REVIEW NOTES IN PHYSICS 2

Prepared by: Engr. Luzviminda A. Lescano

HEAT

Thermal energy energy resulting from heat flow; also known as internal energy
Internal energy total potential and kinetic energy of the particles of a substance.
Heat thermal energy that is transferred from a hot body to a cold body; thermal energy in
motion.
Q = m c ( t 2 - t1 )
Q = + when heat is absorbed
Q = - when heat is liberated
Example 1: How much heat does 25 g of aluminum give off as it cools from 100 oC to 20 oC? For
aluminum c = 0.21 cal/g Co
Ans. 420 cal
Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of the particles in a body.
Specific heat of a substance ( c ) amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass
of a substance by one degree; substances with high specific heat heas up more slowly or cool
down at a slower rate; with low specific heat heat up quickly and cool off quickly
Calorimetry involves the measurement of the heat transferred between substances; calorimetry
problems involve the sharing of heat energy among initially hot objects and cold objects. Since
energy must be conserved:
Heat lost by hotter substances = heat gained by the cooler substances
Example 2: A thermos bottle contains 150 g of water at 4 oC. Into this is placed 90 g of metal at
100 oC. After equilibrium is established, the temperature of the water and metal is 21 oC. What is
the specific heat of the metal? Assume no heat loss to the thermos bottle . Specific heat of
water = 1 cal/g Co
Ans. 0.36 cal/g Co
o
Example 3: A 255-g block of gold at 85 C is immersed in 155 g of water at 25 oC. Find the
equilibrium temperature, assuming the system is isolated and the heat capacity of the cup can be
neglected. Sp. ht. of Au = 0.0308 cal/g Co
Ans. 27.9 oC
o
Example 4: A 20-kg gold bar at 35 C is placed in a large, insulated 0.80-kg glass container at 15
o
C and 2.0 kg of water at 25 oC. Calculate the final temperature of mixture.
Sp. ht. of glass= 0.2 cal/g Co
Ans. 26.6 oC
Abnormal expansion of water:
Cooling water from 4 C to 0 C it expands
At 0 C it freezes to ice, volume increases, density decreases
Below 0 C it contracts
Vaporization process of changing from liquid to gaseous state at the boiling
Melting of fusion process of changing a solid to liquid.
Freezing changing liquid to solid
Condensation vapor to liquid
Sublimation solid to vapor
Latent Heat of fusion heat required to melt 1 kg of a solid in to a liquid phase at the solid melting
point; also equal to the heat given off when a substance changes from liquid to solid.
For water: 80 cal/g
Latent Heat of vaporization energy required to change 1 kg of a substance from the liquid to the
vapor state at the liquids boiling point; also the energy given off when the substance changes
from vapor to liquid.
For water: 540 cal/g
Heat involved in a change of phase:
For heat absorption processes: Q =+ mL ( m=mass , L=latent heat )
For heat liberation process:
Q = -mL
Example 5: How much heat is required to change 40 g of ice cube from ice at -10 oC to steam at
110oC? Specific heats: ice = 0.5 cal/g Co ; steam = 0.48 cal/g Co
Ans. 29 192 cal
Example 6: How much heat is given up when 20 g of steam at 100 oC is condensed to 20 oC?
Ans. -12 400 cal

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Example 7:
A 20-g piece of aluminum at 90 oC is dropped into a cavity in a large block of
ice at 0 oC? How much ice does the aluminum melt?
Sp. ht. of Al= 0.215 cal/g Co
Ans. 4.7 g
Example 8: Determine the resulting temperature, when 150 g of ice at 0 oC is mixed with 300 g
of water at 50 oC. Ans. 6.7 oC
Evaporation process in which a liquid changes to the gas phase at room temperature.
Conduction transfer of heat due to atomic ( or molecular ) collisions within a substance
(solid, liquid and gas) or from one object to another when they are in contact. The rate of
heat flow within a substance is
k A T
H =
d
Where: H = rate of heat flow ; k is the thermal conductivity of the material, A is the crosssectional area, d is the thickness (or length) of the material , and T is the temperature
difference between one side and the other.
Convection transfer of heat in fluids by means of fluid currents within the heated fluids that
carry heat from one place to another; the material itself moves from one place to another.
Radiation transfer of heat by means of electromagnetic waves ;
James Prescot Joule- showed the quantitative relationship between heat and work
If an object has an initial length Lo at some temperature to and undergoes a change in
temperature t , its linear dimension changes by the amount L, which is proportional to the
objects initial length and the temperature change.
L = Lo t = Lo ( t to )
where = coefficient of linear expansion of the material
V = Vo t = Vo ( t to )
= coefficient of volume expansion of the material
= 3
Example 9: A steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the temperature is 0 oC.
What is its length on a hot day when the temperature is 40 oC? of steel = 11 x 10 -6 ( Co)-1
Ans. 30.013 m
Example 10. A 1.00-liter aluminum cylinder at 5.00 oC is filled to the brim with gasoline at
the same temperature. If the aluminum and gasoline are warmed to 65 oC, how much
gasoline spills out?
of Al = 24 x 10-6 ( Co)-1 ; of gasoline = 9.6 x 10-4 ( Co)-1
3
Ans. 53.3 cm

NATURE AND TYPES OF WAVES

Waves are created when objects vibrate or oscillate; disturbance that travels through a
medium or through empty space.
Mechanical waves need a material medium through which they can travel; water waves,
sound waves; rope waves
Medium does not travel with the wave but it is the energy which is being transferred by the
traveling disturbance.
Transverse waves waves which can move in such a way that the motion of the medium is
perpendicular to the motion of the waves, that is, the motion of the particles of the medium
move up and down while the wave move forward. Examples :rope waves, water waves,
electromagnetic waves
Longitudinal waves ( or compressional waves ) the medium vibrates in a direction parallel
to the direction in which the waves travel. Examples: sound waves, waves in stretched spring
In a liquid, the motion of the particles may be neither purely transverse nor purely longitudinal
but a combination of the two.
Periodic waves a series of waves created by a continuous disturbance.

