^

frTf.;'pa^ lug''
Si:."J^.Zi.^.i

131

BRIDGES.

one

timber

The

timbers

and

bolted

joists

Fig.
The

be

thick

The

floor-

the

placed

wide,

inches

for

dimensions

them,

formed.

and

apart,

twelve

drawing.

are

bridge

feet
span.
5

exhibits

design

should

dimensions
are

may

and

These

apart

bearing-pieces
The

feet

four

is

truss

strong

the

between

oak-keys

with

very

about

inches

inches

thirty

in

shown

as

inclined,

together,

three

twenty

another,

being

should

trusses

"rf

above

be

sufficiently

made

somewhat

strong

for

for
a

be

for
a

practical

truss.

oak.

of

of

truss

flatter,

gallery

common

if

purposes.

sixty
desired,

feet

and

It

span.
still

be

132

BRIDGES.

XVL

PLATE

figures

The

from

fifty

of

floor-timbers

and

rail,
of

additional

of

that

braces

centre

the

floors

the

firom

in

order

for

rails

centre

the

rails

will

need

dimensions

the

white

sound

all

prevent

bearing-pieces

It

oak,
be

may

bridges

side-stringers,
to

the

the

for

are

bolts.

of

of

desired,

upon

centre

The

bracing.

bridges

be

answer

the

done,

span

and

iron

will

all

feet

dry

eighth-inch

be

by

sixty

best

the

may
them

this

it

placed

be

support

bridges
of

if

bridge

for

span.

above

work

the

the

Fig.

designs
Should

feet

ninety

to

exhibit

plate

this

on

well

require

crossing
vibration.

bolted

to

with

five-

remark

here,
horizontal

strong
each

being

other

at

the

KX72

EKDGES

Hg.l.

Kg. 2

Hg.4.

Ssutk.EdghT

"

Tappa2v."Eag^*

133

BRIDGES.

PLATE

Fig.
the

represents

river

width

Fig.
Rhone,

exhibits

in

France.

bolted

timbers

Fig.

Orleans
six

feet

Fig.
Ithiel

France.

six

inches.

shows

so

They

are

of

and

inch
the

be

about

used

the

New

transverse

sides

-York
feet

intersecting

half

in

The

depth

of

at

with

diagonal

piers.

Harlem

long, resting

but

passing

entire

span.
side

top

of
and

cross-timbers,
A

bridge

hundred

feet

braces.

eleven
is

four

work
lattice-

each

by

There

by

parts

the

the

Railroad,
on

of

on

feet,

Philadelphia,
stone

and

twelve

angles.

diameter,

connected,

being

be

inches

right

the

bottom

Mr.

may

twelve

at

and

top

width

The. lattice-

at

of

near

by

span

and

other

eighth

an

the

invented
Its

thick,

its

and

fiftyfeet.

each

planks.

ten

on

thirty-six

inches

and

at

exists

Conn.

cross

horizontally

kind

ample
ex-

Loiret,

sixty feet,

and

together

distances

long, resting
on

to

as

lattice-work;

this

three

of

are

braced

river

the

to

by

river

lattice-bridge

hundred

an

each

at

the

over

secured

the

is

Haven,

planks

tree-nails,

bottom,
and

to

confined

Plank-ribs

its

trusses.

principle

in

over

span

of

New

of

should

the

Its

arranged

through

four

bridge

and

sixty feet,

has

being

bridge

part

is of

wide,

oak

in

seventy-five

framing

of

similar

is

trusses

represents

arch

design

It

is

over

together.

Towne,

from

the

timber-bridge

span

Each

feet

1, the

Fig.

at

Its

France.

twenty-eight

of

side-view

in

Meuse,

XVn.

another

also

seven

hundred

piers.

134

BRIDGE-CENTERINGS.

CENTERING

the
bed

the

strong,

large,

form

so

insertion
its sides

In

it.

of
into

admit
work.

and

timbers

upon

the

is

span

of

system

it should

and

examples,

most

series

of

inclined

driven,
uniform

be

so

principal
weight

to

this

the

points,

being
of

part,

as

work

or

original

is done

planes

releasing

its

designed

springing

which,

retain

injury

without

the

particular

structure

the

the

tide

expense
the

that

any

at

are

where

centering,

piece

the

nor

expensive

the

and

removal

wedges

the

of

exerted

resisted,

Where

small

at

port
sup-

adopted.

arrange

when

of

upon

of

to

throughout

admit

oak

be

deep,

made

and

complex

to

building.

very

be

may

designed

while

is not

construction

is

be

arch

an

timber

circumstances,

must

pressure,
may

river

more

the

object

of

other

framing
In

of

centering

in

but

stones

the

of

frame

IS

over

easy
every

to

ing
rest-

by

the

cut

on

these,
of

moval,
re-

part

136

BRIDGE-CENTERINGS.

PLATE

Pig.
the

Rennie
is

out,"

to

five

rise

eight
of

is

of

and

Fig.

the

Telford

and
It

is

steadied

each

timber

of

being

driven

Fig.

the

being

the

exhibits

bed

strong;

hundred

shore,
a

great utility.
the

too

and

entire

on

cranes

piles

feet

of

and

It

the
for

and
was

the

the

inches

lifted

centering, simple
may
river
any

be

employed

can

span

be

which,
was

with
of

Dantzic

Each

barges

iron

centre

and

two

place.
in

construction,

and
a

the

hundred

but

ever
wher-

advantage

to

used,
from

which

horizontal

work

of

its

whole

stone-work

the

aid

were

wedges,

the

thirty-five

fir, shod

the

of

timber

square.

into

arch

the

lower

the

Mr.

Gloucester,

centres

and

caps,

of

then, by

used

by

of

six

Memel

remainder
fifteen

single

and

it after
of

at

rise

placed

were

its
has

arch

executed

piles, and

slackened

out

of

and

span,

Each

Between

were

The

whole

the
framed

was

of

end,

each

centre,

back,

completed.

the

feet

and

braces.

of

top

of

wide;

cross-bars

by

the

on

feet

one

bridge

with

span,

thirty-five

centre

oak.

stone

by

from

centre

consists

feet

by diagonal

rested

building

fifty

of

design

bridge

connected

used,

fir

in

The

hundred

at

the

designed

springing^pieces being

of

striking-wedges

exhibits

England.

fir; the

in

bridge,

inches.

six

of

was

or

fifty-two

feet

composed

the

of

used

centres

It

middle

and

twenty-nine

ehn,

feet

The

hundred

centres,

Thomas

width

fifty-sixfeet

arches

the

Bridge.

The

1826.

of

one

London

of

in

of

part

construction

Mr.

exhibits

XIX.

tide

is not
to

two

JOINTS,

lEON-WORK,

TIMBER-TABLES.

AND

139

JOINTS

Nothing

If

to

of

piece

the

have

be

is

do

weak.

full

joints

of

the

so

detail

various

this

kinds

joints.

made

that

each

will

structure

on

of

permanency

together

the

the

the

properly

fit

examples

in

represent

not

to

than

bearing,

The

FRAMING.

essential

more

carpentry

parts

its

IN

plate

inevitably

designed

are

of

best

manner

most

in

may.

use.

forming

140

FRAMING.

IN

JOINTS

PLATE

Fig.
of

AAA

if

oak-keys,

foot

inches

the

shoe,

rafters
ing.
box-

or

BB

square.
bolts

which

of

place

of

cast-iron

two

in

straps,

for

as,

splice

the

exhibits

timber;

method

instance,

should

bolted

and

stick,

is

ahcd

the

at

are

be

may

desired.

Fig.

such

framing

XIV.

are

wrought-iron
used

the

represents

1, Plate

Fig.

XX.

splicing

three

times

length

of

of

the

diameter

the

half

with

together

upright

an

The

tower-post.

be

of

inch

five-eighth

or

bolts.

Fig.
of

foot

illustrates

the

rafters

used.

much
inch

to

Fig.
like

shows

the

at
5

in

Plate

on

Fig.
AB,

A,

roof

notched

be

to

This

the

at

method
into

is
half-

purlin.
of

manner

Fig. 2,

exhibits

roof.

is

work

framing

common

timber
the

that

rafters

Each

receive
4

Fig.

of

of

method

Plate

the

framing

VIL

of

method

B, Fig. 5, Plate

or

the

framing

inclined

having

centre-bearing

beams,

foot
the

as

XV.
of

the

example

Vm.
6

Fig.

shows

the

1, Plate

of

detail

VII.

At

piece

is

of

framing,

oak-key

an

two

at

as

inches

square.

Fig.
the

plate

wide,
a

is the

detail

before

made
for

in

two

securing

of

framing

referred
of

three-eighths

strap,

at

inch

an

parts,
the

to;

work.

with

intersection

the

at

being
thick

shoulders,

and

and

of

wrought-iron
three
a

small

inches
bolt

141

IRON.

As

and

cast

framing,
to

is

of

Its

world.
the

of

from

made

are

when

cooled.
dark

the
884".

at

It
is

Cast

much

should

be

than
It

752"

is made

thoroughly
iron

direction, for

in

the

so

tbe

of

metals

heat,

and

while
its

the
with

being,

fact, that,
of

of

parts

all

cooling,

made

so

Fahrenheit

visibly

that

eighth

an

is

piece

the

they
bility
mallea-

and,

red-hot

of

pattern
inch

an

required

to

as

red

appear
in

by day

to

twilight,
at

be
in
at

1,077",

2,754".

at

y^^TTTy

degree

all

increased.
in

melted

devoted

be

.7632;

action

is heated

expands
every

is

heavy

properties.

nearly

lightest

greatly

foot

per

the

all

by

thereby

castings

larger

them

shrinks

Iron

for

tin,

brittle

is

and

specific gravity

exception

it differs

in

all

will

work

this

in

used

are

its nature

found

metal

of

pages

consideration

Iron

and

few

iron

wrought

of

^^
heat

^^

each

length,

in

and

greatest

its

142

IRON.

is

expansion
^^

rrhv
will

its

length

an

extension

bear

permanent

^^

T?W
to

of

degree
i^

is

power

to

the

^^

length

^^

Atftt

y?

will

bear

^^

and
It

sun.

out
with-

of

17,800

of

pounds

Its

injury.

^xj"57^ by

for

length

extension

an

pressure

without

diminished

shade,

alteration.

It

and

^^

j^tru

expands

length,

the

exposed

serious

heat.

in

length

of

square-inch,

^^

when

or

iron

Wrought
each

^^

xiVi7

cohesive

degree

every

of

heat
The

overestimated.
of

force

The

93,000

it, and

that

pounds

without

The

it

decided

actual

no

as

strain

often

cohesive

rod

at

pounds

to

of

40,000,
a

cast

and

at

that

will

than

more

of

ways.

amount

will

of

resist,

crush

15,300

the

is

rods

It

has

be

named

it

as

be

to

larger
is

set

wrought
A

lower

end

been

lesser

down

vertical

as

depended

diameter.

iron

has
been

has

throughout,

iron
of

can

rod

no

rod

square-inch.

suspended

show

wrougkt-iron

perfect

parting

power

authors

of

that

proved

greatly

alteration.

particular
a

been

square-inch

bear

not

uniformly

upon

to

variety

strain

repeatedly

weight

will

has

experiments

strength
in

that

pounds

iron

ecist

best

visible

tensile
tested

been

the

of

resisting power

The

by
at

most

60,000,

rod, having
as

in

the

case

143

IRON.

of

rods

the

supporting

weight

its

the

at

that

so

than

sooner

the

lower

in

The

given

in

work

this

the

strength

work,

in

is

and,

so

the

which

it

is

near

the

perfect

rod,

is

longer,

time,

same

fore,
there-

vice

framing

properly

as

pended
sus-

upper

and

of

examples

figured
the

at

it

as

sustain

part

supports

addition,

at

will

end.

iron-work

in

point

rod

only

not

must,

the

long

decreases

versa.

but

end,
from

weight

own

tie-beam,

to

port
sup-

prevent

necessary
un-

vibration.

