Experiment in Biology and

Biochemistry

Learning outcomes
1. Explain the chemical properties of
biomolecules
2. Explain the reaction of biology and
biochemistry processes
3. Practice the correct procedure in
biochemistry
4. Practice the correct basic procedure in
plant and animal physiology

BIOMOLECULES
A biomolecule is any molecule that is present in living
organisms, including large macromolecules such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids, as well as small
molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites,
and natural products.
Four major classes of biomolecules & building blocks:
1. Carbohydrate
2. Protein
3. Lipids
4. Nucleic acids

Chemical properties
Chemical properties of molecule are depend on
by specific arrangement of atoms
The specific groups : functional groups

Most biomolecules contain more than 1

functional group.

Biochemical process
Assembling small molecules into
polymeric macromolecules needs
energy

Breaking polymeric molecules into

smaller molecule produces energy

BIOCHEMICAL PROCESSES
All life processes consist of chemical reaction catalyzed by enzymes
What are the primary functions of metabolism?
1. To acquire and use energy
2. To synthesize molecules needed for cellular structure
& function
3. For growth & development
4. To remove waste & other toxins

carbohydrate

Sugar and carbohydrates

Contain alcohol groups & aldehydes/ketones
Simple/monomer : monosaccharide
glucose, fructose, ribose, galactose
Polymer: polysaccharide
starch & cellulose; glycogen
Complex :
nucleotide : contain ribose / deoxyribose
glycoprotein : protein contain carbohydrate
glycolipid : lipid contain carbohydrate.

or

*
or

D-glucose
an aldose
an aldohexose

D-fructose
a ketose
a ketohexose

Monosaccharides are connected by GLYCOSIDIC BOND

via the process of dehydration
C1

C4

TASK 4:
REDRAW
Glycosidic
bond

 most abundant class of organic compounds

originate as products of photosynthesis
n CO2 + n H2O + energy CnH2nOn + n O2
classified according to the number of simple sugar units
What are the
functions?
Store energy in the form of starch (in plants) or glycogen (in animals & humans).

Provide energy through metabolism pathways and cycles.

Supply carbon for synthesis of other compounds.

Form structural components in cells and tissues

e.g. the construction of the body organs and nerve cells

The definition of a person's biological identity such as their blood group

Precursor: A molecule which exists as an ingredient, reactant, or intermediate in an anabolic

pathway that synthesizes a particular product. The molecule is described as the "precursor" of
that product.

CLASSIFICATION OF DIETARY CARBOHYDRATES

Monosaccharides

Glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharides

Sucrose, lactose, maltose

Oligosaccharides

Maltodextrins, fructo-oligo-saccharides

Polysaccharides

Starch: Amylose, amylopectin

Non-starch: Cellulose, pectins, hydrocolloids

Classes of carbohydrate
1. monosaccharide
glucose

simplest sugar
represent aldehydes or ketones of from 3-6
carbons in length.
Glucose "blood sugar"
Fructose "fruit sugar"
Galactose the breakdown of lactose.
Glyceraldehydes the metabolic breakdown
of Glucose.

D-glucose
(ring structure)

Conversion of glucose to other compounds

2. disaccharide

Classes of
carbohydrate

made by connecting two simpler molecules.

the removal of water from between the two molecules condensation

Classes of
carbohydrate
Glycogen
3. polysaccharide e.g. Starch, Cellulose, Chitin,
a. Starch : 2 polyglucose
1. Amylose
- an unbranched
polyglucose that has linkages at the C1 and C4
- quite soluble in water, but
only represents 20% of the
Starch.

2. Amylopectin
- highly branched with -link at
the C1 and C6
- water insoluble and represents
the other 80% of the starch.

b. Cellulose

Classes of
carbohydrate

fn: structural component

held by glycoside links called -link.
we lack of the digestive enzymes
Herbivores and termites have microbes that produces the enzyme
in human body, it helps keep the bowel functioning correctly

Classes of
carbohydrate
c. glycogen
linkage similar to amilopectin BUT the branching is more
numerous
Our bodies make glycogen from the unused carbohydrate
in form granules
stored in the liver and muscle tissue of our bodies
When the body needs energy sources How to obtain the
energy?

glycogen

When viewed with an electron microscope, glycogen particles are typically

arranged in chrysanthemum-like clusters of electron-dense particles

When stained with using the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) technique,

glycogen stains bright pink in color.
The images below represent PAS-stained sections of liver from two
mice:

Left : mouse that fasted

overnight and thus had
very low levels glycogen
in liver.

