Pp4a

Chapter 4
The Role of Mechanical Properties in

Engineering Materials
Engineering Materials: properties and selection, 9th ed.

Kenneth G. Budinski, Michael K. Budinski
Chapter Goals
It is the purpose of this chapter to increase readers

knowledge of mechanical properties to the point where
he or she will never confuse strength for toughness, or
strength for stiffness, or stiffness for hardening.
Yield strength
Tensile strength
Hardness (various scales)
Shear strength
Fatigue strength
Creep strength
Stress rupture strength
Compressive strength
Maximum use temperature
Fracture toughness
Impact strength
Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

9th ed.
2010PearsonHigherEducation,
UpperSaddleRiver,NJ07458.AllRightsReserved.
Chapter Goals
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should:

have an understanding of the difference between
strength and toughness
have a reasonable knowledge of tensile testing
and the properties that are measured with a
tensile test machine
know how to use mechanical properties in
material selection and failure prevention

9th ed.
4.1 Mechanical Properties
The range of mechanical properties that are important

in material selection
Use as a material selection checklist
Determine which ones relate to desired serviceability
Definition of stress
Types of stress
Stress in a tensile bar
Review units of stress: psi, ksi, Kg/mm2, MPa, GPa

9th ed.
Figure 41 Spectrum of material properties and how they apply to various

material systems (physical properties apply equally to all systems)

9th ed.
Figure 42 Examples of five basic types of stress

9th ed.
Figure 43 Formation of tensile stresses in a mechanical component as

the result of an applied load

9th ed.
4.2 Tensile Testing
What is tensile testing?

What is it used for?
How does it work?
Important parts on a tensile tester:
Specimens pulling/pushing mechanism
Grips
Extensometer
Fixtures
Type of loading
Definition of elastic modulus
Yield strength
Tensile strength
Determining percent elongation
True stress and strain
Poissons ratio

9th ed.
4.2 Tensile Testing
Figure 44 Typical universal testing machine

9th ed.
4.2 Tensile Testing
Figure 45 Tensile samples

9th ed.
10
4.2 Tensile Testing
Figure 46 Tensile test method and the resultant data

9th ed.
11
4.2 Tensile Testing
Figure 47 Tensile test samples before and after testing, and the
measurements required to calculate the percent elongation and the
reduction in area

9th ed.
12
4.2 Tensile Testing
Figure 48 Comparison of true and engineering stressstrain

curves and the calculation of the strain-hardening exponent from
true stressstrain data.

9th ed.
13
4.2 Tensile Testing
Figure 49 Poissons ratio may be calculated from the stressstrain test by measuring the
ratio of transverse strain to axial strain.

9th ed.
14
4.2 Tensile Testing
Table 41 Some ATSM

International tests for
mechanical properties.
Tests are material
specific.

9th ed.
15
4.3 Significance of Stress-Strain Data
Standard tests
Properties that can be measured
Measuring resilience
Measuring toughness
Measuring shear stress
Shear modulus

9th ed.
16
Table 42 Material properties obtained from tensile testing

9th ed.
17
Figure 410
Examples of
stressstrain
response in
various
materials.

9th ed.
18
Figure 411 Resilience and toughness of a material may be

estimated from stressstrain data.

9th ed.
19
4.4 Shear Properties
Figure 412 Depiction of shear stress and strain in a round bar

with torsional loads

9th ed.
20
4.4 Shear Properties
Figure 413 Shear test fixture for use in a tensile machine

9th ed.
21
4.5 Hardness Tests
Definition
Types of indentors
Testing standards
Rockwell testing
Microhardness
Durometer
Test comparison
Designation of hardness

9th ed.
22
4.5 Hardness Tests
Shore hardness
SHORE DUROMETER
CONVERSION CHART
A
OO
100 85
77
58
95
81
70
46
90
76
59
39
85
71
52
33
80
66
47
29
84
98
75
62
42
25
79
97
70
56
37
22
75
95
65
51
32
19
72
94
60
47
28
16
69
93
55
42
24
14
65
91
50
37
20
12
61
90
45
32
17
10
57
88
40
27
14
53
86
35
22
12
48
83
30
17
42
80
25
12
35
76
20
28
70
15
21
62
10
14
55
45
Figure 414 Typical penetrators used in hardness tests

9th ed.
23
Rockwell Hardness tested

Brinell Hardness Tested

9th ed.
24

9th ed.
25
4.5 Hardness Tests
Table 43 Some ASTM hardness test methods

9th ed.
26
4.5 Hardness Tests
Table 44 Mohs hardness scale

9th ed.
27
4.5 Hardness Tests
Figure 415 Hardness tester

9th ed.
28
The Knoop hardness number KHN is the ratio of the load

applied to the indenter, P (kgf) to the unrecovered projected area
A (mm2)
KHN = F/A = P/CL2
Where:
F = applied load in kgf
A = the unrecovered projected area of the indentation in mm2
L = measured length of long diagonal of indentation in mm
C = 0.07028 = Constant of indenter relating projected area of the
indentation to the square of the length of the long diagonal.

9th ed.
29
4.5 Hardness Tests
Figure 416 Knoop hardness indents in a 200X cross section

of a nitrided surface. Note the gradient in hardness. The
effective case is 70 m.

9th ed.
30
4.5 Hardness Tests
Figure 417 Shore Durometer hardness tester. Needle on

the bottom is the penetrator (ASTM D 2240).