The

following

square-foot
a

of

of

sixteenth

advancing

by

table

cast

an

or

inch

shows

the

wrought
to

sixteenths:
"

an

weight

iron

inch

plate,
in

of

from

thickness,

144

IRON.

following

The

in

length

of
from

square,

table

wrought
half

advancing

cubic-foot

and

one

weighs

of

inch

wrought,

respectively

weight

iron,

either

three

to

eighths:

by

of

cast

or

an

the

shows

iron

cast

.260

and

foot

round

in

or

meter,
dia-

"

weighs

486.8.

inches

of

450.5

cubic-inch

.281.

pounds
of

each

145

IRON.

The
bar-iron

from

thickness,

of

Bar.

by

eighth:

an

inch

an

four

to

one

the

of

weight

to

inches

\k

inch

an

in

width,

"

lUok.

Thlok.

TbUk.

TUok.

Thick.

iin.

lin.

in.

in;

in.

.84

1.25

2.5

2.91

3.31

.93

1.4

2.81

3.28

3.75

1.04

1.56

3.12

3.64

4.16

1.14

1.71

3.4

4.01

4.58

4.37

6.

1 in.

from

shows

of

quarter

and

advancing

width

table

accompanying

1.26

1.87

1.35

2.03

4.11

4.73

6.42

4.37

5.1

5.83

76

II

1.45

2.18

1.66

2.34

4.73

5.46

6.26

1.77

2.5

5.

5.83

6.66

1.87

2.21

5.36

6.19

7.08

1.98

2.81

5.62

6.56

7.5

2}

2.08

2.97

6.98

6.92

7.91

2.18

3.12

6.25

7.29

8.33

2|

2.29

3.28

6.61

7.66

8.75

8.02

9.16
9.58

21

2.4

3.43

6.87

2.5

3.59

7.26

8.38

2.6

3.75

7.5

8.75

10.

2.7

3.91

7.86

9.11

10.42

2.81

4.06

8.12

9.47

10.83

9.83

3}

2.91

4.22

8.39

31

3.01

4.37

8.75

10.2

11.66

3|

3.11

4.56

9.10

10.56

12.08

3|

3.22

4.68

9.37

10.93

12.5

3.30

4.84

9.64

11.30

12.92

3.34

5.

11.66

13.33

The

weights

English
and

should

by
To
have

the

to

the

in

iron

making
added

tables

foregoing

American

be

ascertain
but

in

iron.

therefore,

pound

10.

to

is

every

those

are

seventieth
of

calculations
seventy

its

11.24

of

heavier;

weight,

pounds

as

one

puted
com-

tables.
the

determine

weight
the

of

any

contents
10

piece

of

in

cubic

cast

iron^

we

inches, and

moN.

146

multiply

admit

If

multipUer

the

the

To

table,
determine

ascertain

its

or,

it

admits

of

piece

feet

obtain.

is

weight

in

or

cubic

and

in

the

round,

in

length

by
table.

of

the

figures
To

square,

table,

the

the

or

and

piece

by

determine

multiply
whose

the

against

it

486.8

multiply

plate,
set

flat

%roh

multiply

and

multiply

measurement

feet

pounds.

wrorigU

of

inches,

feet,

given

as

in

piece

readily

plates, ^e

as

thickness

the

of

in

in

of

given

amount

to

weight

superficial

thickness

of

the

of

ticular

any

particular

iwill

that

feet

as

of

amount

the

product

if

superficial

the

.281

form

or

in

contents

decimal

the

shape

for

and

we

by

of

muluply

feet,.aQd

in

or

be

it

.260

measurement

of

select

decimal

the

by

450.5.

by

in

it

the

pa^

weight

the

the

select

iron,

we

it

by

weight

the

number
wish
we

148

TABLES

OF

TUhEBER-MEASUSE.

ABLES

OF

TIMBER-MEASURE.

149

150

TIMBEB-MEASnBE.

OP

TABLKS

8.

6.

9.

11.

12.

13.

14.8

16.

17.4

20.

21.8
26.

12.

8.8

7.4

4.

8.

4.4
8.8

15.

18.4

18.

22.

24.

21.

25.8

28.

80.4

24.

29.4

32.

84.8

27.

33.

36.

89.

10

80.

10

86.8

10

40.

10

48.4

11

83.

11

40.4

11

44.

11

47.8

12

86.

12

44.

12

48.

12

52.

13

89.

13

47.8

13

52.

13

56.4

14

42.

14

51.4

14

56.

14

60.8

16

45.

15

55.

16

60.

15

65.

16

48.

16

58.8

16

64.

16

69.4

17

51.

17

62.4

17

68.

17

73.8

18

72.

18

78.

18

54.

18

66.

19

57.

19

69.8

19

76.

19

82.4

20

60.

20

73.4

20

80.

20

86.8

Ji_

IX

TABLES

OF

TIMBER-MEASUBE.

151

OB*

TABI-BS

152

TIMBER-MEASURE.

6X11

6X10

6X13

6.6

1
2

11.

6X14

6.6

7.

13.

14.

19.6

21.

26.

28.

32.6

35.

39.

42.

16.6

22.

27.6

83.

38.6

45.6

49.

44.

52.

56.

49.6

58.6

63.

54.

10

65.

10

60.

10

65.

10

11

60.6

11

66.

11

71.6

11

77.

12

66.

12

72.

12

78.

12

84.

13

71.6

13

78.

13

84.6

13

91.

14

77.

14

84.

14

91.

14

15

82.6

15

90.

15

97.6

15

96.

70.

98.
106.

16

88.

16

16

104.

16

112.

17

93.6

17

102.

17

110.6

17

119.

18

99.

18

108.

18

117.

18

126.

19

104.6

19

114.

19

123.6

19

138.

20

110.

20

120.

20

130.

20

140.

TABLES

OF

TIMBER-MEASURE.

153

154

TABLES

OF

TIMB"B-M"ASUB".

156

TABLES

OF

TIMBER-MEASURE.

OF

GLOSSARY

IN

COMMON

USE

AMONG

TERMS

CABPENTEES.

159

GLOSSARY.

ADZE.

A.

An

wlien

in

of

insertion

The
is

of

by

fHction.

Adhesion,

woods,

may

1 pound,
in.

of

into

driven

resists

when

into
the

in.

grain,

it

strain

of

be

at

or

right

with

them,
it

spruce,
common

three

driven

resist
ton.

If

2 in.
direct

fifth

of

as

nail

into
strain

is

1.

inch

in

to
an

about
a

last

named

dry

oak,

of

nearly

ridge,

to

APERTURE.

the
unite.
to

eaves

the

support

through
''

An
wall

Apertures,"

inlets
should

they
and

number,

as

with

word,

as

may

opening
partition.

or

Sir

says

''are

Wotton,

it will
half

the

serves

in

piece

where
sides

from

and

nearly

jack-rafters.

light:

common

is

line

inclined

adjacent

ing.
framanvl"-

brace.

the

at

is c(nitinued

the

of

an

hip-roof

two

It

dry

In

adhesion

great
the

as

an

as

3.

to

nearlv

has

times

6"/. nail.

is

into

parallel

driven
4

as

screw,

diameter,

be

when

than

greater

or

piece framed

tie, and
with

solid

piece

termed

diagonal

or

90".

point.

ANGLB-RAFTKR.

fibres,

the

to

also

synonymous

grain,

the

across

tie^

sion,
adhe-

driven

when

angles

by

out

at

lines

three

of

is

obtuse
the

angle.

of

an
one

inclination

meeting

angle

at

is

than

open

angles

the
It

the

The

Joining

an

their

right

the

plain

across

into

with

drawn

named,

wood

is

right

or

of

ANGLE-BRACE.

and

driven

pounds.

than

angle
more

In

more

angles,

is less

oak,
;

or

acute

pounds.

parallel

therefore,
the

378

be

73
6^.

dry

line

circle.

greater

In

fibres
of

by

viz.,

inclination

the

meet.

kinds;

acute.

formed

of

quarter

angle,
is

driven

pounds

elm,

or

may

weigh

into

nail

257

lows
fol-

the

607

dry

same

to

as

them.

of

strain

endwise,

elm

and

force

extract

to

is

three
and

point

lines

perpendicularly,
inclination
of
90", which

related

across

require

of

are

geometry
the

or

comer,

rights obtuse^
another

when

long,

converging

two

angle

which

of

spruce,

wood,

pounds

If

in.

1^

the

nail,

18

3(i. nails,

in

term

where

destroying

as

ly
easi-

cannot

axe.

extraction,

considered

be

they
an

signifying
Angles

the

adhesion

the

overcoming

by

its

and

wood

separating

where
with

cut

ANQLE.

the

into

thereby

and

cohesion

the

be

body.

nail

accomplished

particles,

unites

horizontal

situations

sion
Cohe-

contact.

homogeneous

another

to

that

force

the

particles

attached

brought
is

in

term,

which

with

force

the

remains

body

physical

ADHESION.

denoting

used
by
edged tool
chip surfiuies
lying
in
position, or

to

carpenters

be

as

moderate

possibly

other

due

respects;

all

openings

are

Henry
air

for

and

few
in

in
mensions,
di-

consist

for, in

wMkenings.

160

GLOSSARY.

should

They

the

near

it

approach

not
of

angles
faideed,

were,

solecism

that
all

strengthen

moMt

APRON.
in

The

carriages
ARC.

ing

the

the

of

circle,

or

curve.

ARRIS.

intersecting

The

surfiMses

two

of

Ptise

which

against

are

as

ribs

of

the

roof;
ney,
chim-

sky-light,
skilled

art;

upper
manner

aa

backs

inventor,

an

mechanic

dexterity

manual

trained

in

art

any

girt of

and

where

the

the

in

attic

is

the

short

would

permitted
AUGER.

penterfl

framed
with

plane
placed

under

and

(See

truss.

AXE.

is

of

or

is
for

the

as

either

of
to

right
for

axe

OF

passing

DOME.

through

perpendicular

to

A
its
its

centre,
base.

plumb

its

usu-

hard

which

"ce^il"ut

standing
A

instead

of

and

ing

of

floors

building,
a

arris

an

intervening

space

given

or

joist-

The

portion

between

side-wall

the

building.

particular
as

of

portions

JOISTS.

OF
of

into

formed

having

The
two

or

small

from

be

square.

between
wall

baulk-timber,

not

timbers,

sent.
pre-

designated

hewn

being

at

as

sawn

of

could

in

term

generally

were

formerly

BAY.

of

to

pendicular
per-

or

observer

framed

full
it

right

chisel

applied

term

timbers

BAY

AXIS

of

angle

angle is
18*^ for

not

an

It

"c.

line

from

square

cutting,

ceive
re-

bars.

on

and

A
is

when

trees,

left),

or

to

or

that

BAULK-ROOFING.
use

which,

which

in
field-

front.

The

adapt

slope

soft

which

hewn,

axe

of

horizontal

as

BATTER.

ing
hew-

broad

the

handle

bent

TUtrroto

for

ing
taper-

fixed

sides

The

laf* for

roof

wood.

10

approach

mortised

The

tool,

the

XI.)

and

they

are

plane-iron.

in

them
to

ally
usu-

than

wood.

tical
ver-

to

less

the

on

rafters^

trees

term

Posts

car-

same

small

but,

movable,

edge

slopes

the

SmaU

The

as

at

They
the

wall

Pieces

parallel

kinds

so

hewing

and

by

instrument

(the

usually

in

chopping

two

hewing

for

used

strength

Plate

An

timber
axe

floor.

the

principal

additional

give

to

the

ribs,

or

end.

ground

or

with

timber,

of

deal

good

other

aUy

such

hewn

BAR-POSTS.

they

were

RAFTERS.

timber

cupation
oc-

holes.

boring

AUXILIARY
of

for

in

rafters,

the

at

square

BASIL.

cutting

the

forming

it range

sticks

denotes

an

which

to

tool

A
for

of

BAULKS.

or

trunks

gate.

manner

studs

come

the

the

plate

designed

make,

to

of

being

ings
Build-

this

angle

acute

rafters

studs

the

attic-floor.

the

off

between

framed

are

short

The

building

make

roughly

or

or

hand-rails,

of

either

of

of

the

ASHLERINO.

curved

HIP-RAFTER,

to

BALKS,

the

trade.

of

side

the

act

sticks

in.

under

side.

each

ARTISAN.
to

top

and

or

The

surfiMse

contriver.

or

The

RIB.

in

is

the

backs.

