Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

An important problem in petroleum engineering is the prediction of oil recovery

during displacement by water. Two common examples are a natural water drive and
secondary waterflood. The latter is displacement of oil by bottom or edge water, the
former is the injection of water to enhance production. In this chapter we will begin with
the development of equations of multiphase, immiscible flow, concluding with the frontal
advance and Buckley-Leverett equations. Next, we will discuss factors that control
displacement efficiency followed by limitations of immiscible displacement solutions.
9.1 Development of equations
The development of equations for describing multiphase flow in porous media
follows a similar derivation as given previously for single phase, i.e., combination of
continuity equation, momentum equation and equation of state. The mass balance of
each phase can be written as:

mass of phase that

mass of phase entering mass of phase leaving

in time increment in time increment accumulate s in time increment

Shown in Figure 9.1 is the differential element of porous media for oil.

uoxx+x

uoxx
z

y
x

Figure 9.1 Differential element in Cartesian coordinates. Only x-direction velocity is

shown.
As an example, the mass of oil entering and leaving the element is given by:
Entering:

o uox x Ax t o uoy y Ay t o uoz z Az t

(9.1)

Leaving:

o uox x x Ax t o uoy

(9.2)

y y

Ay t o uoz z z Az t

Oil can accumulate by: (1). Change in saturation, (2). Variation of density with
temperature and pressure, and (3). Change in porosity due to a change in confining stress.
Thus we can write,

o SoV t t o SoV t

9.1

(9.3)

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

Substitute Eqs. (9.1-9.3) into the conservation of mass expression, rearrange terms, and
take the derivative as t, x, y, z 0, then the phase dependent continuity equations
can be written as;

ouox ouoy ouoz o So

x
y
z
t

(9.4)

wuwx wuwy wuwz wSw

x
y
z
t

(9.5)

The oil and water continuity equations assume no dissolution of oil in the water phase.
That is, no mass transfer occurs between phases and thus flow is immiscible.
The next step is to apply Darcys Law to each phase, i. For example in the xdirection,
uix

kix i i
i x

(9.6)

where uix is the superficial velocity of phase i in the x-direction, kix, is the effective
permeability to phase i in the x-direction, and is the phase potential. Substitute Eq.
(9.6) into (9.4), apply Leibnitz rule of differentiation, and combine terms, results in,

o kox po o koy po o koz po

o g o So

x o x y o y z o z
t

(9.7)

wkwx pw wkwy pw wkwz pw

w g w S w

x w x y w y z w z
t

(9.8)

Even though Eqs. (9.7) and (9.8) are written in Cartesian coordinates, they both can be
solved for a particular geometry.

The solution will provide not only pressure and

saturation distributions, but also phase velocities at any point in the porous media.
To combine Eqs. (9.7) and (9.8) requires a relationship between phase pressures
and between phase saturations. The latter is easily understood from the definition of
saturations in Chapter 4, So + Sw = 1.0.

The relationship between pressures was

developed in Chapter 5, and is known as capillary pressure.

P P
P or P P
c
nw
w
o
w

9.2

(9.9)

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

9.2 Steady state, 1D solution
As a simple example, lets consider the steady state solution to fluid flow in a
linear system as shown in Figure 9.2.

This example is of primary interest in lab

experiments to determine relative permeabilities.

poL

poi
qo
D
Pwi

qw

PwL

Figure 9.2 Steady state core flood of oil and water.

Oil and water are injected simultaneously, rates and pressures are measured, and core
saturation is determined gravimetrically. Permeability is unknown.
The steady state, incompressible fluid diffusivity equations are given by:

d dpo
ko
0
dx dx
d dpw
kw
0
dx
dx

(9.10)

Integrating and combining with Darcys equations,

dpo
q
co o o
dx
A
dp
q
k w w cw w w
dx
A
ko

(9.11)

If water saturation is uniform throughout the core, then effective permeability is

independent of x. Therefore, for oil,

p oL

p oi

co
dx
ko o

(9.12)

qo o L
A( poi poL )

(9.13)

dpo

which upon integrating, becomes,

ko

If kbase = ko at Swi is known, then it is possible to calculate relative permeability.