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Characteristics of Waves
Crests highest points of a transverse wave
Troughs lowest points of a transverse wave
Wavelength ( ) distance from crest to crest; or from trough to trough.
Amplitude ( A ) distance of the crest or trough from the midpoint of the wave.
Frequency ( f ) number of crests or waves that passes a fixed point per second; the unit of
frequency is hertz (Hz) ; higher frequencies are measured in kHz ( AM radio waves ), MHz
( FM radio waves and GHz ( radar or microwave ovens ). AM amplitude modulation ; FM
frequency modulation
Period ( T ) time it takes a wave to travel a distance equal to a wavelength and is the
reciprocal of frequency. T = 1 / f

crest

amplitude

amplitude
trough

Wave velocity: v = f
Example 11: An FM station broadcast at a frequency of 99.9 MHz; with a radio wave
having a wavelength of 3.0 m . Find the speed of the radio wave.
Ans. 3 x 108 m/s
Wave speed i a medium: constant in a given medium ; depends on the properties of that
medium; on strings speed of waves depends on the tension ( T ) in the string and the linear
density
T
T
v = ---- = ------
m/L
In a given medium if the frequency of the wave is changed, then the wavelength of the wave
change ; the amplitude of a wave does not affect its wave ; Long wavelength low frequency
; short wavelength high frequency
Example 12: A uniform string has a mass of 0.30 kg and a length of 6 m. Tension is
maintained in the string by suspending a 2.0-kg block from one end. Find the speed of a
pulse in this string.
Ans.19.8 m/s

Characteristics of wave motion

Rectilinear propagation In a uniform medium, waves travel in straight lines perpendicular to
the advancing wave fronts ;
Wave front surface passing through the point of a wave that have the same phase
and amplitude; parallel lines representing the wave crest ;perpendicular to the
direction of a wave
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Ray straight line drawn in the direction of the wave motion perpendicular to the
wave fronts; for spherical wave front, like water waves produced by dropping a
pebble itno a pool of water, the ripples of concentric circles are the wave front and the
rays are radially outward from the point source.

Reflection bouncing back of waves when it strikes a surface they hit; wavelength and
frequency of the waves are not affected by the reflection when the reflecting surface is
stationary; Examples: echoes of sound waves, reflection of light from a mirror or any smooth
surface
Refraction bending of waves as they pass obliquely from one medium into another of
different speed of propagation
Diffraction spreading of waves around a barrier in its path; ( Huygens Principle- when a
wave meets a very small obstacle like a small slit, the wave front in the small slit acts as a
new source of light; It is diffraction of sound waves which enables you to hear your teacher
even if she still outside the room near the door
Interference refers to the effect of two or more waves moving simultaneously through a
medium. Interference of incoming radio waves with those reflected from clouds or airplanes
can be sometimes observed in your television or radio set ; the rainbow colors observed in
soap bubbles and in oil floating in the street on rainy days are produced by interference of
light waves.
Constructive interference occurs when two waves with the same frequency and
amplitude traveling in the same direction are in phase ( particles which are in the
same relative positions and move in the same direction are said to be in the same
phase ) ; individual effects add together to form a wave having the same frequency
as the individual waves but twice their amplitude; there is reinforcement. When two
crests, or two troughs meet, there is constructive interference.
Example:
Constructive interference of light waves, the resulting effect is the production of
brighter light
Destructive interference occurs when two waves with the same frequency and
amplitude are 180o out of phase; the result when they combine is complete
cancellation ;The crest of one wave coincide with the troughs of the other ; the
individual amplitudes subtract.
Standing waves stationary wave pattern formed in a medium when two waves having the same
frequency, amplitude and wavelength travel in opposite directions through a medium.
Standing waves can be set up in a stretched string by connecting one end of the string to a
stationary clamp and connecting the other end to a vibrating object such as the end of a
tuning fork or by shaking the hand holding the string up and down at a steady rate; set up
when you pluck a guitar string.
A standing wave on a string causes the string to sweep out a pattern which shows the
displacement nodes and the displacement antinodes.