BACKING
OR

clined
in-

and

partially squared.

One

mechanical

ceilings

or

side

upper

ratters,

called

on

"c.

ARTIFICER.

any

fbom

the

the

When

work.

horizontal

breast.
of

opposite

of

backj

the

sur"ce

of

portion

any

battlement,

and

the

the

shmgles

or

projecting

party-wall,

of

section^used

slates

the

work

the

in

triangular

wood,
to

piece

in

called

line

body

meet.

A41RIS-FILLET.

any

position,

are

where

side

piece

timber

side,

nify
sig-

geometry

portion

The

of

piece

landings.
in

term

any

rest."

supporting

their

at
A

BACK.
fkce

which

part

horizontal

stairs

wooden

for

essential

most

weaken

to

B.

too

walls;

the

the

girders

the

of

posts
of

floor.
BEAM.
of

squared

large

timber,

and
used

long
in

piece
hori-

161

GLOSSARY.

positions

sontal

for

supporting
or
weight,

superincumbent
counteracting
eittier

tending

it

compress

length.
for

the

if

strain

the

thrust

or

truss-rafters;

collar-beam

between
it

truss-rafters,

the

is

consists

It

which

of

with

provided
for

the

fixing
be

to
with

sharp

steel

centre

of

described,
for

pencil

itself.

circle

and

marking

large

circles,

domes,

"c.,

of

plans

the
it the

to

of

end

wood,

at

which

is

of

that

the

R.

it in

of

place.

The

joist

or

rest

12

in

in.

BEETLE.

driving
It

has

as

may

The
in

the
bell

was

to

term

denote

framing

to

bell

and

Any

thing

roof

the

retains

at

nut

one

the

at

is

walls

bers
tim-

which
of

to

The

are

)[)rick
the

secure

by

the

The

sighting.

or

substance.

edges^
whether

determine

The

for

use

straight

is true

judging

surface

eye.

joiners

two

they

of

act

plain

termed

usually

any

11

position.

wood

building

line

surfiuM)

ver-

of

the

forming

which

nects
conmore

finishing.

purpose

the

or

The

and

merly
for-

that

two

particular

into

BORING.
A

iron

flange

or

pieces

is

hung.

BELL-ROOF.

same

round

or

square

BONING.

cularly
parti-

which

The

thread

in

and

section

more

wider

planks.

internal

"c.

was

be

may

boards

and

straight

The

suspended.

stone

or

for

or

more

and

head

built

heavy

the

width,

or

handles,

part

timber

of

BOND-TIMBERS.

is

bearing.

which

are

England,

with

bodies

serted
inwall

three

in.

more

joists.

and

are

hammer

or

in

or

thickness

In

piece

BOND.

required.

steeple
used

or

and

in

length
to

of

all
; and
in. 'are
called

floor-

pin,
end,

or

or

in.

board

any
in.

thick
9

seldom

other.

piles, wedges,

two,

BELFRT.
of

in.

or

stakes,
one,
be

pier

large

mallet

wooden

4 in.

as

and

beam

12

than

timber

another,

wall.

have

to

of

ftom

the

method

but

of

planks.
is

support
and

BOARDING-JOISTS.

the

distance

ends

on

in

inserted

said

the

the

Pieces

to

up

verse
trans-

America,

and

BOLT.

its proper

for

timber

thickness.

in.

framed

in

now

In

width,

thods
me-

country.

of

board

2h

wall

or

timber,

which

old

timbers

or

is

this

piece

than

at

In

This

in

in.

work
brick-

timber

right

binding-joists

below.

called

of

cing
tra-

another

BEARING.

length

termine
de-

building.

Any

supports

retains

in

for

rafters

brick

G A HE

as

required.

about
eares

or

affix

The

so

angle

than

above,

BOARD.

for

extremity

BEAM-FILLING.

leg

an

less

the

angle.

any

floor-joists

finining

used

is

lath

the

of

the

to

or

instrument

circle

the

cle
cir-

then

slip

other

the
the

is

at

girders,

ceiling-joists

such

and

of

other

carpenters

centre,

set

direction,

one

the

yery

framing,
the

on

common

among

of

centre,

on

or

large joists

were

needle

the

method

in

one

denotes

more

between

describing

also

is

of

ticable
prac-

sliding sockets,

two

are

be

may

term

beam,

or

it

The

compasses.

rod,

; also

eminence

BlNDING-nJOISTS.

of

be

may

ordinary

tern
lan-

or

anffle.

circles

than

with

turret

try-square,

movable

which

ment
instru-

An

diameter

larger

of

compressed.

describing

oge"

instrument

An
of

that

strain

the

BEAM-COMPASS.
for

BEVEL.

being

as

the

an

observatory

an

artificial

or

nature

sists
re-

heads

resists

and

exert,

if

at

called

garden.

tie-

exerted

or,

for

arbor

an
a

it

roof,

of

often

used

sustains
as

of

truss

concave

convex

BELTIDERE.

or

ends

employed

the

the

the

floor, it simply

to

they

of

is

tical
is

It

and

roof.

its

lintel,

as

of

which

of

bottom,

top.

to

or

direction

support

weight;'

beam

by

the

the

at

forces,

stretcli

to

in

Employed

joists in
a

opposite

two

section

for

or

art

penters
Carthis

by
the*

twisted.
act

of
In

ing
perforat-

joinery,

162

GLOSSARY.

with

Ib done

this

let,

bit

or

by

carpentry,

Any

BOW.

in

lygonid

larger

the

internal
of

timbers

the

arrangement

the

expression
ing
signifycarpenters,
An

among

use

the

of

act

into

hole
admit

cutting

breaking

or

brick

sustaining

for

used

the

opening;

large

any

of

office

or

of

story

the

roofing,
over

the

over

the

and

BRIDGING.

In

approach.

joists

are

manner

of

kind

between

by

narrow

in

of

pieces

by
joist

cut

and

them

at

right'
of

pieces

each
creasing
BRIDGING-FLOORS.

nailed

as

fikbric

house,

Its

Those

of

edifice

or

for

the

parts
or

term

rafter.

to

use

denote

is

penters,
car-

used

also

turning

to

piece

timber.

of

CANTHERS.

pancy
occu-

of

by

in
rise
order.

to

ancient

In
the

church,
in

of

or

Among

term

ttie act

denote

c^"

or

comer

building.

tained
sus-

them.

sill

external

An
of

feet.

wall.

or

CANT.

base.

its

180

is

leaning

the

The

wharf

ft.
the

are

from

ft.

CAMPSHOT.

bam,

England

13

plan;

platform
on

height

entire

rafters

of

this

Iklls,

is

150

which

on

From

side, nearly

in

and

diameter,

was

and

Leaning

cylindric

platform,

plumb-line

bridging-

constructed

BULKER.

beam

the

in

bells.

See.

some

ft.

or

nally
diago-

Those

BUILDING.

kind,

is 50

as

is

"

the

markable
re-

it

II74,

year

sign
de-

world

the

Pisa:

at

known

high,

most

in

that
the

high.

ft.

The

square.

It

ft.
from

267

is

Giotto,

Tower."

other.

beneath

395

built

about

are,
and

celebrated

The

Florence,

doubtless

built

and

ornamented

is

ft.

45

angle

beam

at

usually

are

church,

Cremona

in

placed

and

BRIDGING-JOISTS.

by

That

to

same

used.

are

any

the

angles,

construction

whose

joists

the

the

highly

commonly

this

in

board

position,

similar

their

stayed

often

one

is

floors,

ao

Atowerlbr

they

campanile

tween
be-

prevent

to

timbers

bent

or

curve.

edifices.
at

purlins

placed

cain-

Arehedoc

general,

and

rafters.
Pieces

hewn

Italy

by

bridge

the

be

to

Beams

fh)m

costly

is

or

rafters

common

purlins,
principal

nearer

separate

framed

in

Thus,

it.

into

notched

is

sli^t

of

or

cambered.

In

cond
se-

mediately
im-

another,

upon

curve

or

said

is

gun.

aperture

CAMPANILE.
bells.

that

and

across

arch

of

CAMBERATED.

in

denoting

term

lies

timber

one

the

An
an

it
a

are

an

building.

BBTDGE.

store,

bore

CAMBER-BEAMS.

dows,
winor

beam

the

of

vaulted.

over

hu^

under

passage-way

open

A
when

wliich

forming
per-

lintel

as

in

doors

perincumbent
su-

and

w^ht,

top

of

form

to

as

timber

the

of

piece

or

CAMBER.

bered

"c.
BREAST-SUBfHBR.

ball,

or

beam.

wall

stone

or

log

on

joists, beams,

of

ends

the

old

round

any

meter
dia-

greatest
body ; as

The

CALIBER.

swerving

way.
IN.

fect
af-

supported.

so

O.

of

of

BliEAK

any

may

the

and

from

preyented

bnildii^
either

resist

which

thing

or

external

or

to

by

whole

stiffened,

is

work

nearest

of

angle
frame

pier

within

wall

the

timber

of

end

designed
from

pressure

piece

the

across

wliich

of

of

tree.

support,

bows.

BRACE.
fixed

in

two

piece

any

The

of

root

B UTTRESS.

po-

or

last-named

the

canted

the

wall.

circular

plan:

termed

are

to

in

END.

BUT-

building

straight

either

be

of

part
from

progects
may

mortise

framing.

that

in

of

sides

an

auger.

It

The

BX7TMENT-CHEEKS.

f^-

brad-awl,

in

; and

the

ends
roof.
some

mutules

the

of

They
to

are

have
of

the

pentry,
car-

jacksidered
con-

given
Doric

164

GLOSSARY.

CENTRE.

"qoally
of

from

point

of

flmme

of

lime.

Indnrated

hardened

or

its

taken
French

chalk,
of

nature

be

to

is

beam

cut

BO

into

lines

the

the

the

plane

and

the

timber-work

any
stnds

aides

the

at

or

grain

other

of

the

lar,
simi-

such

of

sabstimce,
by

body

yerb.

it

small

pieces

into

hewing
A

surfiices

Those

used

for

used

fhuning

for

used

laths.

The

right

joins

the
It

to

CIRCLE.

the

point
most
The

figure

all

eircumference^
are

the

called

of

capacious
circumference

divided

diameter;

3.1416,

by
or

It

centre.

the

all

is

the

any

will

diameter,

circle,
give

the

multi-

of

when

is

exposed

thin

In

stuffs

as

what
some-

in

those

from

ing
fram-

termed

usually

are

in

when,

or

it

clefts, being

the

sures
fis-

or

wood

shakes
.

the

of

top

girts,

Its
l^m

to

prevent

of

the

or

the

and

prevent

spreading.
A

rafters
nearer

to
the

parts

the
is to

design

COLLAR-BEAM.
the

or

girders

dove-tailing

by

walls

the

to

fining
con-

roof

wall-plates,

the
floor

together.
the

of

tie-beams

the

of

method

COCKING.

plain figures.
of

of

substance

direction

state,

"c.,

joists of

of

from

rating,
sepa-

part

cracks

heat.

lumber,

by

parts

equidistant

the

unseasoned

an
semblance
re-

line, called

curved

continued

which

bounded

in

green;

sudden

string.

the

other

in

different

string,

and

representing

chord

one

bow

or

produced
wrou^t'too

which

its

fh"m

called

so

the

of

act
one

Those

CLEFTS.

and

of

extremities

two

is

line

and

fibres.

boards,

clearing

CHORD.