9.3

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

9.3 Capillary End Effect
During laboratory experiments, capillary equilibrium must be maintained; that is,
Pc = Po Pw. Unfortunately, under certain conditions capillary end effects occur due to a
thin gap existing between the end of the core and the core holder. As shown in Figure
9.3, capillary pressure in this gap is zero.

gap

Pc=0

Figure 9.3 Schematic of gap between core and holder

The result is a rapid change in capillary pressure from a finite value immediately adjacent
to the outlet to zero in the gap. As a consequence, the saturation of the wetting phase
must increase to a value of Pc = 0. A generic core profile is shown in Figure 9.4 for both
pressures and saturation.

Po
P

Sor
Sw

Pw

Pc=0+
0

Swc
0

Figure 9.4 Pressure and saturation profile through a core of length, L, with capillary end
effect.
Mathematically, we can describe this effect by investigating Darcys Law for the nonwetting phase.

q nw

k nw A p w pc S w

nw x S w x

9.4

(9.14)

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

At the outlet, knw 0, but qnw 0; therefore,
lim S w

x L x

(9.15)

Two plausible methods have been applied to avoid capillary end effect. The first
is to inject at a sufficiently high rate such that the saturation gradient is driven to a small
region at the end of the core. The second method is to attach a thin, (high porosity and
high permeability) Berea sandstone plug in series with the test core sample. The result is
to confine the saturation gradient in the Berea plug and thus have constant saturation in
the sample of interest.
A consequence of the saturation gradient in the core is that effective permeability
can no longer be considered constant from 0 < x < L. Subsequently, the convenient
steady state method of obtaining relative permeability outlined in Section 9.2 is not valid.
A solution to the saturation gradient can be obtained be combining the definition of
capillary pressure with the steady state, incompressible diffusivity equations. Begin with
defining the boundary conditions. Illustrated in Figure 9.5 is the capillary pressure
saturation relationship in a core with end effects.
inlet
pc

Sw

outlet

Figure 9.5 Schematic representation of capillary pressure saturation relationship in a

core sample with end effect.
From this figure we can deduce the following conditions,
Pc = 0 for both oil and water phases at x = L.
Sw = Swi at x = 0, thus Pc = Poi Pwi
Sw = SwL at x = L, thus Pc = 0
From the definition of capillary pressure,

9.5

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

dpc dpo dpw

dx
dx
dx

(9.16)

dpc pc dS w

dx S w dx

(9.17)

Since pc = f(Sw),

Substituting Eq. (9.17) into (9.16) for the capillary pressure gradient term, and Eq. (9.11)
into (9.16) for the oil and water gradient terms and rearranging, results in,
S wL

Sw

pc

dS w
L

S
w
dx
qw w qo o x

Ak w
Ak o

(9.18)

Equation (9.18) can be solved either graphically or numerically for saturation gradient.
The result will be a calculated saturation profile similar to the one shown in the righthand side of Figure 9.4.
9.4 Frontal advance for unsteady 1D displacement
The unsteady-state displacement of oil by water is due to the change in Sw with
time.

This can be visualized by looking at the schematics in Figure 9.6.

These

schematics represent

Sor

Sor

Sw

Sw
Swi
Sor

Swi
Sor

Sw

Sw
Swi
0

x/L

Swi
1

x/L

Figure 9.6 Progression of water displacing oil for immiscible, 1D

9.6

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

snapshots in time of the frontal boundary as water is displacing oil. In sequence, A
depicts the initial state of the sample (or reservoir) where saturations are separated into
irreducible water, residual oil and mobile oil components.

After a given time of

injection, the front advances to a position as shown in B. Ahead of the front water
saturation is at irreducible, but behind the front water saturation is increased. Continuing
in time, eventually the water will breakthrough the end of the core (reservoir) and both oil
and water will be produced simultaneously, C. Continued injection will increase the
displacing phase saturation in the core (reservoir), D.
Two methods to predict the displacement performance are 1) the analytical
solution by Buckley Leverett (1941), and 2) applying numerical simulation. Only the
analytical solution will be described in this chapter.
9.4.1 Buckley Leverett (1941)
The derivation begins from the 1D, multiphase continuity equations.

ouox o So
x
t

(9.19)

wuwx wSw
x
t

(9.20)

In terms of volumetric flow rate,

o qo A o So
x
t

(9.21)

wqw A w Sw
x
t

(9.22)

Assume the fluids are incompressible and the porosity is constant. Eqs. (9.21) and (9.22)
simplify to,

qo
S
A o
x
t

(9.23)

qw
S
A w
x
t

(9.24)

Combining,

qw qo
S w So
A
0
x
t

(9.25)

The result is qT = qo + qw = constant, the total flow rate is constant at each cross-section.