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Displacement node point on a standing wave where the amplitude of vibration is zero.;
points of destructive interference.
Displacement antinodes point on a standing wave where the amplitude of vibration is
greatest; points of constructive interference.
The distance between two adjacent nodes ( or antinodes) is half wavelength. The region
between two nodes is called a segment. The wavelength of the standing wave bears a
simple relationship to the length L of the string.
n n

where n = number of harmonic

L =
2

Superposition principle states that when two waves meet while traveling through a medium
at the same time, the result is a wave whose displacement is equal to the vector sum of the
displacement of the two waves. Example: Sound wave from all the musical instrument of an
orchestra move simultaneously through the air to our ears, yet we can still listen to the sound
of a particular instrument.
Natural frequency frequency at which an elastic object naturally tends to vibrate if it is
disturbed and the disturbing force is removed.
Fundamental frequency lowest natural frequency of the vibrating string or the first harmonic;
corresponds to one antinode ( or one loop or segment )
V

where V = speed of the wave

f1 =

2L
The natural frequencies of vibration of a stretched string of length L, fixed at both ends
n
fn = n f1 = ---2L
When n = 1
n=2
n=3

T
----

where n= 1,2,3,

(one segment)
first harmonic = 2L
(two segments) second harmonic ( also called the first overtone ) = L
(three segments) third harmonic ( second overtone ) = 2/3 L

Example 13: A piano string is 1.10 m long and a mass of 9 g. (a) How much tension must
the string be under if it is to vibrate at a fundamental frequency of 131 Hz? (b) what are the
frequencies of the first four harmonics?
Ans. 747.5 N , 131 Hz, 262 Hz, 393 Hz,
524 Hz.

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Example 14: A string vibrates in 5 segments to a frequency of 460 Hz. What frequency
will cause it to vibrate in 2 segments? Ans. 184 Hz
In a stationary wave there are points called nodes at which the amplitude is always zero; at
other point, called antinodes, the amplitude is a maximum and equal to the sum of the
amplitudes of the individual waves ; there is no flow of energy through the medium in a
stationary wave

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation are oscillations in the electric field of an

accelerated charged particle which could travel across space.;need no medium to travel since
these waves can travel through a vacuum; the medium through these waves are the electric
and magnetic field;
Predicted by James Clerk Maxwell and experimentally confirmed by Heinrich Hertz
Are created by accelerating electric charges
Are transverse waves because the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the
direction of the waves
Travel at the speed of light
The electromagnetic spectrum includes waves covering a broad range of frequencies and
wavelengths
Radio waves result of charges accelerating through conducting wires; used in radio and TV
communication systems; have the longest wavelengths but lowest frequency
Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves ) have wavelengths generated by electronic
devices; their short wavelengths make them well suited for radar systems used in aircraft
navigation and for the study of atomic and molecular properties of matter
Infrared waves ( sometimes incorrectly called heat wave, produced by hot objects and
molecules
Visible light- part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye; wavelengths of visible
light are classified as colors
Colors of light
Violet shortest wavelength, highest frequency
Indigo
Blue
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red longest wavelength, lowest frequency
Ultraviolet ( UV) light the Sun is an important source; ozone O 3 is produced from reactions
of oxygen with ultraviolet radiation
X-rays common source of x-rays is the acceleration of high-energy electrons bombarding a
metal target
Gamma rays emitted by radioactive nuclei; have the shortest wavelengths but highest
frequency

SOUND

Sound waves are longitudinal waves traveling through a medium, such as air.
Sound is a disturbance of the type capable of being detected by the ear.
Audible waves lie within the range of sensitivity of the human ear, approximately 20 to 20
000 Hz
Infrasonic waves with frequencies below the audible range ; ex. Earthquake
Ultrasonic waves with frequencies above the audible range for humans; can be very
penetrating due to their short wavelength
Supersonic refers to an object traveling faster than sound
Compressions regions where the air molecules are close to each other
Rarefactions where the air molecules are far apart ;

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Speed of sound: We see lightning flash and then hear a thunder a few seconds later
because sound travels more slowly than light; generally greater in liquids than in gases and
still greater in solids( solids have greater elasticity than liquids or gases) ; it is four times
faster in water than in air, and about 15 times faster in steel than in air; thats why the sound
of a distant train can be heard more clearly by putting your ear against the rail ; sound of
motor boats can be heard more clearly under water than above water. The speed of sound in
air at 0 C is about 331.5 m/s; in water at 25 oC is about 1500 m/s ; in steel rod at 25 oC is
5200 m/s; increases by about 0.6 m/s for each oC
The speed of sound in liquids of bulk modulus B and density is
v =

The speed of sound in solids of Young modulus Y and density is

v =

B
-----

Y
-----

The speed of sound also depends on the temperature of the medium

v = (331 m/s)
Or:

T
-------273 K

T is the absolute (Kelvin) temp

v = 331 m/s + 0.6 ( t )

The speed of sound in gases

Where: R = 8.314 J/mol K
v =

Example 15:
Example 16:
Example 17:
Example 18:

kRT
M

M = Molecular weight in kg/mol

T = absolute temperature in K
k = cp / cv = 1.4 for air , oxygen, nitrogen

What is the speed of sound waves in water? The bulk modulus for water is
2.2 x 109 N/m2.
Ans. 1480 m/s
The speed of sound in a metal rod is 6000 m/s. What is the Youngs
Modulus for the material of the rod if the density of the material is 8.2 g/cc?
Ans. 3 x 1011 N/m2
Compute the speed of sound in air at 20 oC.
Mean molar mass of air is 28.8 x 10-3 kg/mol
Ans. 344 m/s
Compute the speed of sound in He (at. wt. =4 ) at 800 oC. For He: k=1.66
Ans. 1924 m/s

Reflection of Sound Waves

Echo reflection of sound waves ; occurs when reflected sound waves return to the observer
0.1 s or more after the original wave reaches him
Reverberation the persistence of sound in an enclosed space, due to repeated reflection of
sound.; the successive echoes that can be heard ; continuous reflection of sound