SJTC.

another,

to

tinuation
con-

above

church,

wood

from

an

the

of

choir,

nave,

The

its

formerly

instrument

An

CHIT.

the

force,

thin,

or

tance
dis-

ceiling

and

height

the

steel.

firmer

two

net

aisles.

the

of

chisdt.

framing

of

piece

heavier

are

caUed

being

thicker,

transepts
roof

those

any

by

the

paring^ being

paring-chtseU

called

are

with

end,

floor

CLEAVING.

at

The

clear.

of

ment,
instru-

flused

iron,

for

be

ttie

of

separate
cliips by gradually

its

lested
unmo-

or

CLERE-STORT.

to

those

prevent

clear

to

in

so

fibres

cross

thus

points.

or

said

story

cutting.

cuttii^

or

solved.
un-

wood
the

between

between

or

from

well-known

of

made

beyeU

or

or

square

yet

of

may

and

The

instrument.

signifies

CHISEL.

wood,

separated

cutting

any

exact

twisting.

or

dow.
win-

door,

of

piece

in
as

that

distance

the

as

the

piece

one

other,

of

parts

is
A

other

the

of

CLEAR.

"c.
CHIP.

As

A
another

to

inter-

upright,

corresponding

is

termed,

problem

CLAMP.

warping
Two

ing
Squar-

is

circle

a
a

"

fixed

augle,

sides.
CHEEKS.

it

as

the

of

square

ascertain

to

c"

measure,

original

slope
of

circle,

attempt

diameter

the

.07958.

by

tiply
mul-

arris

obtuse

an

where

with

Mcts

its

conrert

to

as

angle

the

when

the

or

contents

said

by
for

or,

of

square

the

slope,

joiftt is

or

chamfered

right
at

farrow,

beTel.

circle,

any

diameter

calculation,

circumference

the

of

circumference;

.7854,

the

of

7.

to

the

accurate

more

to

cumference
cir-

the

to

area

half

the

by
is

soapstone.

or

the

the

color.

mineral,

CU.WlFEiL

an

tailors,

by

xteatite,

half

and

its

used

magn"-rian

soft

is

ochre,

from

name

ate
carbon-

chalk

Red

find

j multiply
of

Tariety

22

as

To

any

ness
exact-

is usual

diameter

the

whereon

consider

mon
com-

great

it

required,

is constructed.

work

CflALK.

or

any

temponuy

woodwork

or

aivbi^l

"

is not

In

where

practice,

"

The

wiU

number,

same

circumference.

the

give

body

or

thing.
CK.VTERINO.

tfie

by

mities
extre-

plaee

or

is

plied

the

line, fignre,

middie

the

which

point

distant

bending
in

used

beam
or

sagging^
roof,

common

approach

of

the

tops

165

GLOSSARY.

the

of

in

rafters

for

Trian^vlar

ones,

another,

made

movable

in

and

joint,

Beam
for

compasses

by

connected
in

sliding

joints

the

at

other.

the

enlarge

of

capacity

be

to

post

taining
sus-

in

in

use,

of

state

from

derived
shake

rotten

or

of

are

termed

CONE.

its

at

solid

A
for

its

top

in

circle

timber

sticks

knots

base,

CONICAL

roof

mortises

term

bent

with

end,

one

denotes
the

at

and

to

of

piece

ends

used

timbers

larger

or

t(^e-

iron,

of
at

also

side, and

one

like

draw

tenons

other.

the

at

The
iron

instrument
to

made

shoulder

or

ceiling.

and

is

It

laths

the

carpenters

screw

of

whose

formed

force

is fixed.

timber-ribs

iron

An

by

ther.

bolt

or

which

against

nailed

CRAMP.

on

it;

bolt,

or

screw

of

with

vaulted

used

movable

vertex.

or

A
is

sur"ce

tiaving

having
terminating

ROOF.

exterior

and

hody
and

are

furrings

sink

material,

The

of

Lines

projection

iron

head

or

which

late

concussed.

point,

its

signify

to

knots;

deoayed

or

boards

used

to

so

Of

shaky.

generally

of

CRADLING.

of

some

nut

tliis

which,

connected

of

plate

the

in

and

any

of

be

head

the

mits
per-

nearer

To

to

piece

be

meet.

in

reception

the

try,
carpenwood

in

be

to

as

such

denotes

decayed

it is

years,

for

the

eonetUiOj
In

shatter.

properly
or

parts

Latin

the

or

it.

is douhtless

term

or

rod

would

cavity

or

the

eomr

simply

contracted.

point,

one

continued,

as

This

CONCUS.

rotten

if

to

is

LINES.

to

self
itthe

become

come

the
be

to

an

said

causes

to

and

said

tending

recess

pression.

to

is

heat,

COUNTER-SINK.
or

when

truss-roof,

said

particles

to

in

of

to

which

CONVERGENT

to

collar-beam

the

or

of

strut

of

the

other;

superincumbent

heavy

weight,
are

heing

rod

is then

absence

each

body

insinuating

the
it

of

act

particles

Cold,

state

the

or

reduced

dimensions.
a

lity
qua-

compressible,

the

ing
bound-

Thus,

by
the

and

of

parts

heat,

expanded.

to

scale.

being

smaller

to

The

cwon

shortening,

or

other.

causes

longer

drawings

COMPRESSIBILITY.
of

rod,

metal,

used

are

diminish

or

given

any

They

the

between

ttiat

to

outline

The

each

approach
iron

which

bears

end

one

they
of

points

together

causing

by

legs,

between

distance

the

ing
intervenwhere

figure.

drawing

centre

proportion
or

places

The

any

thereby

and

groove,

opening

the

shifting

the

regulating

of

sensible

CONTRACTION.

signed
de-

Proportional
pairs

two

have

no

The

CONTOUR.

circles.

large

describing

when

together

near

tact.
a

are

or

Things

contact
so

called

are

tion.
direc-

any

in
are

is

there

touch

mon
com-

with

compasses

description.)

(See

at

legs of

two

the

to

them

space.

have,

compasses

to

of

that

tion.
descrip-

no

bodies.

two
be

said

parts

mon
Com-

distances.

need

compasses

addition

are

circles

describing

measuring

in

mathematical

COMPASSES.

and

of

Juncture

instrument

touching

CONTACT.

is

that

one

trussed.

towards

confine

the

flrame

ther.
toge-

for

raising

cone.

The

CONSTRUCTION.

building,

or

of

Among
more

architects,
denotes

and

distributing

as

building

will

the

structure,

use

of

its

and

the

the

economy

in

or

to

puncheon,

strong

tackle

the

operative

carpentcy.

shaft

at

sides

termed

which

or

piece

projects

timber,

of

with

extremity

the

CROSS-BEAM.

the

of

post,

or

pulley.

and

building,

consists

from

arm,

wall

from

extending
CARPENTRY.

It

Weights.

furnished

ner
man-

durability

machine

upright

stout

ranging
ar-

of

C RANE.

great

term

the

such

of

ing.
form-

materials.

CONSTRUCTIVE
Practical

in

insure

act

and

generally
of

parts

devising

the

or

of

an

large
to

girder

edifice

beam

wall

of

holding

together.

166

GLOSSARY.

CB08S-ORATNED.

Irrq^lar

or

of

fibxvs

the

from

in

ae

where

tree

ttiat

trunlc.

Ina

ceiling,

groined
from

on

an

OP

AN

CRO\l'N

point

highest
CUBIT.

was

equal

arm

from
of

in.

different

little

22

cubits,

It

slopes

identical

each

on

with

having

the

formed

curb,

or

two

or

corred

more

their

at

pieces

breaking

the

woric.

size

by

scarfing

the

in

plank

of

joints

branches

the

trunk;

to

the

of

without

line

circular

body;

for

Thus
its

In

denoting

term

of

flat

timbers
of

by

heavy
of

frame

the

the

floors,

of

or

doors,

"c.,

tation
represenThe

term

general

rangement
ar-

the

or

di."ipo9ition

and

windows,

architecture,

plan

of

of

rangement
ar-

the

ing.
build-

"

that

One
a

used
any

building.

either

is

is either

any

by

elliptical.

CUT-ROOF.

dense
more

machine

larger

DESIGN.

roof

less

itself.

straight

plan

wood.

the

therefore

sections

or

sigpiifies

when

tively
rela-

is

of

raising

the

as

frame,

ratio.

Bounded

having

oak,

matter

required

wood

being
is

of

continually

bends

line.

or

pine,

being

more

weight
of

piue

crushed.

part
which

ter,
mat-

of

iron,

density

of

carpenters

angles.

curved

of

one

eaMly

is neither
of

composed

which

curvilinear

block

of

given

that

CURVILINEAR.
a

piece

the

part
by

at

set

lines, but

that

or

are

nor

crush

to

dense,

more

of

The

the

example

more

contains

dense,

or

double

amount

foot

either.

than

wood

the

compasses

points

cubic

than

double

is

same

DERRICK.

beam-compasses,

straight

from

character

sliding

The

CURVE.

and

bulk

of

For

oak

ter
mat-

bulk.

is

contains

the

as

curl.

or

proportional
the

shoot

causing

CURSOR.

therefore

of

equal

it contains

density

given

of

of

of

parts

quantity

body

foot

where

as

spiral

formation

wind

in

being

of

trees

the

and

ness
compact-

the

of matter.

cubic

physics,

in
or

another

denrity,

more

winding,

are

the

the

Wood

fibres, instead

the

at

the
In

than

"c.

domes,

straight,

of

if

with

brick-

used

are

is

quantity
A

layers,

in

as

CURLINQ-STUFP.
which

ther
toge-

uniting

by

or

Cnrb-plates
of

circular

term

constituent

contained

half

tieals.

philosophy,

body

pieces

ends,

together

eye

of

called
of

those

closeness

the
In

is 3
Those

in.
are

sUt
A

The

former
9

and

the

denoting

and

Chrui-

deals.
the

thickness

thickness,

Thus,

plate

width

DENSITY.

gambrel-

roof.
CURB-PLATE.

their

deals;

that

or

into

of

names

Dantiic
of

body.

side.

and

in.

planks

Christiana
the

thickness

I4

fir-

the

imported

are

from

of

roof

chinery^
ma-

America.

of

into

taking

deals

9 ft.

or

different
is

water,

commonly
in

wood

made

England
Dantadc,

metrical
geowas

of

more

They

tokoU

built

driving

than

the

boards.

of

cubit,

term

when

in., and

4-10

wall

or

wood,

for

England

denotes

about

The

VitruTius

CURB-ROOF.
two

was

in.

of

cubit

It

usual

17

level

in

tiana

the

of

current

its

DEAL.

mity
extre-

Arbuth-

Scripture

than

ordinary

or

Dr.

to

cubit

the

less

the

to

finger,

Roman

and

it

of

length

According

the

tions.
na-

architecture,

middle

the

in.

not,

in

of

ftiune

"c.

tree,

mearare,

elbow

raise

used
Its

lineal

the

to

obstruct

and

bank,

mole,

or

to

or

rests.

ARCH.

ancient

the

piers

the

arch

eleration.

length
In

18

of
A

difTerent

of

which

earth,

springing

rib?

the

diagonala

the

pillars

of

shoot

CliOSS-dPRINGERS.

DAM.

of

part

braDches

the

the

of

dispofiitioii

wood,

D.

twisted

on

the

is

cated,
trun-

top.

Drawings

DETAILS.

larger

scale

exhibit

They

than

those

the

design

are

usually

made

on

which
of
of

ply
siming.
buildthe

fiill

167

GLOSSARY.

size

of

the

and

work

are

b"

to

executed,

termed

often

Pantheon

roorking-

through

the

opposite

two

used

the

same

figure

diameter

Euclid

in

diameter
modem

In

applies

properly

more

to

them.