9.7

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

From the definition of fractional flow,

qw f wqT
qo (1 f w )qT

(9.26)

Substitute into Darcys equation for each phase,

qo (1 f w )qT
qw f wqT

ko A po

o g sin

o x

kw A pw

w g sin

w x

(9.27)

(9.28)

Rearranging Eqs. (9.27) and (9.28), we can substitute into Eq. (9.16) for the pressure
gradient terms. Solving the resulting equation for fractional flow of water, provides the
complete fractional flow equation.

ko A pc

g sin

1
q x

fw
o T
ko w
ko w
1
1
k w o
k w o
In the analytical solution it is difficult to analyze the derivative term (dpc/dx).

(9.29)

If we

expand this derivative to,

pc pc S w

x S w x

(9.30)

In linear displacement, dpc/dSw 0 at moderate to high water saturations as observed by

the capillary pressure curve such in Figure 9.7. As a result, dpc/dx 0.

pc
0
S w
Pc

Sw

Figure 9.7 Capillary pressure curve illustrating flat transition region at moderate to high
water saturations.

9.8

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

If the derivative term is negligible, and flow is in the horizontal direction such that no
gravity term is present, then the fractional flow equation reduces to,

fw

1
k
1 o w
k w o

(9.31)

If we define mobility ratio as,

M

k w o
ko w

(9.32)

then fw = 1/(1+1/M).
If we return to Eq. (9.24) and substitute for qw, we obtain,

f w
A S w

x
qT t

(9.33)

To develop a solution, Eq. (9.33) must be reduced to one dependent variable, either Sw or
fw. Observe, Sw = Sw(x,t) or,

S
S
dS w w dx w dt
x t
t x

(9.34)

Let dSw(x,t)/dt = 0, (Tracing a fixed saturation plane through the core) then

dx

dt S w

S w

t x

S w

x t

(9.35)

where the left-hand side is the velocity of the saturation front as it moves through the
porous media.
Observe fw = fw(Sw) only, then,

f w f w S w

x t S w t x t

(9.36)

Substitution of Eqs. (9.35) and (9.36) into Eq. (9.33), results in the frontal advance
equation.

dx
q f
T w
dt S w A S w t

9.9

(9.37)

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

Equation (9.37) represents the velocity of the saturation front. Basic assumptions in the
derivation are incompressible fluid, fw(Sw) only and immiscible fluids. Furthermore, only
oil is displaced; i.e., the initial water saturation is immobile, and no initial free gas
saturation exists; i.e., not a depleted reservoir.
The location of the front can be determined by integrating the frontal advance
equation,
xS w

dx
0

Sw

t
1 f w

qT dt

A 0 S w t

(9.38)

If injection rate is constant and if the dfw/dSw = f(Sw) only, then

xS
w

qT t f w

A S w S

(9.39)
w

We can evaluate the derivative from the fractional flow equation (Eq. 9.31), either
graphically or analytical. Figure 9.8 illustrates the graphical solution.

Swbt
fwf
fw

Swc Sw

Swf

Figure 9.8 Fractional flow curve

The fractional flow of water at the front, fwf, is determined from the tangent line
originating at Swc. The corresponding water saturation at the front is S wf. The average
water saturation behind the front at breakthrough, Swbt, is given by the intersection at fw =
1. The location of the front is determined by Eq. (9.39), with the slope of the tangent to
the fractional curve used for the derivative function.

9.10

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

9.4.2 Displacement Performance (constant injection rate)
The displacement performance can be separated into two intervals, before and
after breakthrough. Until breakthrough, the volume of oil produced is equal to the
volume of water injected. After breakthrough, water saturation gradients exists, thus the
volume of water in the system can be defined as;
x2

Vw S w Adx

(9.40)

x1

and the volume of oil displaced,

Vo Vw A ( x2 x1 )Swi

(9.41)

Figure 9.9 illustrates the recovery of oil both before and after water breakthrough. Note
the 45 degree slope up to breakthrough and then the decrease in slope (reduced
performance) after breakthrough.