9th ed.
31
4.5 Hardness Tests
Figure 418 Comparison of hardness tests

9th ed.
32
4.5 Hardness Tests
Figure 419 Specification of hardness numbers for metals (ASTM

E 10, E 384, and E 18). See ASTM E 140 for scale conversions.

9th ed.
33
4.6 Toughness
Fracture toughness
Where toughness is important
Impact tests:
Charpy
Izod
Drop weight
Units of toughness
NDT determination

9th ed.
34
4.6 Toughness
Ability to absorb energy before fracture
Figure 420 Materials application involving impact. The material

for the hammer head and striking surface on the chisel need the
mechanical property of impact resistance.

9th ed.
35
4.6 Toughness
Figure 421 Common impact tests (ASTM E 23)

9th ed.
36
4.6 Toughness
Figure 422 Use of impact test data to determine NDT

9th ed.
37
4.7 Long-Term Serviceability
Endurance limit
Creep
Stress rupture
Fracture mechanics

9th ed.
38
Fatigue limit,endurance limit, andfatigue

strength are all expressions used to describe a
property of materials: the amplitude (or range)
of cyclic stress that can be applied to the
material without causingfatiguefailure.
Figure 423 Use of an SN (stressnumber of cycles) curve to establish

fatigue strength

9th ed.
39
Figure 424 Creep in a plastic fence after two years in service

9th ed.
40
Figure 425 Creep testing of metals. In the schematic creep curve, region
a is elastic strain, region b is creep at decreasing rate, region c is steadystate creep, and region d is creep at increasing rate (ASTM E 139).

9th ed.
41
Figure 426 Typical stress rupture data (ASTM E 139)

9th ed.
42
Flexuralstrength, also known as modulus of rupture,

bendstrength, or fracturestrength,[dubiousdiscuss]is a
material property, defined as the stress in a material
just before it yields in a flexure test.[1] The transverse
bending test is most frequently employed, in which a
specimen having either a circular

9th ed.
43
Figure 427 Stress rupture of polycarbonate sunglass frames (plus

failed glue attempt). Cracking was caused by residual molding stress
combined with sun heating on an automobile dashboard.

9th ed.
44
Table 45 Fracture toughness of various engineering materials

9th ed.
45
4.8 Manufacturing Considerations
Surface finish
Capability of processes

9th ed.
46
Figure 428 Components of surface microtopography

9th ed.
47
Figure 429 Stylus-type profilometer

9th ed.
48
Figure 430 Profilometer map of a ground surface (top), singleline trace (middle), and photomicrograph at 200X (bottom)

9th ed.
49
Figure 431 AFM image of the surface of cemented

carbide used in contact with chemicals (note scales)

9th ed.
50
Figure 432 Specification of surface texture (American

Standard Surface Texture ASME Y14.36M 1996)

9th ed.
51
Figure 433 Recommended surface roughness for machine parts

9th ed.
52
Figure 434 Surface roughness produced by various machining techniques

9th ed.
53
Figure 435 Photographs of ground steel surfaces The number in the lower
corner represents the average surface roughness in microinches (divide by 39.37
to get micrometers).

9th ed.
54
4.10 Preventing Mechanical Failures
Stress concentrations
Effect of radii
Reducing stress concentrations
Aids to preventing fracture
Stress/strain data
Fatigue strength
Notched tensile strength
Fracture mechanics
FEA
Stress rupture data

9th ed.
55
Figure 436 Fatigue failure originating in keyway

9th ed.
56
Figure 437 Stress concentration in a tensile specimen

9th ed.
57
Figure 438 Stress concentration factors for bending of a

stepped shaft

9th ed.
58
Figure 439 Approximate stress concentration factors for

various shaft configurations

9th ed.
59
Figure 440 Fatigue crack progressing from a corner nick in a

polycarbonate part (32X). Each arc is a progression of the
crack front.

9th ed.
60
Figure 441 Typical stress-strain diagram for various materials

9th ed.
61
Figure 442 Stress rupture failure of a plastic worklight clamp. The

clamp failed at the first use within 24 h after being clamped to a board.

9th ed.
62
Global Considerations
Testing by manufacturers has been reduced

Traditional testing and nanotesting services are widely
available
Long-term serviceability data may need to be
developed as part of product development

9th ed.
63

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Chapter 4

The Role of Mechanical Properties in

Engineering Materials: properties and selection, 9th ed.

It is the purpose of this chapter to increase readers

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

Upon completion of this chapter, the student should:

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.1 Mechanical Properties

The range of mechanical properties that are important

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.1 Mechanical Properties

Figure 41 Spectrum of material properties and how they apply to various

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.1 Mechanical Properties

Figure 42 Examples of five basic types of stress

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.1 Mechanical Properties

Figure 43 Formation of tensile stresses in a mechanical component as

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

What is tensile testing?

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

Figure 44 Typical universal testing machine

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

Figure 45 Tensile samples

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

Figure 46 Tensile test method and the resultant data

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

Figure 48 Comparison of true and engineering stressstrain

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.2 Tensile Testing

Table 41 Some ATSM

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.3 Significance of Stress-Strain Data

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.3 Significance of Stress-Strain Data

Table 42 Material properties obtained from tensile testing

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.3 Significance of Stress-Strain Data

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.3 Significance of Stress-Strain Data

Figure 411 Resilience and toughness of a material may be

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.4 Shear Properties

Figure 412 Depiction of shear stress and strain in a round bar

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.4 Shear Properties

Figure 413 Shear test fixture for use in a tensile machine

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.5 Hardness Tests

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,

4.5 Hardness Tests

Figure 414 Typical penetrators used in hardness tests

Engineering Materials: properties and selection,