Is

A
the

body

(as the

stick

timber)

length

(as the

the

whole

of

has

is

as

from

beam,

when

too

the

or

heavily

placed

of

the

roof

conyex

be

or

dome

is

in

such

tne

higher

we

are

Pantheon

table
of
domes

given

peveml

be

In

of

that

in
"

is

iron

or

timbers

or

disguise

to

drawing

ing
represent-

all

relative

its

parts
to

intended

are

itself.

building
"

to

proportion

they

as

tions
sec-

drawn

exhibiting

the

and

elevations,

draught

in

The

signifies the

Aruned

same

of

right

framed

lowing
fol-

of

pal
princi-

the

which

to

To

pin

through

the

tenon

than

the

being
the

from
ber
tim-

The

is

angle-tie.

the

mortise

which

dragon-beam

the

is called

of

piece

comer

other.

DRAWBORE.

mensions
di-

heights

the

across

to

ing
lyand

each
to

it, and

with

angles

plate

one

trova

hip-roof

piece

position,

diagonally
angles

at

horizontal

into

the

of Europe.
The
fjfiym the ground.

form

wood

building,

is framed

found
the

of

boards

DRAGON-BEAM.

the

and

the

it

direct

wedge-like

same

be

which

Augustus,

perfect.
will

is

Rome,

at

its

dome

informed

that,

other,

by

as

plans,

other

or

radius

parts

thing.

mental
seg-

oldest

the

manner

the

each

term

surmounted

the
The

under

quite

circular

one-half
or

than

base.

erected

is still

than

stilted

name.

the

out

two

DRAFT.

to

rise

into

ite

formed

ite

fastenings.

in
of

structed
con-

joined,

Pins

of

other

whose

one

is less

diameter.

of

be

drawn

while

the

manner

over

the

ing
bridg-

joint

shaping

to

unite

weight

building.

and

hence

so

is let

one

which

or

or

of
of

out

floor

DOWELS.

the

parts

word

with

binding

tail

scale, thus

spherical

polygonal

or

173

summer.

wood

strain

arranged.

or

The

which

80

nearly

synonymous
and

by

cannot

loaded.

several

and

FLOOR.

timber,

The

DOME.

of

110

retained.

unload

other

is

is made

space
as

of

TREE.

dove's

when

and

house,

removal

the

is

199

86
at

DOVE-TAIL.

It

three

or

room,

DISPOSITION.

plan

Invalids

with

like

denotes

To

relieve;

dome

of

It

generally

and

of,

DISCHARGE.

its

Florence

at

lintel

the

elevation

210

joists.

; and

body

of

shaped

92

91
....

DOUBLE

ship.

are

215

Medici

etymology,

one

breadth,

extent

dimensions

body

116

112
...

terms

sions,
dimen-

stick) has

word

by,

which

112

Achmet

of

use.

squared

two

plural,

the

occupied

201

...

of

point

has

breadth

and

The

in

116

cient)
(an-

London

DORMANT

or

length

length,

"

thickness.
used

Caracalla

Paul's,

bad

breadth,

line

side

whole

dimensions,

are

of

Paris

ports.

namely,

"

"

830

...

ing
pass-

extent

depth.
;

superfice

was

nople
Constanti-

Church

figure,

equal

dimensions

of

line
of

length,

or
or

dimension,

or

at

larly
particu-

right

The

thickness

in

Sophia

Baptistery

across

for

it into

dividing

no

310

139

centre

DIMENSION.
a

139

measurements.

through

solid

St.

Chapel

suring
mea-

drawn

designed

DIAMETER.

has

Rome

St.

horizontal

by

diagonals

It

of

formed

accurate

and

at

Mosque

lines, with

size

Peter's

to

angular

SCALE.

scale

and

St.

Baths

figures.
DIAGONAL

148

at

the

practice,

diagonal

and

Fiore

del

Maria

Florence

so

join

to

as

angles.

term

sense.

circular,

Une

right

DIAGONAL.

ft.h.

142
...

Sta.

drawings.
drawn

ft.d.
Rome

at

confine

by
parts,

holes

the
the

nearer

in

the

non
te-

of

means

hole
der
shoulcheeks

in

168

GLOSSARY.

mortiM

the

of

is to

wood

is fixed

OTexwt,

it

by

is said

Teins,
which

its

of

The

(Scotch).
board

of

of

joists

the

bridg^g

short
used

joist

or

in

rarely,

if

is said

to

of

floor.

is

of

elastic

of

of

piece
The

EAVES.
of

roof

off

of

the

prqjects

so

wall

to

as

fisdis

that

water

der
bor-

lower

or

which

face

the

from

edge

throw

roof
The

EDGE.

sides

or

that

part

the

of

which

part

the

ground

when

of

to

ture,

fabric.

or

however,

cannot,

propriety
but

to

term

edifice

be

applied

EFFECT.

importance;

architectural
i.s calculated
of

an

which
the

attract

by

The

CURVE.

by

assumed

figure
as

voussoirs

of

EYE

OF
its

at

lath,

or

in

up

the

stones

or

arch.

an

top

interior

The
of

The

DOME.
inside

the

ing
open-

curb.

P.

tant

in
the

thhi

an

elastic

strip

of

imp(nv

or

{French).
the

important
that

principal

lawn,

term

or

most

building;
on

as

public

garden.

or

six
among

"ces

comprising
chiefly

of

front

which

FATHOM.

curve

large

Any

building.

street,

ELASTIC

mortise,

driven

ADOS.

back,

FACADE

designer.

body,

R
or

denoting

tion
atten-

excite

and
intended

sensation

being

as

in

quality

beholder,

the

the

into

theatres,

composition
to

inserHng

of

act

shoulder.

FABRIC.
That

Is

what

buildings,

";c

churches,

produced

oval.

tenon
its

to

on

ral
architectu-

mansion-houses,

large

previous

the

obliquely

l^ing

;
an

The
a

of

to, and

figure

called

of

In

sdpposed

passing

ENTER.

with

is

cylinder

end

or

eye.
A

through

the

of

part

opposite
the

plane

EXT

The

any

ELLIPSE.

nonymous curve,
systruc"

of

with,

to

building,

ordinary

structures

him

nearly

denotes

rather

meet

angle.

acute

word

with

the

than

building.

represented
directly

the

piece

drawing

every

be

to

is

tool

of

commonly

or

surfaces

an

the
is either

surfaces

two

EDIFICE.

or

end

or

by

according

the

edge

where

gular
rectan-

level

to
a

hemp

oppoate

representation

elevation,

being

j
a

; and

of

The

sides.

of

faces
sur-

contains

curved,

or

contour

the

two

solid

thickness

and

straight

of

superflce

or

body
length

between

space

intersection

of

one

glass.

structure

lines

more

geometrical

an

the

elastic

ELEVATION.

side

the

on

is

of

one

is

therefore

and

wood

than

ber
India-rub-

of

than

Brittle

rod

steel

elastic

so

more

is

elasticity
A

string

to

bending.

or

perfect

more

cotton.

or

E.

be
and

iron;

in

required

found.

ever,

only
exact
and

shape,
was

of

quality

The

substance

or

perfect

flexure

the

produce

"om
dlstor-

its

and

which

time

the

powder.

WANGS

pieces

its

reducM

and

dry

cohesion

is

recovers

form

original
timber

in

tension,

body

by

figure

relieved

Elasticity
a

body

former

being

pressure,

laon.

lath

inherent

in
its

recovers

after

where

spongy

disease

the

destroys

parts,

state

the

The

quality

or

it

loaded

which

bended.

or

state

or

druxey.

1m

to

DRY-ROT.

which

any
in

white,

haring

decay,

out

end.

Timber

DKUXEY.

property

exerted

power

verb,

tical
ver-

other

the

by

ELASTICITY.

pier

driving

smaller

the

against

As

of

act

wedge

or

and

one

in

horizontally

weight,

is curved

tends

the

apart,

springs.

the

it denotes

power
it

when

spread

or

which

pin

arch

an

with

when

whalebone,

or

end

wall,
hj

from

to

abnt-

ahoalder

horisontal

The

exerted

of

the

come.

DRIFT.

to

the

to

are

idiich

agaiiut

ment

of

measure

feet..
seamen

It

length

is

for

used
mea-

169

GLOSSi^RY.

suring

and

ropes

sounding

the

chains,

for

and

of

depth

water.

London

12

Amsterdam

11

2-10

Antwerp

11

8-10

in.
"

FELLING

TIMBER.

The

act

"

of

down

cutting

trees.

Bologna

14

4-10

Bremen

11

6-10

Cologne

11

4-10

"

FILLING-IN

PIECES.

The

"

short

studs

which

in

cut

are

"

against

braces

the

of

frame,

or

Copenhagen

11

6-10

in

Dantzic

11

3-10

or

Frankfort

11

4-10

"

the

short

of

pieces

rafters

cut

,,

the

agai"st

The

groin.

of

hips

is

term

roof

synonymous

"

Madrid

12

Paris

12

"

jiiek-timber.

with

M.

the

on

1-12
"

FIUMER-OHISEL.

A
cliisel

and

heavy

(See

Chisel.)

of

The

joins

and

is

same,

flank

is

called

FLOOR.

its

The

surface

of

timbers

and

which

laid,

are

There

building

The

height.
the

first

which

on

the
the

are,

modern

they

are

plane

which

term

surfaces

are

line.

The

or

building

wooden
with

flush

the

FOOT.

supposed
firom

the

12

length

sguare

foot,

foot.

The

length

foot

varies

The

accompanying

in

dimensions,

the

principal

used

solid

or

the

of

different

cities

of

Europe

they

either

in

firom

the

any

term

in
work

to

be

ridge

wood

to

or

surface.
in

used

England

or

of

crooked

regular

term

in

ately
appropri-

pieces

any

of

naggins;,

of

bringing
a

or

form,

deficiency

may

to
A

of

any

to

original

bers
tim-

surface

intended

consequence

The

uneven

or

of

are

applied

apex

as

some

denote

the

roof.

a.

cubic
lineal

GAUGE.

contains

Engli.sh

back

of

pieces

beams

note
de-

to

countries.

table
in

human

ing,
build-

any

roofis, partitions,

falling

parts

the

The

of

Thin

FUST.

"

name

solidity;

or

and

its

the

is alito

term

surface,

in.,
its

taken

thus

by

"c.

employed

length,

fast

FRAMING.

to

size.

driving

mortise.

nailed

be

to

English
of

the

is

it

held

FURRING.

or

girts.
of

have

The

foot.

and

same

of

said

are

measure

containing
to

studs

posts

fies
signithe

on

the

forced

tenon,
and

AND

wood

line

is

it

the

including

which

is
back

opposite

timber-work

floors,

joists
of

the

the

resisting

wedge,

and

of

rough

supporting

which,

tion
porject
pro-

tenon

mortise,

asunder;

compressed

and

to

The

ting
split-

permitted

split in

the

parts

first

tenon,

tenon,

the

me-

in

wedge,

cleft.

of

of

by

the

the

FRAME

the
ing-rooms
draw-

floor

and

tenon

the

is

the

of

cheeks

part.

FLUSH.
that

story.

the

of

into

put

its

usually
and

Those

of

into

principal

carpehtry

boards

the

as

principal

FLOORr^OISTS.
in

head

to

is

story

entrance

the

is stories

building

the

as

end

are

floors

respective

end

bottom

or

the

well

as

themselves.

many

called

term

on

is done

which

of

then

Carpenters
the

It

from

horiaontal

in

nishing
fi-

to

jointer

introducing

then

flexure,

joists

floor-boards
boards

or

room.

the

securing

mortise.

ing,
bend-

of

lower

include

generally

with

WEDGING.

of

thod

stick

boards

smoothing-plane.

the

winding,
of

sag

of

take

preparatory

them

the
A

The

timber

floor

its

The
to

surface

timbers,

,*

quaUty

admits

PLANE.

carpenters

FOX-TAIL
The

bending.

in

of

by

rough

the

and

fiank

JACK

or

used

flexure.

or

as

the

elevation

FLEXURE.

the

off

side

elevation.

which

body

The

called

FLEXIBILITY.
in

ing
build-

front.

geometrical

of

part

the

building

FORE

framing.

plane

FLANK.
that

for

thick

in., in
:

An

drawing

"

piece
arrises

lines
of

wood
of

that

on

instrument
any

parallel
sur"Gu:e.

for

surface
to

one

of
of

the

170

GLOSSARY.