Np

breakthrough

Qi

Figure 9.9 Typical oil recovery performance plot for immiscible displacement
A solution for waterflood performance was developed by Welge in 1952. Define
the volumetric average water saturation as,
x2

Sw

Adx

x1
x2

(9.42)

Adx

x1

For constant cross-sectional area (A) and porosity (), Equation (9.42) reduces to,
x2

Sw

dx

x1

x2 x1

9.11

(9.43)

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

The integrand can be expanded and the equation rearranged such that,
x2 S w2 x1S w1
1

x dS w
x2 x1
x2 x1 1
2

Sw

(9.44)

Substitute the frontal advance equation (Eq. 9.37) for the integral and solve,
2

x dSw
1

2
qT t f w

dS w
A 1 S w S
w

q t
T f w 2 f w1
A

(9.45)

Thus the general Welge equation is,

Sw

x2 S w2 x1S w1 qT t f w2 f w1

x2 x1
A x2 x1

(9.46)

A useful simplification is to consider x1 = 0 at the inlet and x2 = L at the outlet end of the
core,

Sw Sw2

qT t
1 f w2
AL

(9.47)

where fw1 is assumed to be one at the inlet.

Define the total volume injected, Wi, = qT*t, and the pore volume, Vp = AL. Combining
gives the number of pore volumes injected, Qi,

Qi

Wi
Vp

(9.48)

Thus we can write Eq. (9.47) in terms of Qi.

Sw Sw2 Qi 1 f w2

(9.49)

The cumulative oil displaced, Np, can be expressed in terms of the difference in the
average water saturation and the exit end saturation, i.e.,

N p Vp Sw Sw2

(9.50)

Consider a special case immediately before breakthrough. In this case, S w2 = Swi and fw2
= 0. Subsequently, Eq. (9.49) can be written as:
Swbt Swi Qibt

(9.51)

and the cumulative oil displaced:

N p Vp Swbt Swi

9.12

(9.52)

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

9.4.3 Determination of relative permeability curves
Continuing from the previous section, the objective is to determine relative
permeability curves from linear displacement data. Writing Equation (9.49) in terms of
fractional flow of oil, fo,

Sw2 Sw Qi f 02

(9.53)

Next, calculate ko/kw from the fractional flow equation.

ko

1
o
1
kw S w 2 w f w2

(9.54)

In this example, both gravity and capillary pressure components are considered negligible
and thus are ignored. The average fractional flow of oil at the exit end for a given time
increment is given by,

fo2

lim N p Wi Wi N p Wi

dWi Wi 0
Wi

dN p

(9.55)

where dNp is cumulative oil produced and dWi is water injected during t. Alternative
expressions for dNp and dWi can be written as,

dN p AL dS w
dWi AL dQi

(9.56)

which results in a useful expression for fo2.

fo2

dS w S w S w2

dQi
Qi

The slope of a plot of average water saturation vs PVs of water injected provides an
estimate of fo2 (Figure 9.10).
Sw
breakthrough
Sw2

Qi

Figure 9.10 Plot of average water saturation vs Qi for determining fo2.

9.13

(9.57)

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

To estimate the permeability of each phase, begin with the Darcy multiphase flow
equation written in terms of pressure drop.
L

qT dx

(9.58)

k
k
0
kb A ro rw
o w

Pressure drop is measured across the core during the constant rate test. From the single
phase, steady state experiment we obtain,
qb b L
pb

kb A

(9.59)

Define effective apparent viscosity,-1, as:

k
k
ro rw
o w

(9.60)

Substitute Eqs. (9.59) and (9.60) into Eq. (9.58),

qT pb dx
qb b L 0
L

(9.61)

Define the average apparent viscosity as:

x

dx

0
x

(9.62)

dx
0

thus at the outlet end, x = L, Eq. (9.61) becomes,

qb b p
qT pb

(9.63)

Calculation of individual relative permeabilities requires values of -1 at known

saturations. For example, at the outlet end, where Sw2 is known,

o f o 2
21
f
krw w 1w 2
2
kro

(9.64)

where the exit end apparent viscosity can be determined from the following relationship.