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Reverberation time total time during which a sound remains audible due to repeated
reflection.
Smooth surfaces are good reflectors of sound; in such case the reverberation time is long; In
lecture rooms and conference halls, reverberation is undesirable; to minimize walls are made
rough or draperies are placed (good sound absorbing materials)
Physical Properties of Sound

Pitch degree of highness or lowness of the sound as perceived by the listeners; pitch of
sound can be expressed in terms of its frequency; high pitch-high frequency
Doppler effect change in pitch produced by the relative motion of the source and observer
fs ( v + v o )
fo =
(v vs )

where: v = speed of sound

vo = speed of observer; (+) when observer moves toward the source,(-) when
observer moves away
vs = speed of source (+) when source moves toward the observer,(-) when
moves away
fo = observed frequency
fs = frequency of source of sound

Example 19: An automobile moving at 30 m/s is approaching a factory whistle that has a
frequency of 500 Hz. (a) If the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s, what is the frequency of the
whistle as heard by the driver. (b) Repeat for the case of the car leaving the factory at the
same speed.
Ans. 544 Hz , 456 Hz
Example 20: A car moving at 20 m/s with its horn blowing ( f=1200 Hz) is chasing another
car going at 15 m/s. What is the frequency of the horn as heard by the driver being chased?
Take the speed of sound to be 340 m/s.
Ans. 1219 Hz
Intensity ( I ) known as the loudness of sound ; rate at which energy flow through a unit
area expressed in decibel ; amplitude dependent ; bigger amplitude loud sound
Loudness measure of the amount of auditory sensation sound waves produced; sensory
effect of intensity;
Threshold of hearing faintest sound the human ear can detect at a frequency of
1 000 Hz have an intensity of about 10 -12 W/m2 ( 0 db )
Threshold of pain loudest sound the ear can tolerate have an intensity of about 1 W/m2
( 120 dB)
Spherical Waves : Intensity of sound at a distance r from a source is
P
I =
A

P
=
4 r2

where: P = power in watts

A = surface area in cm2
I = intensity in decibel (dB)
W
1 dB = 1
cm2

Ratio of the intensities of two spherical surfaces

r2 2

I1
=
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I2

r1 2

Example 21: A small source emits sound waves with a power output of 80 W. Find the
intensity 3.0 m from the source.
Ans. 0.707 W/m2
The intensity level of a sound wave is
I
= 10 log-----Io
Source
whisper
busy street traffic
military jet 30 m away

where: Io = reference intensity

= 1 x 10-12 W/m2
= measured in decibel (dB)
I = any intensity

sound Intensity Level, dB

20
70
140

Intensity W/m2
10-10
10-5
102

A sound has an intensity of 3 x 10-8 W/m2 . What is the sound level in dB?
Ans. 44.8 dB
Example 23: A noise-level meter reads the sound level in a room to be 85 dB. What is the
sound intensity in the room?
Ans. 3.16 x 10-4 W/m2
Quality of sound also known as timbre ; depends upon the complexity of the wave; upon the
number and relative prominence of the overtones; two sounds coming from different sources
may have the same frequency and the same loudness but because of quality, one source can
be distinguished from the other; the quality of sound depends on vibrations of wave forms.
Beats fluctuations in amplitude produced by two sound waves of slightly different frequency;
Beat frequency - the number of beats per second is equal to the difference in frequencies of
the two sound waves that recombined.
Shock wave the cone-shaped wave made by an object moving at supersonic speed through
a fluid.
Sonic boom the loud sound resulting from the incidence of a shock wave.
Sonar procedure for underwater detection and navigation based on the emission from and
return to a tracking ship of a pulse signal.
Resonance the reinforcing of sound; occurs when the frequency of forced vibration on an
object matches the objects natural frequency.
Acoustics science that ties together the production and transmission of sound to our sense
of hearing
Musical tone produced by a regular succession of compression and the following
rarefactions
Music produced by regular vibration pleasing to the ear.
Unpitched sound produced by an irregular succession of compression and rarefactions or
by a disturbance of such short duration that the ear is unable to distinguish a regular
succession.
Noise produced by irregular vibrations that corresponds to an irregular vibrations of the
eardrums ; undesired sound
Example 22:

Sensory effects
(may vary among individual and
Subjective
loudness
pitch
quality

Physical Property
(measurable and objective)
intensity
frequency
waveform

Carrier Wave a wave usually of radio frequency, whose characteristics are modified in the
process of modulation.

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Modulation the process of impressing one wave system upon another of higher frequency.

OPTICS

Geometric optics branch of optics for which the ray description is adequate.
Physical optics branch dealing with wave behavior
Corpuscular theory light consists of tiny particles called corpuscles that travel in a straight
line through space ; proposed by Isaac Newton
Wave theory proposed by Christian Huygens ; suggested that light consists of a series of
waves.
Electromagnetic theory light is an electromagnetic wave which can travel in space without
any medium, proposed by James Clark Maxwell
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz verified experimentally the existence of electromagnetic wave as
described by Maxwell.
Quantum theory light consists of packets of energy called photons or quanta; explained the
photoelectric effect
Modern theory light exhibits a dual characteristics that of wave and of particle.
Speed of light : Light travels in empty space (vacuum) at the speed of 3 x 10 8 m/s
Dispersion spreading of light into colors. Dispersion in water droplets is responsible for
rainbows.
Transparent materials materials which transmit light because objects can be seen through
them
Translucent materials transmit little light through them
Opaque materials which absorb or reflect light
Polarization process of affecting radiation especially light so that the vibrations of the waves
assume a (s) is(are) permitted to pass through a polarizer; process of filtering light such that
only one, two or definite direction The reflected light is polarized when the reflected and
transmitted rays are perpendicular to each other.
Color property of light that reaches the eyes; an object appears a particular color because it
reflects light of that color; black is the absence of reflected light; White objects reflect all the
wavelengths while black objects absorb all the wavelengths.
Luminous intensity ( I ) amount of light that a source give out measured in candela (cd).;
brightness of light source
Luminous flux ( F ) rate at which light energy is emitted from a source expressed in lumen
(lm)
F = 4I
Illumination ( E ) rate at which light energy falls on a unit area some distance from a light
source; brightness on surface; luminous flux per unit area
F
E =
A
Illumination from an isotropic light source with a given intensity
I
E =
when point source is directly above the surface
r2
or the flux is perpendicular to the surface
I cos
E =
r2