OABTiB

The
of

piece

Tertieal

wall

at

btallding, bounded

tbe

by

lar
triangu-

straig'ht'gTaiMsd

end

are

of

horison-

twisted

be

but, when

th^

it is said

crossed,

or

to

eroBS-gmined
.

tal

line

level

with
of

the

with

the

inclined

two

The

the

mortise,

contain:

having
be

applies

one

or

to

the

term

the

to

giving
tenon

bevelled

In

mean

notch

arris

tbe

it.

admit

of

the

framing

end

the

sills

the

mortise

of

being

and

to

another.

In

gained

are

girders

into

instead

ground,

of

Cnns-

well-known

small

ing

timbers

in

joists
is

length

to

lessen
the

by

into

lock

floor

timber

into

which

Their

chief

the

of

of

They

extend
the

brace

firom

turning

circumference,

the
around

and

applies

round

or

from

the

to

HEW.
hatchet

distance

and

the

beneath
and

To

The

vertical

height

stidr

given

with

edges

bridging
the

it at

GItAIN.

when

or

parallel,

the

the

top,

fibres

the

for
most

its

of

wood

are

with

althoi:^fh

studs

its

side,

the

ends

by

HI

of

wood.

the

end

said

and
to

be

as

the

by

hips

of

of

by

Thus,

straight
is

the

the

formed

is
the

on

of

ber
tim-

cent
adja-

hip-roof

roof

sides

lines

ends

of

two

jack-rafters.

HIP-ROOF.
of

neglected.

piece

the

sides
the

support

is

standing
under-

be
A

inclined
to

still,
thereof,

profession, and

his

between

placed

seldom

needed,

means

no

the

mill.

process:

P-RAFTER.

or

is

thorough

out
at

at

often

not

of

tom
bot-

and

nearly
used

sawed

this

to

and

hewing

knowledge

competent

should

is

carpenter

essential

top

of

that

being

modem

or

uneven

straight

frames
of

axe

an

practice

day

mll^

the

direction

lines

present

floor

The

those

girt

of

timber

the

into

and

joists of

lines

the

timber
of

familiar
tween
be-

floors

top

The

wooden

the

to

an

make

to

surface

rough

The

on

the

to

capstan.

or

or

out
as

true.

use

wood

STAIRS.

of

top

of

above.

so

timbers

the

being

post

of

Uf"ed

in

the

at

Into

framed

are

immediately

plate.

the

of

stories;
the

is

fr"med

are

posts

that

can
Ameri-

term

walls

several

whether

horizontal

which
the

the

ptick,

Among

square.

outside

the

building

the

timber,

all

to

carpenters,
those
desif^ate
in

of

derside.
un-

OF

distance

clear

or

used

or

outside

the

are

the

lever

windlass

HEADWAY

signifies

timber,

of

the

on

and

size

the

short

wall

building,
a

tim-

pal
princi-

the

from

by

short

ancient

foot

the

supported

may

A
in

used

out

ceiling
when

term

they

other.

often
at

away

that

so

each

ber-rooft

for

bearing

the

cutting

each,

johi-

of

method

HANDSPIKE.

beams

joists.

The

denote

of

surface
tkbasemenL

ers
join-

principal

of

IRT.

and

framed.

are

ci

portion

holes.

The

the

is called

timbers

distance

ment
instru-

by carpenters

boring

snr"oe

story, of which

below

HALVING.

inside

for

the

ing
build-

the

is

rafters.

(See

GIRDER.

u"e

ground.

floor

tal
horizon-

of

part

above

next

the

mortised.

GIMLET.

the

the

that

HAMMER-BEAM.

Roop.)

or

of

bam

and

OAHBREL"R00F.

used

of

lying

to

into

timber

house

joists

channel.
The

the

cut

or

ordinary

floors,

America,

beam

sunken

the

to

understood

or

cross

of

purpose

below

generally

arches

shoulders

tbe

resistance

is

Tn

properly

more

section

to

gatned.

additional

term

GROOVE.

mortises,

more

be

two

other.

ber,
tim-

of

tersection
line of in-

curved

wliere

GROUND-PLAN.

'^g-ann,^^
piece

floor-joint, for

word

any

said

England,

probably

and

hence

may

iji
Wel9h

tenn

from

The

lines
each

GAIN.

*^faH^^^

GROIN.

ther
toge-

eaves,

roof.

derived

of

the

the

by

of
not
same

building,
the

other

which
nated
termi-

plane
but
sides

172

6LOSSABT.

Ally

throogh

put

its

prereat

LETEL.

to

searfing

sliding

parts

each

past

other.

of

known

This

emH-post

as

also

is

post
and

when

lines

elevation

both

LINE.

pricMr

be

the

That

floor
of

the

at

of

termination

stairs, either

flight

bottom

the

at

of

part

or

without

twelfth

line

that

two

given

An

LANTEflLN.
of

top

roof

aplertare

dome,

or

for

the

Its

light.

erection

the

on

having

an

of

admission

plan

be

may

or

neither

right

angles

with,

Uterally,
In

wood.

is

almost

used

of

strips

wide,

in.

the

of

bundles

denotes

the

slating

tiling

or

which

those

drawn

pjane,

on

be

readily
from

seen

said

be

to

view

and

and
of

of

the

it.

is
in

same

LEDGERS

in

are,

horizontal

the

walls

are

nailed

floors

could

roof,

saving

the

of

use

in

made

the

of

gables
in

were

single

sum

than

less

being

roof

two

may

timber

also

the

the

of

surfoce

the
is

is

roof

done

with

By

gable-end

the

M
span

be

safely

the

light

covered
roof.

inverted

or

with

each

to

of

space

over

span

pitehed

letter

design

roofed

placing

parallel

the

larger

by

of
their

of
one

the

M.

large

gable.

the

the

be
than

Udgment.

poles,

The

the

roof,

(M).

the

tained.
ascer-

over

Kke

formed

roof

and

against

other,

the

sides,

different

point

that

so

seen

or

A
roofs

common

that

out

parts,

ROOP.

eaves

also

roof;

drawing

The
as

Its

of

dimensions
may

its

of

arrangement

support

stretohed

as

M
two

wood

development

The

body

in
In

plastering.

support

LEDGMENT.
of

of

fi)r

split

or

all

to

up

of
to

they

descriptions
such
dimensions,as
beams,
boards,
joists, planks,
shingles,

use,

generally

strips
rafters

the

to

after

into

each.
lath

narrow

to

nailed

put

are

term

the

England,

it

hundred

from

cut

this

the

are

sawing

in

term

understood

sawed

applies

port
sup-

and

of

pieces

which

first

They

"c.

boards,

kind

and

cut

and

to

weight.

timbers

or

door,

opening,

usually

logs

mean

piece

over

The
is

country

are

to

this

refu8e

to

thick,

preparatory

slabs,

previous

log

If

horizontal

superincumbent

LUMBER.

note
de-

to

loDg,

is at

lar
perpendicu-

or

other

or

but

way,

stone,

or

window,
a

partition-

of

pieces

segmental

slip

is

which

line.
A

timber

word

in.

the

Laths

called

ft.

an

furring,

from

cut

timber

of

corenng

and

plastering.
are

wood

and

for

osed
studs

thin

the
America,
exclusively

level

LINTEL.

lygonal.
poof

LATH.

line

leans

with

parallel

or

plmmb
to,

between
korixontal

level

one

horizon.

either

circular, elliptical, square,

of

is

the

straight

drawn

pointe

in.

French

shortest

be

can

or

denotes

also

of

is the

one

defines

breadth

term

part

hme

tenn

but

Euclid

The

ngkt

equal

ends.

which

length

tine

top.

of

are

geometry,
of
magnitude

thickness.

LANDING.

decide

to

In

denoting
dimension,
to

ment
instru-

an

planes

or

horiaon.

artisans

or

at

line,

the

denotes

by

used
in

with

also

term

methods

centre-poets

roof.

trosaed

the

carpentry,

old

horiaontal

parallel

The
In

KIXG-P09T.

plane

of

brackets
of

the

opposite
the

upon

of

outside
the

the

are

the
laid.

used

hammer

driving

the

by
chisel

large

wooden
for

carpenters
in

mortising,

"c.

MANSARD

of

end

which

scaffolding

to

They

building.

the

to

and

parallel

MALLET.

scaffolding,

pieces

with
The

the
Mansard

Identical

ROOF.

gambrel
roof

or

curb

was

so

roof.
named

173

GLOSSART.

who
His

dooin

Julius

true

Louis

Versailles

and

XIV.

of

the

Invalids.

at

the

age

the

teaches
the

is

or

showing
and

the

work

of

end,

or

truased

stick.

another

from

of

portico,

beneath,

it

called

the

The

or

to

gable

may

be
in

is

nearly

but

pediment;
properly

more

when

entablature,

lines

segmental

gable

term

with
term

which

sloping

Pediments

triangular

latter

triangular
roof,

or

by

roof.

the

and

it is then

The

terminated

an

Wtien

length,

great

partition,

identical
the

of

PEDIMENT.

of

in

dividing

another.

trussed

contour.

receive

to

Is

posite
opterm

greater

waU

be

either

constructed.

timber

of

is

Asinkage,orrece8s,

piece

tenon,

part

figure

unsupported

part
pattern

how

The

width.

from

should
of

of

parallel.
a

in

partition

dies,
bo-

of

whose

denotes
than

room

is

methods

some

arranged

MORTISE.

in

in

science

miniature

whole

be

to

one

superfices.

MODEL.

building,

died

are

figure

PARTITION.

the
Hos-

the

magnitude

and

lines,
the

length

The

calculating

of

usually

ployed
em-

sixty-three.

MENSURATION.
which

was

was

He

of

sides

four-

Any

rectilinear

He

build

to
and

sided

Har"

Mansart.

by

PARALLELOGRAM.

in

was

name

of

fital
708,

sard,
ManParis

at

architect,

eminent

Paku:e

bom

was

1646.

an

Francis

inrentor,

its

firom

the

applies

finished

with

raking-mouldings,

"c.
PENDENTIVB

PLOORING.

NAKED

such

boards

the

floor,

laid

are

furrings

the

or

of

the

term

neath.
be-

The

angles.

the

the

denoting

An

magnitude

measured

body

expression
of

the

to

any

WIND.
artificers

used

by

the

surface

and

of

perfect

piece

of

be

to

expression

to

signify

that

is

true

thing

plane.

timber,

has

means

An

which

become

twisted,

of

piers

and

against

squared

them.

by

or

spruce,

in.

in

any

is said

vinding.

at

shod

with

the

PALE.
of

wood

sharp-pointed

used

for

PALISADE.

made
driven

and

of

firmly

run

being

at

from

each

into
In

applied

which

fence

in

or

cation
fortifi-

to

the

every
other.

lines

the

or

driven

sur"ces

same

direction,

point

equidistant

their

city

entire
on

of

piles.
the
rest

new
on

of

surfoce

of
mains
re-

quite

are

Nearly
is

pervious
imthe
built

foundation-stones
House

Custom
more

always

Amsterdam

The

by

weight
from

the

decay.

to

into

Piles, when

water

them,

over
a

ft.

below
that

be,
the

at

heavy

heads

30

far

so

ground

need

driven

15

sliarp-

possible,

as

lets

about

of

ground.

geometry,

as

if

oak
to

hooped

then
Cur

which

upon

the

and

are

of

are

and,

end,

ground,

height

tion
foundawithout

firom

are

iron,

They

fall

"c.

stakes, sharpened,

PARALLEL.
term

stake

landmarks,

Piles
loose

too

the

They

one

machine,

is

usually

are

and

diameter.

top.
P.

soil

settlement

They

ened

buildings,
"c.

insure

to

spongy

dation-stones
foun-

the

large

the

the

upon

bridges,

where

used

are

case,

timbers

laid

are

of
the

OF

earth,

extreme

outside.