9.14

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

d 1

dQi

21 1 Qi

(9.65)

The derivative can be evaluated from the slope of a plot of the inverse of average
apparent viscosity vs. PVs water injected as shown in figure 9.11.

-1

breakthrough

Qi

Figure 9.11 Plot of inverse of average apparent viscosity vs Qi for determining fo2.
Example 9.1
An unsteady state test was performed at constant injection rate for the purpose of
determining the oil and water relative permeability curves.
parameters for the test.
Swi =
Vp =
w =
o =
q=
pb/qb=

0.35
31.13
0.97
10.45
80
0.1245

cc
cp
cp
cc/hr
psi/cc/hr

Table 1 Input Parameters

9.15

Table 1 lists the input

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

cumulative

Cumulative

wtr injection

oil produced

Wi, (cc)

Np, (cc)

0.00
3.11
7.00
11.20
16.28
24.27
39.20
62.30
108.90
155.60
311.30

0.00
3.11
7.00
7.84
8.43
8.93
9.30
9.65
9.96
10.11
10.30

p
psi
138.6
120.4
97.5
91.9
87.9
83.7
78.5
74.2
70.0
68.1
65.4

Qi
(PV)
0.000
0.100
0.225
0.360
0.523
0.780
1.259
2.001
3.498
4.998
10.000

Swave

fo2

0.350
0.450
0.575
0.602
0.621
0.637
0.649
0.660
0.670
0.675
0.681

Sw2

1.000
1.000
0.585
0.154
0.083
0.038
0.019
0.009
0.005
0.002
0.001

fw2

0.350
0.350
0.443
0.546
0.577
0.607
0.625
0.641
0.653
0.666
0.669

0.000
0.000
0.415
0.846
0.917
0.962
0.981
0.991
0.995
0.998
0.999

kro/krw

15.166
1.963
0.980
0.425
0.208
0.103
0.053
0.018
0.013

Table 2. Calculations for relative permeability ratio

0.70
0.65

Sw ave

0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Qi

Figure 1. Plot of average water saturation vs. pore volume water injected. Slope provides
exit end fractional flow of oil.
p
psi
138.6
120.4
97.5
91.9
87.9
83.7
78.5
74.2
70.0
68.1
65.4

fo2
1.000
1.000
0.585
0.154
0.083
0.038
0.019
0.009
0.005
0.002
0.001

fw2
0.000
0.000
0.415
0.846
0.917
0.962
0.981
0.991
0.995
0.998
0.999

Qi
average
-1
(PV)
0.000
13.50
0.100
11.73
0.225
9.50
0.360
8.95
0.523
8.56
0.780
8.15
1.259
7.65
2.001
7.23
3.498
6.82
4.998
6.63
10.000
6.37

m*

-17.80
-10.68
-3.14
-1.90
-1.24
-0.76
-0.37
-0.20
-0.07
-0.05

2-1
13.50
13.50
11.90
10.08
9.56
9.12
8.60
7.97
7.51
6.98
6.90

Sw2
0.350
0.350
0.443
0.546
0.577
0.607
0.625
0.641
0.653
0.666
0.669

krw
0.000
0.000
0.034
0.081
0.093
0.102
0.111
0.121
0.129
0.139
0.141

Table 3. Calculations to determine relative permeabilites

9.16

kro
0.774
0.774
0.514
0.160
0.091
0.043
0.023
0.012
0.007
0.003
0.002

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

16
14

-1

)ave

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

Qi

Figure 2. Average apparent viscosity vs pore volume of water injected

Figure 3. Oil-water relative permeability curves

9.17

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

Step-by-step procedure
Measured data includes cumulative water injection (Wi), cumulative oil produced (Np)
and pressure drop (p) as shown in Table 2.
Step 1:
Calculate the cumulative pore volumes of water injected, Qi from Eq. 9.48.

Qi

Wi
Vp

Step 2:
Calculate the average water saturation from Eq. 9.50.

S w S wi

Np
Vp

Step 3:
Calculate the exit end fractional flow of oil from the slope of Figure 1.

fo2

S w
Qi

Step 4:
Calculate the exit end water saturation from Eq. 9.49.