when point source is not directly above the surface

or the flux makes an angle with the normal

where : r = distance of point source from surface

Units of E:
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lm/m2 = lux = m-candle

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10

lm/cm2 = cm-candle
lm/ft2 = foot-candle

Luminous efficiency total luminous flux (F ) radiated by the source divided by the power
( P )of the source expressed in lm/W.
F
Luminous efficiency =
P
Example 24: A 60 watt incandescent lamp has a luminous intensity of 66.5 cd. Determine
the total luminous flux radiated by the lamp and the luminous efficiency of the lamp.
Ans.
836 lm ; 13.9 lm/W
Example 25: Compute the illumination of a small surface at a distance of 120 cm from an
isotropic point source of luminous intensity 72 cd (a) if the surface is normal to the luminous
flux and (b) if the normal to the surface makes an angle of 30 o with the light rays.
Ans. 50 lux ; 43 lux

Photometry - deals with the measurement of the intensity of a source of light.

Photometer instrument for comparing the luminous intensities of light sources.
I1

I2
=

r12

Where: I1 and I2 are the luminous intensities of the two light sources
r1 and r2 are their respective distances from the screen of the photometer

r2 2

Example 26. In an experiment with a bar photometer , it was found that two lamps
produced the same illumination when the screen was 40 cm from a standard lamp and 160
cm from a second lamp. The standard lamp was rated at 8 cd. Determine the luminous
intensity of the second lamp.
Ans. 128 cd
Reflection of Light
Kinds of reflection of light:
Diffuse reflection reflection on a rough surface; light is reflected in irregular
directions
Specular or regular reflection reflection on smooth-polished surface

Law of reflection: In specular ( or mirror) reflection: (1) the incident ray, reflected ray and
normal to the surface lie in the same plane. (2) the angle of incidence equals the angle of
reflection.
normal
Incident ray

reflected ray
1 2

Reflecting surface

1 = 2

Mirror any highly polished surface that forms images by regular reflection of light.
Plane Mirror form images that are erect, of the same size as the object, and as far behind
the reflecting surface as the object is in front of it. ; the images are virtual.
Real image image formed by converging rays of light actually passing through the image
point; can be projected on a screen; appear in front of the mirror

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Virtual image image formed by rays of light that appear to have diverged from the image
point but do not actually pass through that point; cannot be projected on the screen
Spherical mirror or curve mirror is a small portion of the surface of a sphere, one side of
which is polished with a reflective material ; when viewed from the inside, the mirror is called
concave mirror (converging mirror), and viewed from the outside, it is called convex mirror
( or diverging mirror)
Ray Diagram
Rays parallel to the principal axis of a spherical mirror pass the focus after reflection
Rays that pass the focus are reflected parallel to the principal axis
Rays that proceeds along a radius of the mirror is reflected back along its original
path
Parts of a spherical mirror
Center of curvature ( C ) center of sphere
Radius of curvature ( R )
Vertex ( V ) center of mirror
Principal axis line that passes through the vertex and the center
Secondary axis line passing through the center of curvature normal to the mirror.
Focus ( F ) point where rays parallel to the principal axis meet or seem to meet
after reflection.
Focal length ( f ) distance from the focus to the mirror: f =
For concave mirror or converging mirror: rays parallel to the principal axis actually converge
at the focus after reflection
mirror
Incident ray
object

V
V

principal avis

image
Reflected rays
f
R =radius of curvature

Image formed by a concave mirror

Case 1. Object at an infinite distance
Image is a point at the focal point F
Case 2. object at a finite distance beyond the center of curvature C
Real, inverted, smaller than object, located between the focal
pf
point and the center of curvature
Case 3 object at the center of curvature C
Image is at C, inverted, real and same size as object
Case 4 Object between C and F
Image is beyond C, inverted, real and bigger
pf
Case 5 object is between F and mirror
Image is virtual, bigger , erect
P=f
Case 6 object at F

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No image

For convex mirror or diverging mirror: rays parallel to the principal axis diverge after reflection
Reflected ray
Incident ray
Object
principal axis

image

Mirror

Image formed by convex mirror

Virtual, erect, behind the mirror, smaller

Mirror equation for both concave and convex spherical mirrors:

1
1
2
1
+
=
=
p
q
R
f
where:

p = object distance from the mirror

q = image distance from the mirror
R = radius of curvature of the mirror
f = focal length of the mirror = R/2
p = + when object is in front of mirror
q = + when the image is real ( in front of mirror)
q = - when the image is virtual ( behind the mirror)
R and f are (+) for a concave mirror and (-) for a convex mirror
Size of Image formed by a spherical mirror:
height of image
image distance
q
Linear magnification =
=
=
height of object
object distance
p
q
In general:

M = -

When M
M
M
M
M

P
= ( - ) the image is inverted
= ( + ) the image is upright or erect
1 the image is smaller than object
1 the image is bigger than object
= 1 the image is of the same size as object

Example 27: Describe the image of an object positioned 20 cm from a concave spherical
mirror of radius 60 cm. Ans. virtual, erect, 60 cm behind the mirror , magnified 3 times.
Example 28; An object 7 cm high is placed 15 cm from a convex mirror of radius 45 cm.
Describe its image.
Ans. virtual, erect, 9 cm behind mirror, 4.2 cm high
Example 29; How far should an object be from a concave mirror of radius 36 cm to form a
real image 1/9 its size?
Ans. 180 cm
Example 30: What is the focal length of a convex mirror which produces an image 1/6 the
size of an object located 12 cm from the mirror?
Ans. -2.4 cm
Refraction of Light
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Bending of light rays as they pass obliquely from one medium to another of different optical
density
Bending of light caused by a change in the velocity of light due to a change in the optical
density of the medium
It is because of refraction that we are able to see transparent objects.
This phenomenon is a direct result of the fact that light travels slower in a denser medium and
that it travels faster when it passes into a medium that is less dense.
Optical density property of a transparent substance which measure the speed of light
through the medium. The greater the optical density of a medium, the slower the speed of
light through the medium.
When a ray of light passes obliquely from a less dense medium where its speed is greater to
a denser medium where its speed is less, the ray of light is bent towards the normal as it
enters the denser medium.

normal
incident ray

less dense ( air )

2
If

v1 v2 then

denser (glass )

Refracted ray
1 2

When a ray of light passes from a denser medium where its speed is less to a less dense
medium where its speed is greater, the ray will bent away from the normal
normal
incident ray

denser (glass )

1
2

refracted ray
less dense (air )

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If

v1 v2 then 1 2

Absolute Index of Refraction ( n ) of a medium ratio of speed of light in vacuum or air to

the speed of light in medium
Speed of light in vacuum
n =

c
=

Speed of light in medium

Relative index of refraction ( nr ) ratio of speed of light in the first medium of the speed in
the second medium
v1
nr =
v2

Snells Law of Refraction : For any two given transparent mediums ,the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant
sin 1

v1
=

sin 2

n2
=

v2

n1

For air: n = 1.0

Critical angle for Total Internal Reflection (c) : When light passes from an optically denser
medium out into air , as the angle of incidence is increased the angle of refraction increases
and approaches the limiting value of 90 o, beyond which there could be no light refracted into
the air, or there is no refracted wave but the wave is totally reflected at the boundary
between the media. The limiting angle of incidence in the denser medium, which makes the
angle of refraction 90o, is called the critical angle of incidence c.
Total internal reflection principle behind fiber optics
Optical fiber far superior to copper wire in its capacity to carry information because of the
higher frequency of the infrared light used to carry the information .

Denser medium
c
90o
less dense medium

Sin c =

n2

n1 = index of refraction of the denser medium

n2 = index of refraction of the less dense medium

n1
Index of refraction and wavelength
o
=
N
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where: = wavelength of light in a material

o = wavelength of light in vacuum = 633 nm
n = index of refraction of material
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Example 31 The angle of incidence of a ray of light in air is 45 o and the angle of refraction
in a medium is 30o. What is the index of refraction of the second medium?
Ans. 1.414
Example 32: What is the speed of light in a substance having an index of refraction of 1.5?
Ans. 2 x 108 m/s
Example 33: A ray of light in water (n=4/3) is incident upon a plate of crown glass
(n=1.517) at an angle of 45o. What is the angle of refraction for the ray in the glass?
Ans. 38.42o
Example 34: What is the critical angle for light passing from glass (n=1.54) to water
(n=1.33)
Ans. 59.73o
Example 35: The wavelength of red light from a helium-neon laser is 633 nm in air but 474
nm in the aqueous humor inside your eyeball. Calculate the index of refraction of the
aqueous humor and the speed and frequency of the light in this substance.
Ans. 1.34 ; 2.25 x 108 m/s ; 4.74 x 1014 Hz
Shallowing Effect of Refraction of light
The ratio of the actual depth to the apparent depth is 4/3 , which is the index of refraction of
water.
Actual depth
n =
Apparent depth
Example 36: A pool of water is 60 cm deep. Find its apparent depth when viewed
vertically through air. Ans. 45 cm

Lens transparent medium bounded by spherical surfaces; transparent material which

refracts light rays in such as way as to form an image.

Convex or converging lenses or positive lenses is one where the center portion is thicker
than the edge; lens that brings parallel light into a single real focal point; with two foci one on
each side of the lens.
Double convex (biconvex)

Incident ray

F
Virtual focus
(secondary focus)
Case 1: Object from infinity:

principal axis

Real focus
(principal focus)

Image is a point at the focus F

Images formed by a converging lens
Characteristics of the
Image

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Case 2 Distant
object

Real
Inverted
Smaller than object
At F

Case 3 Object
at 2F

Real
Inverted
Same size
At 2F

Case 4 Object
between 2F and
F

Real
Inverted
Larger than object
Beyond 2F

Case 5 Object
at F

No image
Refracted rays
are parallel

Case 6 Object
between F and
lens

Virtual
Erect
Larger than object
Behind the object on the
same side of the lens

Concave or diverging lenses or negative lens one in which the center portion is thinner
than the edge ; deviates parallel light outwards as though it originated at a single virtual
focal point.
Double concave (biconcave)

Incident ray

F
Virtual focus
(principal focus)

Image formed by a diverging lens

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Characteristics of the image

regardless of object position
Virtual
Erect
Smaller than object
Between object and lens

e) Object
at F

Thin Lens one whose thickness is small compared with the radii of curvature R 1 and R2.