OUT

unhewn

the

which

of

heads

latter

Large
into

driven

the

zon
hori-

the

is vertical.

term

proper

denotes

with

in

or

right

at

also

term

PILES.

OUT.

TO

on

although,

line,

another

right angles

at
;

O.

vaulted

surfiBM:e, falling
line

OUT

supports
of

plaster

PERPENDICULAR.

upon

affixed

and

laths

ceilings.

girders, joists, "c.,

beams,

as

before

them,

timbers

the

denoting

CRADLING.
which

timber-work

The

than

three

in

ton
Bosthou-

174

GLOSSARY.

id.

They

FIX.

ft.

A
of

mooly

from

timben

by

made
somewhat

rough,

the

latter,

and

round,

made

about

wood

drying;

hand

by

diiven

when

angles

into

from

ship-building

in

PITCH.

In

denotes

term

inclined

the

sides

where

building

the

from

the

ridge

Is one-third

of

top

one-third

be

10

be

it

rafters

ft.
to

The

PLAN.
the

showing
by

rooms

quite

Is

plan

the

and,
the

of

design

finish,

but,

among

as

denotes

properly
the

form,

the

of

front

or

PLANK.

length,

more

than

in.

thick.

piece

If

and

less

They

of

timber

width

in

It
in

studs
The

in

any

vertically;

denotes

partition

word

mous
synony-

also

over

puncheon

perly
pro-

upright

an

post

machine
as

which
fbr

crane,

PURLINS.

veral
se-

of

timber
of

trusses
the

The

of

horizontal

which

roof,

lie
and

on

the

support

rafters.

common

tion.
eleva-

an

from

brass

of

Nearly
post.

arbor

pieces

arrangement,
the

made

instance.

term

drawing

on

angles.

silver.

door.

turns

ment
instru-

An
down

usually

short

or

or

building.

designates

may

port
sup-

timbers

horizontal
of

with
the

to

weight,

laying

are

or

the

position

PUNCHEON.

of

representation

in.,

frame

the

German
or
nification,
sig-

ptan

its

the

timber

of

piece

PROTRACTOR.

used,

rooms

having
6

in

instrument

soperincumbent

support

angles

plumb-lines.

vertical

right

at

on

the

plumb-line.

Any

in

ter's
carpen-

placed

position,

An

for

rooms,

is called

side

to

word

whole,

being
be

POST.

regards

termed

of
be

level

determining

hence,

as

in

they
Hence,

contact.

blades

blade,
it, will

used

of

parts

of

be

floors.

any

several

architects,

exhibiting

Ibr

the

its

idea;

arrangement

size

If

ing,
build-

The
in

whether

propriety

more

with

of

commonly

as

the

with

and

"c.

composition

the

other
to

the

the

edge,

arrangement

general

building,

the

extensive

the

denotes

of

one

in

plumb-

when

angle

PLUMB-RULE.

disposition

partitions,

the

of

of

with

of

right

the

with,

and

framing-square

from
said

top

section
the

line

planks

perpendicular

angles

level

brought

if

of

pitch.

level

with

line

are

the

representation

horizontal

the

one-qui^ter

the

line

form

10-ft. pitch.

it is

eaves,

fh)m

horizontiil

floor.

right

line

the

assemblage

in

covered

like

horizon

framed
for

eaves,

if

and

at

or

timber

An

boards,

of
OuUer-

gutter.

laid

PLUMB.

width

one-quarter

the

firame,

walls

side-walls

the

of

of

the

of

pieces

are

piece

building.

timbers

or

In

immediately

poets
of

top

from

to,

at

is

plates

position,

height

roof

the

pUek

width,

the

the

at

out,"

to

out

or

out

the

of

PLATFORM.

by

rafters
the

called

lies

stone

support

the

extreme

the

the

brick

ma-

roof.

of

building

the

of

top

on

pins

formed

angle

than

horizontal

that

the

of

by

it is

thicker

If

The

vented
pre-

carpentry,

the

treenaiU.

called

are

'

used

pins

made

are

and

ohinery,

*'

The

thin

not

board,

io

less

commonly

IS

timber

on

and

Small

p^gs.

their

wood,

be

and

in.,
called

joiat.

it

in.,

I or

and,

eSectually

taming.

called

are

the

those

holes,

thereby

called

usually
piece

6
be

PLATE.

has

polygonal,

into

cut
are

.them

whereas

are

termed

of

as

woric,

or

than

is

timbr.r.

left

smooth

tarn

the

to

Pins

nearly

easily

in

shrunk

to

machine,

it

If

enough

preferable

are

by
being

the

when

used

therefore

and

made

those

oak,

together.

hand,

width

com-

ened
sharp-

and

in.,

b*Mird.

wood,

or

end,

one

oonl^e

they

of

piece

than

dis-

ut

centres.

cheetnut

at

to

driren

an

of

Uocee

of
of
to

thickness

QUESN-POST.
post

in

trussed

A
roof

suspensionwhere

two

175

GLOSSARY.

posts

of

the

truss

The

case

with

unit

is the

as

one,

firamed

truss

in

employed

are

instead

with

is

of

for

B.

RIDGE.
RABBET.

into

cut

the

arris

wood.

surface

is called

RADIUS.

line

plane

of

of

length

from

the

right

circumference.
The

covering.

Those

truss,

purlins,
boards

which

are

called

RAIL.
of

which

to

nailed

axe

term

in

particularly

more

of

pieces
kinds
tal

any

either

of

of

if

width

whole

ROOFING.
of

in

quality
avoid

to

body

yielding

which

lessens

water

or

that

the

motion
to

table
of

exhibits

resistance

more

to

the

unit

ternal
ex-

or

Cherry,

Holly,

Elder,

Walnut,

posing
op-

the

ship,

Elm,

Ash

Box,

Plum,

in
of

rials
mate-

roof

the

of

is

denote

to

ing
ceil-

the

like

arched

large

the

as

term

room

is

beneath

room

of

dome
is

Washington,

the

called

The

centre

great
at

lowing
fol-

interior,

however,

The

round

building

Rome.

pitol,
Ca-

the

commonly

Rotunda.

the

8.

woods,
stone
freeSAG

"

Willow

or

1:"etween

of

the

when

6f

horizontal

the

ing
bend-

The

SAGGING.

yielding

stick
of

points

ber
tim-

support

either

lies

timber

of

in

...

Pear,

and

Apple

7
7

11

or

In
the

when

an

cut

inclined

the

carpentry,
end
to

position.
of

proti^tion

SALLY.
kind.

8
Oak

blage
assem-

other

degree

Ilazel

Thorn

end

one

general

and

which

of

Birch,

firom

horizontal

and

circular

large

any

operation

Freestone

Beech,

roller.

used,

or

Alder,

move

compose

at

often

of

pressure

on

dome.

The

To

exterior

exterior

its

resistance
a

and

the

timber

Pantheon

and

the

New-Jersey

common
as

of

the

kinds

common

taking

the

or

kind,

instrument.

cutting

the

as

wood

to

of

any
effect

the

power;
of

to

of

pressure

or

enables

force

terials.
ma-

from

building.

were

power

which

moving

heavy

building.

which

be

Plain

usually

The

of
the

of

in

diameter,

The

note
detal.
me-

or

measure

used

are

in

of

and

to

wood

other

or

ROOF.

used

ft.

wood

cutting

covering

fies
signi-

long

ROLLERS.

ROTUNDA.
The

RESISTANCE.

of

also

16^

6 ft. long.

to

the

tenons

it would

when

its

from

cut

in.

is called

piece

same

10

to

left.

it

denotes

They

hor^n-

two

of

or

"c.

denoting

piece

tenon

wide

"too

term

th6

on

also

wood;

in

may

piece

being

or

rougher

fences,

between

out

existing

the

lying
in

as

RELISH.

edge

in

work,

cut

of

is
be

timbers

large

literally

which

and

slender,

It

shortest
between

drawn

term

thing

cylinders

denoting
timbers

any

wood,

position,

piece

architecture
but

meanings,

many

The

ROLLS

is

ridgt'

or

points.

ROD.

length,

com-

which
bear

The
be

can

given

two

the

called

LINE.

that

tnuui-rafters.

rafters

are

the

rafters.

rafters

ridge-puee^

RIGHT

part, of

support

the

the

by

against

the

of

Ihie

pole.

raftera.

mon

the

of

top

of

ing,
ceil-

dome.

made

wood

ends

top

called

the

support

forming

and

smaller

The

bers
tim-

inclined

which

roof,

of

lathing

highest

the

piece

line

RAFT"KS.
of

The

of

angle

of

meeting

the

to

centre

The
the

at

the

groove.
semidiameter

the

or

4rawn

of

piece

into

cut

The

circle,

of

channel

roof

channel,

or

recess,

wood

vaulted

boarding

the

or

of

the

of

same

107.

iron,

supporting

plastering

and

the

by

piece

curved

used

lead

brass, 60;

6^;

RIB.

king-post.

resistance

of
an

piece

acute

term

of

any
notes
de-

timber

angle,

ob-

176

6L0SSABT.

liqaely
For

the

to

fibres

ezAmpte,

thej

scaU^

wood.

connected

the

end

The

outer

ftnd

the

of

diagonal

rafter?,

where

contains

simple

with

phite

required

end,

or

inner

is

called

point,

8AW-PIT.

pit,

labor

'

t6e

or

done

was

plain
of

any

TheGunter^s

is

scale

marked

and

numbers,

aid

of

in

lines

with

wliich,

of

pair

various

by
by

arithmetic

geometry
it

by

is

ft.

many

and

tical
pracsolved

readily

are

usually

the

dividers,

_
'

sawed.

the
scale

divisions

dimension.

questions

excaTa-

is

and

scale^
The

heel.

timber

the

Formerlj

"c.

the

the

The
which

over

the

fttair-carriage,

point

OmUer^s

the

scale.

common

are

tion,

the

lower

'

of

Ibot,

of

the

and

long

in.

two

pit,

and

the

the

log.
work

the

chinery

is

render
of

and

severe

by
for

by

planks,

or

decorating

or

building.
built

An

stmeture

or

boards,

first

by

ole

in

walls.
called

brackets.

which

consists

wooden

jacks
walls

the

with

nut

floor

of
;

as

by

in

ttiree

of

wood

kinds;

fh"m

firom

cut

any

portion

the

and

choM

metal,

viz.,

division

and
the

are

plain

A
of

in
too

wood,

part

or

piece

particularly
between

the

circle.

compartment
crack,
by

caused

rapidly.

a
as

or

scaffolding.