Sw2 Sw Qi fo 2
Step 5:
Calculate exit end fractional flow of water by,

f w2 1 f 02
Step 6:
Calculate the relative permeability ratio as shown in Table 2 from Eq. 9.54.

ko

1
o
1
kw S w 2 w f w2

Step 7:
Find the average apparent viscosity from Eq. 9.63.

qb b p
qT pb

9.18

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

Step 8:
Find the slope of the average apparent viscosity vs Qi plot, Figure 2.

m*

Q
i

Step 9:
Calculate the exitend apparent viscosity from Eq. 9.65. Results shown in Table 3.

21 1 Qi m *
Step 10:
Calculate the individual relative permeabilities with respect to the outlet end,
where Sw2 is known,

o f o 2
21
f
krw w 1w 2
2
kro

Results are shown in Table 3 and Figure 3, respectively.

9.4.4 Displacement Performance (constant pressure)

In some cases it is more advantageous to perform an experiment at a constant pressure
differential. As a result the injection rate is allowed to vary with time. One such
example, is the linear displacement of oil by gas. This technique of determining oil and
gas relative permeabilities by the unsteady state method is known as gasflooding.

The following data were obtained in a laboratory experiment to determine the relative gas
and oil permeability. Plot kro, krg vs. So.

Pinlet = 2.0 atm, abs

Poutlet = 1.0 atm, abs
o
= 1.2 cp
g
= 0.018 cp
Vp
=180 cm3
qo
= 0.40 cc/sec

9.19

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

Time (secs)

0
104
134
199
238
276
381
447
518
577
635
693
750

Cumulative Cumulative
gas injection oil produced
(cc)
(cc)
0
0
50
42.5
75
49.0
150
56.0
200
58.5
250
60.3
400
63.7
500
65.5
600
66.3
700
67.4
800
68.1
900
69.0
1000
69.7

Solution
A laboratory experiment was run with a constant pressure drop between the inlet and
outlet. Measured were time, cumulative gas injected, and cumulative oil produced. Also
known are the oil and gas viscosities, pore volume of the sample and the single phase oil
rate prior to gas injectionsaturate the core with oil, steady state process, at irreducible
water saturation.
Step 1: Plot cumulative oil production (Np) vs time. Determine oil flow rate by,
dN
p
q
o
dt
Step 2: Calculate the cumulative gas injected in terms of mean pressure and expressed in
pore volumes.
G
2Pi
Q (pv) i
i
V (P P )
p i
o
Step 3: Calculate the average gas saturation by,
N
p
Sg
S gi
Vp
Step 4: Determine the oil cut from the slope of a plot of average gas saturation vs Qi

9.20

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

dS

g
dQ
i
Step 5: Determine the relative permeability ratio,
k rg 1 f g
o

k ro f o o

Step 6: Calculate the saturation at the outflow face

S g 2 S g Qi * fo
fo

Step 7: Determine kro by Darcys Law,

q o ( t ) o L
ko
Ap q o ( t ) q o ( t )
k ro

q oi o L
k
q oi
0.4
Ap
Step 8: Determine the gas relative permeability

k rg
*k
k rg
ro
k ro

time
secs
0
104
134
199
238
276
381
447
518
577
635
693
750

Cumulative
Cumulative
Gas injection, oil produced
Gi, (cc)
Np, (cc)
0
0
50
42.5
75
49.0
150
56.0
200
58.5
250
60.3
400
63.7
500
65.5
600
66.3
700
67.4
800
68.1
900
69.0
1000
69.7

production
rate
qo (cc/sec)
0
0.366
0.142
0.091
0.056
0.036
0.030
0.019
0.015
0.015
0.014
0.014
0.012

9.21

Cumulative
Gas injection, Average gas
Qi, (pv)
saturation Sg
0
0
0.370
0.236
0.556
0.272
1.111
0.311
1.481
0.325
1.852
0.335
2.963
0.354
3.704
0.364
4.444
0.368
5.185
0.374
5.926
0.378
6.667
0.383
7.407
0.387

oil cut
fo
1
0.490
0.101
0.057
0.032
0.020
0.016
0.010
0.007
0.007
0.006
0.006
0.005

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

Cumulative oil vs time

80
70

Np, cc

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

time, secs

Figure 1. cumulative oil produced as a function of time

Average gas saturation vs PV gas injected

0.45
0.40

Sg (ave)