Right: mouse that feed on food

pallets two hours before fixing
the liver had high levels of
hepatic glycogen. These
accumulations are seen as pink
areas of PAS-positive material.

Classes of
carbohydrate
d. chitin
Similar to cellulose in structure and
function
BUT the unit = N-acetyl--Dglucosamine
chitin has an amide group instead of
a hydroxyl group (alcohol)

Chitosan is very similar to

chitin. Chitosan has an
amine group instead of an
amide group.
cellulose

This just means that chitosan

doesn't have any carbons
double bonded to oxygen
and chitin does.

protein

Amino acids, peptides and protein

A.a. contains :

1. amino group
2. carboxylic acid
group
3. side chain
gp/R group

TASK 5:
REDRAW

Amino acids are linked together by

peptide bonds
Polypeptides : peptides ( up to 50 a.a)
protein (longer)

TASK 6:
REDRAW

Structures and symbols of the 20 amino acids

which are directly encoded for protein synthesis
by the standard genetic code.

L-Alanine
(Ala / A)

L-Arginine
(Arg / R)

L-Asparagine
(Asn / N)

L-Cysteine
(Cys / C)

L-Glutamic acid L-Glutamine

(Glu / E)
(Gln / Q)

L-Aspartic acid
(Asp / D)

Glycine
(Gly/G)

L-Histidine
(His / H)

L-Isoleucine
(Ile / I)

L-Leucine
(Leu / L)

L-Lysine
(Lys / K)

L-Methionine
(Met / M)

L-Phenylalanine
(Phe / F)

L-Proline
(Pro / P)

L-Serine
(Ser / S)

L-Threonine
(Thr / T)

L-Tryptophan
(Trp / W)

L-Tyrosine
(Tyr / Y)

L-Valine
(Val / V)

lipid

Fatty acids and lipids

Contain :
1. one carboxylic acid
2. with long HC chain
Are monocarboxylic acids
Usually contain even number of C atoms
water insoluble
E storage

O
Alkyl gp
Contains
C & H atoms

RCH2

OH

Carboxyl
gp

 Monounsaturated f.a. = contain one double bond

Polyunsaturated f.a. = contain two or more double
bond
Saturated f.a = only single bond (saturated with
hydrogens!)
one carboxylic acid with even C number & no
branching

Fatty acids are combined with one glycerol to form a fat

molecule triglycerol // triacylglycerol //TAG
Through a process :esterification/dehydration/condensation

TASK 7:
REDRAW

Lipid classes

1. Fatty acids

monocarboxylic acids that occur in Triacylglycerol,

phospholipids & sphingolipids

saturated @ unsaturated

2. Triacylglycerols

are esters of glycerol with 3 fatty acids.

if solid at room temp. fat (mostly saturated f.a)

if liquid at room temp oil (mostly unsaturated f.a)

major storage & transport form of f.a

important E storage (8x glycogen)

less oxidized than carbohydrate

its oxidation releases more E

Lipid classes
Fatty acid :12-20 C

C
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
H3C
CH2 OH
CH2
CH2
CH2
CH2
Nonpolar hydrophobic tail

Polar hydrophilic head

Triacylglycerol @ triglyceride
Before a fat can be
oxidized, it must be
hydrolyzed to the anion
acid and glycerol.
Biologically this is done by
lipases.
Chemically base hydrolysis
is called saponification.

Lipid classes
saponification

CH2OH
O
CH2O C R3
CH2OH
O
3 KOH
+
CH
OH
2
CH O C R3
O
O
CH2O C R3
3 KO C R3
K salt of a fatty acid

Lipid classes

3. Phospholipids
structural components of membrane
2 types : phosphoglycerides & sphingomyelins
4. Sphingolipids
Important comp. of animal & plant membranes
Contain long chain amino alcohol: sphingosine (animal) &
phytosphingosine (plants)
5. Isoprenoids
Molecule containing repeating 5C isoprene
Consist of terpenes & steroids
6. Wax esters
Complex mixtures of non polar lipids
Serve as protecting coat

Nucleic acid

Nucleotides and nucleic acids

Contain :
1. 5C sugar
2. A nitrogenous base
3. Phosphate gp.
Base consist of purine or pyrimidine.

e.g. ATP

e.g. DNA/ RNA

Complementary base pairing
DNA : A-T ; C-G
RNA: A-U ; C-G;

Bacterial Metabolism