Lens Equation equation that relates the positions of the image and the object of a thin
lens to the focal length.
1
1
1
+
=
p
q
f

where:

p = object distance from the lens

q = image distance from the lens
f = focal length of the lens
p = + for real object and negative for virtual object
q = + for real image and negative for virtual image
f is (+) for a converging lens and (-) for diverging lens

Size of Image formed by a spherical mirror:

height of image
Linear magnification (M ) =
Height of object

image distance
=
object distance

q
=
p

q
In general:

M = -

When M
M
M
M
M

P
= ( - ) the image is inverted
= ( + ) the image is upright or erect
1 the image is smaller than object
1 the image is bigger than object
= 1 the image is of the same size as object

Example 36: Locate and describe the image formed by a converging lens of focal length 20
cm if the object is placed 30 cm from the lens.
Ans. real image , 60 cm away from the lens, inverted , bigger
Example 37: An object 9 cm high is 27 cm in front of a concave lens of focal length 18 cm.
Determine the position and height of its image. Ans. 10.8 cm in front of the lens ; 3.6 cm
The Lensmakers Equation equation used to obtain the focal length of thins lens
1

1
= (n1)

f
where:
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1
+

R1
n

R2
= index of refraction of the lens material
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18

R1 and R2 = radii of curvature of the two lens syrfaces

R1 = ( + ) for convex surfaces
R2 = ( - ) for concave surfaces
f = (+ ) for converging lens
f = ( - ) for diverging lens
Lenses in Contact: When two thin lens having focal lengths f1and f2 are in contact, the focal
length of the combination is
1
1
1
=
+
f
f1
f2
Example 38: A lens has a convex surface of radius 20 cm and a concave surface of radius
40 cm , and is made of glass of refractive index 1.54. Compute the focal length of the lens
and state whether it is a converging or a diverging lens. Ans. f = +74.1 cm , converging
Example 39: A double convex lens has faces of radii 18 and 20 cm. When an object is 24
cm from the lens, a real image is formed 32 cm from the lens. Determine the focal length of
the lens and the refractive index of the lens material.
Ans. +13.7 cm , n=1.69
Lens Power amount by which it can change the curvature of a wave ; reciprocal of the
frequency; expressed in diopers ( m-1 ).
Aberrations responsible for the formation of imperfect images by lenses and mirrors.
Spherical aberration failure of parallel rays to meet at a single point on a spherical surface
after reflection or refraction
Chromatic aberration arises from the fact that light rays of different wavelengths focus at
different points when refracted by a lens
Mirage images seen in the desert, or on a hot road in summer caused by refraction of light
in the air
Rainbows formed by the dispersion of light in water; refraction in the atmosphere; produced
by bending of light rays in the atmosphere when there are large differences in temperature
between the ground and the air.
Dispersion the dependence of the index of refraction on wavelength; separation of white
light into its component colors
Spectrum band of continuous spread of colors from the longest to the shortest wavelength.
White light mixture of the waves of different wavelengths in the visible region of the
spectrum.
The brilliance of diamond is due to its large refractive index and its large dispersion
Prism refracts a light ray and deviates the light through an angle called angle of deviation;
when a beam of white light ( a combination of all visible wavelengths is incident on a prism,
because of dispersion, the different colors refract through different angle of deviation ( red,
orange, yellow, green, blue and violet) ; violet deviates the most, red light the least.

red
White light
violet

MODERN PHYSICS
I

RELATIVITY

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Two basic postulates of the special theory of relativity ( theory predicts the results of
experiments involving speed near the speed of light); formulated by Albert Einstein
Postulate 1 ( Principle of Relativity ) - The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
of reference, thus all motion is relative ; velocities of object can only be given relative to some
other objects and its impossible to determine the absolute velocity of the object.
Postulate 2 ( Principle of Constancy of the Speed of Light - The speed of light is the same for
all inertial observers , independent of their motion or of the motion of the source of light.
Relativistic Mass: The moving body increases its mass ; where any change in mass is
equivalent to a change in kinetic energy
mo
where: m = relativistic mass
m=
mo = rest mass
v 2
v = velocity of object
1c = speed of light = 3 x 108 m/s
c
Examples 40: Compute the mass of an electron traveling at half the speed of light. The rest
mass of an electron is 9.1 x 10-31 kg.
Ans. 1.05 x 10-30 kg

Some of the consequences of the special theory of relativity are as follows

Clocks in motion relative to an observer slow down. This is known as time dilation.
Moving clocks are observed to run more slowly than clocks at rest in the observers
own frame of reference.
v
tm = t s