0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0

Qi, pv

Figure 2. Average gas saturation vs pore volume of gas injected

9.22

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

Cumulative
Gas injection, Average gas
Qi, (pv)
saturation Sg krg/kro ratio
0
0
0
0.37
0.236
0.016
0.56
0.272
0.133
1.11
0.311
0.248
1.48
0.325
0.450
1.85
0.335
0.754
2.96
0.354
0.947
3.70
0.364
1.523
4.44
0.368
2.090
5.19
0.374
2.207
5.93
0.378
2.485
6.67
0.383
2.485
7.41
0.387
2.842

Exit end
saturation
Sg2
0
0.055
0.216
0.248
0.277
0.299
0.308
0.328
0.337
0.339
0.343
0.343
0.348

Exit end
saturation
So2
1
0.945
0.784
0.752
0.723
0.701
0.692
0.672
0.663
0.661
0.657
0.657
0.652

Kro
1.000
0.914
0.355
0.228
0.140
0.091
0.076
0.047
0.037
0.038
0.034
0.035
0.031

Krg
0
0.014
0.047
0.057
0.063
0.069
0.072
0.072
0.076
0.085
0.086
0.086
0.087

Kro or krg

Gas/oil relative permeability curves

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

kro

krg
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

So2

Figure 3. Oil and gas relative permeability curves as a function of exit end oil saturation

9.23

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

9.5 Factors that control displacement efficiency
Before discussing the effect of various factors on displacement efficiency, we will
begin with an elaboration on mobility ratio.

It is the most widely-used lumped

parameter used to estimate displacement performance. The general definition given by

Eq. (9.31) does not fully describe the terms. Consider a sharp front as illustrated in
Figure 9.11.

Sor
w) Sor

o )Swi

w) Swf
Swi

Figure 9.11 Schematic of a sharp front in immiscible displacement including location of

mobility terms.
In this case, the mobility ratio is defined as the mobility of the displacing phase behind
the front to the mobility of the displaced phase ahead of the front.

D
d

(9.66)

where,

D w
d o

kw

Sor

(9.67)

ko

S wi

Note both permeabilities are evaluated at the endpoints, Swi and Sor, respectively.
If no sharp front is evident, we define the apparent mobility ratio, Ms, as:

Ms

krw

S wf

o
kro

(9.68)
S wi

where the water mobility is evaluated at the average water saturation behind the front.
The apparent mobility ratio is a measure of the relative rate of oil movement ahead of the

9.24

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

front to the water movement behind the front, assuming the oil and water pressure
gradients are equal. Therefore, if
Ms < 1

oil rate > water rate.high displacement

Ms = 1

oil rate = water rate

Ms > 1

oil rate < water rate.poor displacement efficiency

The result is displacement efficiency (ED) decreases as apparent mobility increases as

shown schematically in Figure 9.12.

Ms

1
3

ED

Qi(pv)
Figure 9.12 Effect of apparent mobility ratio on displacement efficiency
In general form,
M

Si

Sd

(9.69)

where i is the mobility of the injected fluid evaluated at the average saturation of the
injected fluid at breakthrough, and d is the mobility of the displaced fluid evaluated at
the average saturation of the displaced fluid. Typical values are Ms of 0.2 to 10 for water
displacing oil, up to Ms of 1000 for gas displacing oil.
Wettability
The shape of the relative permeability curves are influenced by wettability, subsequently
impacting mobility ratio and fractional flow.
wettability on the fractional flow of water.

9.25

Figure 9.13 illustrates the effect of

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

oil wet

fw

Slightly
Water wet

=180
=47

Sw
Figure 9.13 Effect of wettability on fractional flow of water

A decrease in water wetness, results in an increase in krw and a corresponding decrease in

kro.

The mobility term increases and thus becomes more unfavorable; i.e., poorer

displacement efficiency. Figure 9.14 illustrates the decrease in efficiency in terms of

pore volumes of oil produced vs pore volumes of water injected.

0.4
Np
(pv)

47
Incremental due
to wettability

0.3

180

Qi(pv)

2.5

Figure 9.14 Effect of apparent mobility ratio on displacement efficiency

Interfacial Tension
Recovery efficiency for displacement of oil by water is a weak function of the
interfacial tension. As shown in Figure 9.15, the difference in oil recovery is minimal for
a large range of interfacial tensions.