SHARE.

usually

are

rest.

plan.

denotes

the

of

floors,

considered

contained
arc

ho-

the

also

thing,

SEVERY.
for

implement

or

called

SEGMENT.

with

line
and

the

portion,

or

verse
trans-

shows

the

with

it ;

section

was

longitudinal

on

across

or

term

part,

with

one

section

separate

is

view,

to

line

parts

part

building;

usually

The

poles.
Scales

on

the

width,

ritontal

being

the

exposed

one

but

made,

those

of

lines

the

is

sectional

section

The

scaffolding,

measurement.
on

is

length
its

forming

boards,

section

plane.

removed.

actually

bolt,

inside.

the

An

SCALE.

are

nearer

confined
of

means

building

termed

are

being

they

on

and

brackets

what

elevation

by

cut

as

separation

the

resentation
reprior
inte-

the

exhibits

only

not
the

where

the

folding
scafin

or

section

of

horizontal

the

buildings,

wooden

support

Jacks

of

used

edge
suifsMe

geometrical
part

building

vertical

though

kind

the
the

to

A
of

of

workmen

among

so

but

as

Fitting

if

nailing.

appear

wood

the

laid

simply

or

wood,

another.

also

covered

often,

of

erection

to

pieces

sometimes

is

of

is

of

of

angles

joining,
of

may

Of

pa-

boards,

are

whole

SECTION.

ledgers.

them

The

piece

building.

without

scaffolding.

for

and

right

boards,

used

improperly,

of

at

bers;
tim-

dIgc^*

OI16

height,

other

These

staging

word

The

them

times
some-

small

pieces

SCRIfiiNG.

stage-poles;

are

brackets

term

"c.

joists,

the

a
as

original.
A

splicing,
that

nailing

the

fh)m

of

fioor

the

suita-

last-named

The

with

at

of

at

and

of

ol]ject,

denote

two

with
scale

word

other

its

to

surements
mea-

magnitude

or

with

as

of

in

boards,

ledgers,

the

continued

made

the

SCARFING.

joists

ft. in

called

are

pole,

every

are

and

of

walls

and

ing
erect-

across

made

The

to

used

usually

position,

horizontal

the

with

walls

every

the

joists

and

the

outnide

of

to

The

in

apart,

horizontal

rellel

joists

position,

the

to

distances
a

of

erecting

distances

boards

to

be

map,

oompai^d

blage
assem-

used

Scaffoldings

perpendicular

on

refers

drawing,

tain
cer-

then

implement,

SCANTLINGS.

BCAFFOLDING.

At

this

and

lines

diagonal

exactness.

also

the

is formed

into

parts,

may

hand-

of

width

of

By

great

ser-

process

its

the

labor.

in

dividing
numl^r

them.

called

logs

scale

diagonal

drawing

ma^

laborious

sawing

slow

The

by

satoyere.

seldom

so

that

wide.

of

top

done

now

the

performed

fortunately

he

as

the

called
now

and,

to

Tfce

who

is

carpenter,
upon

on

men
were

work

This

other

The

in

standing

one

persons,

its

or

being

piece having

fissure,
dried
many

177

GLOSSARY.

slits,

is

clefts,

or

said

in

be

to

SHORE.
in

standing
against

is to

is

and

of

right

at

Eontal

tenon
I

in

'

principal

the

which

land

firame

in

lies

hori-

which

Pieces

under

of

of

One

slide, which,

against

logarithmic

mines

of

various

having

being
lines,

arithmetical

SOCKET-CmSEL.

The

between

distance,

the

of

eaves

abutments

of

piers

or

SPIKE.

the

That

tapering

thus,

by

making
the

equal

that

above

this, the

aperture

and

those

above

and

sides,
Also

an

and

out

(:^ee

thing

angles

said
are

perform

called

the

four

two

adjoining

right

for

supporting

be

right
in

theatres,
proseenium.

any

the

on

the

placed
of

play-room.
This

ground
story

between

post
of

building,

superincumbent

The

force

which

cohesion

exerted
tends
its

of

between

timber

approach.
of

was

12

opposite
their

It

is

always

in

pieces
nearer
a

state

compression.
STRAP.

term

two

prevent

to

on

stroy
de-

to

parts.
A
piece

STRAINING-PIECE.

which

stAge

this

chamber^tory
;
the
them,
tAtrd,
A

material

angles.

floor

the

entrance

stories

STRAIN.

ing
lay-

when

square

In

weight.

work.

Square.)
to

ancient

for

their

land,
Eng-

fifth stories, "c.

fourth,

used

joiners

Carpkntbr's
is

many

squaring

STAGE.
actors

as

instrument

and

carpenters

of

is

story
in

denominate

above
or

the

eaves.

second.

splayed;

figure

to

the

usually

first

are

description

floor

STORY-POST.
A

angles.

the

on

be

to

sills

principal
first

we

the

there

at

story
principal

admitting

room,

SQUARE.

In

the

the

this

the

jambs

light.

more

the
the

on

country,

angle

The

often

are

in

larger

oblique

an

adjoining.

window

America,

space
to

said

as

the

plates

it is
a

of
of

top

the

usually

denoting

term

makes

that

In

steeple

is

high

spaces

of

division
the

immediately

building

the

body.
A

which

with

many

is
of

top

floor

one

that

stories

firom

ascends.

of

the

vertical

of

or

steeple

occupying

side
it.

top

begin

at

top

altenvate

sides

it

as

SPLAYED.
side

of

part

the

over

the

to

the

porch

front,

the

spire.

the

has

That

building

under

shed-roof.

to

diminishes

Any

its

fiom

ing
consist-

inclined

contradistinction

which

by

roof

simple

two

in

STORY.

as

of

called

named.

"c.
SPAN-ROOF.

point,

the

bridge,

this

to

roof,

From

considered

spread,

or

b(^ns

lations.
calcu-

as

tower
to

steeple

projection

Same

The

ground

edifice

porch

mounts
sur-

composed

the

deter^

of

SPAN.

the

which
is

spire.
the

is

Where

of

lofty erection,
It

and
from

brace,

it is affixed.

church.

where

or

swaying

point,

remainder

firmer-chisel.

sup-

performing

the

The
in

tower

line

of

them

tie

which

to

extends

moved

the

sides

thing

either

diminish.

SLIDING-RULE.

figured

of

work

bers
tim-

the

give

prevents

ending

the

on

principal

the

of

ground-floor.

Any

office of

the

timber

horizontally

lie

ground,

in

the

stands.

structure

SLEEPERS.
which

lot

or

term

about

port-

which

of

port.
sup-

mous
synony-

English

or

to

STEEPLE.

situation

The

on

bridge,

timber-wharf,

position.

SITE.

An
driven

piles

of

or

post.

STAT.

lowest

timber

structure

the

it.

The
of

length,

its

with

angles

piers

stege
"lls.

prop,

is nearly

term

denoting

Umber,

of

to

from

SILL.

piece

stick

the

the

curtain

with

more

of

the

STARLINGS.

it.

at

where

The

up

plane

denotes
front

STANCHION.

its

against

transverse

projecting

times
the

line

shore

The

end

which

^^

To

in

it

shores

put

SHOULDER.
tenoned

retain

to

the

at

position

oblique

an

place.
"

brace,

or

prop,

wall

proper
wall

modem

particularly

shaky.

An

iron

plate, bar,

or

178

GLOSSARY.

buid
or

fbr

eonflnins;

together

STRIATED.
small

in

large

in

saw

is not

saw

made
said

rides

rough

or

be

to

of

off

the

of

; also

on

which

may

any

those

its

brace
for
A

it

to

keep

the

used

not
strutf but
therefore,

be

may

are
or

used

in

of

denotes

the

if
a

or

STUBSHOB.

use

among

wood

at

each

timber

log

track

the

split

of

ber,
tim-

fit into

STUDS.

Those

of

ends

Those

the

at

generally
than

used

to

STUFF.

carpenters

also

the

jeukis

those

lathes

are

nailed

England,

usually
This
and

called
word

joiners

titions.
par-

quarters.
is used
by
to

denote
of

to

any

any
par-

of

piece
of

end

of

walls

building.
of

end

The

fill

tenon

of
it

and
jects
pro-

wood;

the
commences

at

surface

with

piece

any
to

as

it

called

The

the

strained

its

length.
The

THRUST.

body
of

that
its
common

TIE.

fixed

particular
exists

retain

rope

or

when

diverge

plates.
bodies

two

position
to

of

rafters
the

chain,

timber,

as

against

arch

against

to

as

rection
di-

another;

the

or

roof

the

exerted

force

against

abutments,

so

in

segmental

or

which

to

be

may

one

stretehing

extension

of

partition-

lumber
sawed

in

at

meet

the

form

to

TENSION.

timbers,
to

in

rest

angles

degree

by

term

the

where

as

of

or

partituni'etuds^

indiscriminately
Lumber,

kind.

called

years,

called

In
are

in, under,

that,

shotUder.

lai^er
wm-

short

the

cut

so

A
under

plape

are

called

are

late

denote

joists,
which
the

or

studs

is

thing

wall.

windows

are

cut

braces
Of

the

somewhat

those

the

stud.t.

of

rest, and

dotO'Studs
over

sides

made

the

of

filming

to

rection
di-

the
so

would

mortise.

ttom.

sides

the

buildings

wooden

the

complete

into

framed

joists,

or

and

timbers,

short

denoting
gradually
in

reduced

so

the

right

saw-pit.

where

length;

The

wood

and

the

oyer

body

stone

or

TENON.

was

term

girder

or

split

but
the

after

firom

of

they

laid

brick

and

piece

through,

sawn

apart,

removed

ends

done

other

their

continued,

mon
com-

roughly

of

end

the

not

cleft

or

the

denote

to

in

term

carpenters

of

TEMPLET.

tended.
ex-

be

nature,
the

point.

brace

like
of

may

sides

the

of

in

of

is solid.

approach

brace,

while

as

of

ends

chimney-

of

insertion

TAPERING.

term

for

where

thing

joists

wall

beam

joiners

the

piece

the

framed,
any

substitute

always

the

the

that

against

is

joists

prevent

compressed

either

part

above

which

into

flues,

extended

strut

compression,

of

Imtel.

erected

TAIL-TRIMMER.

timber,

if

The
as

strut,

state

called

T.

and,

work

come.

be

opening.
That

edifice

an

tering
cen-

nearly

brace;

ends

may

is

when

of

parts

which

of

arch

or

term

designed

timber

is

summer

beam

large

wide

nons,
te-

the

properly

is

small

cover

of

piece

vault

more

it

case,

chanics.
me-

denotes

remoTing

with
be

Any

to

SUPERSTRUCTURE.

then

mortises,

This

synonymous
it

are

built.

STRUT.

ral
gene-

other

to

marking

or

any

making

"c.

SUMMER.

designed

the

are

term

out,

surface
for

is

stock

penter
car-

the

what

baaement.

lining

been

has

in

timber
and

This

timber,

its

atriated.

of

act

the

ridgy,

STRIKING.
the

of

lomber,

fixed

firmly

the

finme,

term

the

to

by

direction

in sawing

is called

is

It

joiner

and

as

sawed

wood

the

When,

lengUi.
the

of

piece

dimension,

or

ticular

with

channels,

or

size

dimetuioH-stuff.

Marked

furrows,

those

two

timber.

of

pi"c"s

more

a
or

in
dency
ten-

spread

apart.
TIE-BEAM.
foot

of

serving

building

beam

The

pair

to

tie

together

of

large
walls

the

by

at

the

rafters,
of

counteract-

Ihe

GLOSSARY.

180

WINDLASS.

rtde"

The

WALL.

buUding

any

of

top

The

waU.

the

Ihoes;

to

slopes

at

thin

in

one

into

lugger

small
door

is

the

sanie

gate.

END.

the

cut

the

the

other

nature,

Capstan.)

lass
wind-

The

horizontal

an

the

to

raised.
in.

linder
cy-

tions,
revolu-

its

attached

is
be

means

cylinder

chsdn,

or

capstan,

(See

made

THE

used
The

of

end

door

or

to

mortises

of

by

which

weight

of

wound,
rope

of

in

Around

enda.

is

and

by

or

outside

the

axis,

iron,

or

an

crank,

the

hole,

open
the

at

wood

inserted

lerers

end

other.

the

at

stairs,

WICKET.

through

notes
de-

and

steps.

tlie

of

for
of

conasts

of

on

by

sur-

end,

The
of

flight

the

It

nio^es

turned

me-

five

has

edge

WELL-HOijE.

cylinder

is

ftye

the

It

thick

weights.

strong

near

of

powers.
is

plaU

term

One

ehanlcal

on

thing.

Hune

WEDOE.

of

piece

horixontally

placed

niAng

which

apartment.

or

WALL-PLATE.
timber

of

endB

or

machine

tion.
porinstrument
ia

used

right.
up-