1c

where: tm = time of moving clock

ts = time of stationary clock
tm ts

Example 41: (Twin Paradox- space traveler ages more slowly than his twin who remains
on earth ). Two twins are 25 years old when one of them sets out on a journey through space
at nearly constant speed. The twin in the spaceship measures time with an accurate watch.
When he returns to the earth, he claims to be 31 years old, while the twin left on earth is then
43 years old. What was the speed of the spaceship?
Ans. 2.83 x 108 m/s
The length of an object in motion is contracted in the direction of motion. This effect is
called length contraction ; the length of an object is longest for the observer at rest
with respect to the object and shorter for observer in motion with respect to it ( in the
direction of the relative motion of two observers )
v

where: Lo = length at rest

L = length in motion
C
L Lo
Example 42: An observer on earth sees a spaceship at an altitude of 4350 km moving
downward toward earth with a speed of 0.97 c. What is the distance from the spaceship to
earth as measured by the spaceships captain?
Ans. 1.06 x 103 km
Events that are simultaneous for one observer are not simultaneous for another
observer in motion relative to the first.
L = Lo

1-

Relativistic Velocity of Two Bodies

When a spacecraft (A) is moving in the x-direction with a velocity V AE relative to the earth
and shoots out a rocket (B) in the x-direction at velocity V BA relative to the spacecraft , then
the velocity of the rocket as measured by an observer on the earth is:
VAE + VBA
VBE =

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VAE VBA
1 +
c2
Example 43:
Suppose that Bobs spacecraft is traveling at 0.60 c in the positive xdirection, as measured by a nearby observer , while Mike is traveling in his own vehicle
directly toward Bob in the negative x-direction at -0.80 c relative the nearby observer. What
is the velocity of Bob relative to Mike? Ans. 0.946 c

Relativistic Energy sum of the kinetic energy and the rest energy
E = K + moc2 or
mo c2
E=
v

1c

II

Mass-Energy Conversion
E = moc2
where : E = rest energy of the object
Example 44: How much rest energy is contained in 0.500 mm 3 of water? Ans.4.5 x 1010 J
QUANTUM PHYSICS ( modern version of mechanics or wave mechanics ; explains
the behavior of atoms, molecules and nuclei)

Planck hypothesis blackbody radiation was produced by submicroscopic charged oscillators

called resonators
Blackbody ideal system that absorbs all radiation incident on it.
The energy E of an oscillating charge with a natural frequency is not continuous but
quantized. The quantum of electromagnetic radiation is called the photon.
The energy of a photon with frequency f is
hc
E = hf =
where h=Plancks constant= 6.626 x 10-34 J s

Pair production- process in which energy of a photon is converted into mass; the photon
disappears as an electron-positron pair
Pair annihilation process in which an electron-positron pair produces two photons; inverse
of pair production
Positron particle similar to the electron but opposite charge; antiparticle of the electron; first
antiparticle discovered
Photoelectric effect emission of electrons from a metal surface due to an incident radiation
of sufficient wavelength ; led to the establishment of dualistic theory of light
Photoelectrons emitted electrons from the radiated metal surface
Einstein Photoelectric equation energy of the ejected electron
Photon energy = KEmax + Wmin
Or
mvmax2 = h f - Wmin
Example 45: Compute the energy of a photon of blue light of wavelength 450 nm.
Ans. 4.42 x10-19 J = 2.76 eV
( 1 eV=1.6 x 10-19 J ) eV=electron volt
Compton scattering x-rays of a single wavelength impinged on matter are scattered in
various directions having longer wavelength than the incident radiation
Laser device which utilizes the effect for electromagnetic radiation; an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

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III

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nucleons particles in the nucleus
Atomic number number of protons in a nucleus
Mass number protons plus neutrons
Isotopes nuclei with the same atomic number but different neutron number
Mass defect : when protons and neutrons join to form helium nucleus, the mass is decreased
in the process. This difference is called mass defect.
Binding energy energy required to break a nucleus apart into its constituent particles;
energy required to remove all the electrons.
Ionization energy energy required to remove one electrons
Disintegration energy amount of rest energy that is converted to other forms of energy
Radioactivity nuclear process characterized by the spontaneous emission of certain
radiation and particles from the nucleus of an atom
Radioactive decay process in which radiation and small particles are emitted from a
nucleus
Decay rate number of decays per second expressed in Becquerel ( Bq)
Half-life time it takes for half of a given number of radioactive nuclei to decay
Alpha decay emissions of energetic positively charged particles called alpha particles
( nuclei of helium atoms ) the original (parent) nuclide is converted to a daughter by the
emission of an alpha particle; if a nucleus emits alpha particles, it loses 2 protons and 2
neutrons, therefore the neutron of a single nucleus decreases by 2
Beta decay emissions of negatively charged particles called beta particles ( electrons) ; the
daughter nucleus has the same number of nucleons as the parent nucleus, but the atomic
number is changed by 1
Beta particles are electrons or positrons (sometimes called beta-minus and beta-plus
particles.
Beta-minus decay an electron is emitted and a neutron in the nucleus is converted into a
proton. Thus, the mass number does not change, but the charge of the nucleus increases by
one
Beta-plus decay a positron is emitted and a proton in the nucleus is converted into a
neutron
Gamma decay results from the transition of the nucleus from a higher energy state to a
lower energy state.
Gamma rays high-energy photons
Radiocarbon dating or carbon dating technique based on the radioactive decay of a rare
isotope of carbon ( carbon-14)
Nuclear reactions occur when a bombarding particle strikes another nucleus
Nuclear fission splitting of a heavy nucleus to form daughter nuclei of about equal mass
Nuclear fusion combination o flight nuclei to form a heavy nucleus; process going on in the
sun and other stars.
Nuclear reactors : system designed to maintain self-sustained chain reaction; fuel is uranium

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