9.26

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

=0.5
0.4

=40

Np
(pv)
0

Qi(pv)

Figure 9.15 Effect of interfacial tension on displacement efficiency

Recall, capillary pressure is a function of interfacial tension.

In displacement, the

capillary pressure gradient is included in the fractional flow (See Eq. 9.29). Therefore,
the weak function suggests capillary pressure is not a dominant component of
displacement.
Viscosity Ratio
As the viscosity of oil increases the mobility ratio will correspondingly increase,
resulting in an increase in the fractional flow of water. Figure 9.16 illustrates the effect
for three arbitrary viscosity ratios, 100, 10 and 1, respectively.

fw

o/w=

100

10

Sw

Figure 9.16 Effect of viscosity ratio on fractional flow of water

In fact, according to Eq. 9.31, as M increases, then fw 1.0. The oil recovery for various
viscosity ratios can be seen in Figure 9.17.

9.27

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

o=1.8cp
Incremental due
to oil viscosity

Np
(pv)

o=151cp

Qi(pv)

Figure 9.17 Effect of viscosity ratio on displacement efficiency

The ultimate recovery is independent of the viscosity ratio; however, the time to recover
the oil is highly dependent on the ratio.
Gravity
The influence of gravity on displacement can be explained by observing the
reservoir configuration shown in Figure 9.18.

oil

wtr

Figure 9.18. Stratigraphic reservoir configuration

By definition, = o w in the fractional flow equation for water (Eq. 9.29).
Assuming gravity is (+) upwards, then since o < w gravity will reduce the fractional
flow of water when the water is moving updip. Conversely, water injected at the crest of
the structure will move faster under the influence of gravity.

The subsequent

displacement efficiency and oil recovery are less in this case.

9.6 Residual oil saturation

After displacement, there exists a remaining oil saturation known as the residual
oil saturation.

It is dependent on wettability, pore size distribution, microscopic

heterogeneity and properties of the displacing fluids. As an example, consider for water

9.28

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

wet rock the oil is trapped as globules or ganglia. But for oil wet rock the oil is trapped
as a film on the grain surfaces.

The importance of understanding the residual oil

saturation is it establishes a maximum efficiency for oil displaced by water on the

microscopic level. Furthermore, it is the initial oil saturation for the next possible phase
of development; i.e., EOR.
The measure of the effectiveness of the displacement process is defined by the
microscopic displacement efficiency, ED.

ED

stock tank oil recovered/ Vp contacted by water

stock tank OIP at beginning of waterflood/unit contacted by water

S /B
1 o o
So1 / Bo1

(9.70)

Where, So1 is the volumetric average oil saturation at the beginning of the waterflood and
So is the volumetric average oil saturation at a particular point during the waterflood. The
oil displaced is given by;

N p w EDV pw

So1
Bo1

(9.71)

where Npw is the oil displaced by water and Vpw is the pore volume swept by water to the
volumetric average residual oil saturation.
The dependence of residual oil saturation on capillary and viscous forces was
verified by a series of experiments.

Using dimensional analysis, define Capillary

Number, NCA, as the ratio of viscous to capillary forces.

NCA

v w
ow cos

(9.72)

Where v is the interstitial velocity (u/) and w is the viscosity of the displacing fluid.
Experimental data was obtained by measuring the oil saturation in cores when the first
water is detected at the outlet. Since the oil volume produced after breakthrough is small,
the results represent the trapping process. Figure 9.19 illustrates the general behavior of
the reduction in oil saturation in the core at breakthrough with increasing capillary
number.

9.29

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

So,%pv

50

10-8

10-3

NCA

Figure 9.19 Reduction of oil saturation at breakthrough vs capillary number

At smaller capillary numbers, capillary forces dominate.

With increasing capillary

number the viscous forces become more dominate.

A modification of the original definition of capillary number was developed for
waterfloods at constant injection rate.
NCAM

w
v w

( Soi Sor ) ow cos o

0.4

(9.73)

The following guidelines are suggested.

NCAM < 10-6

capillary forces dominate

10-4 < NCAM < 10-5

transition

NCAM > 10-4

viscous forces dominate

Correlating residual oil saturation with capillary and viscous forces has several
important implications for fluid flow in porous media. It demonstrates the independence
of Sor from flood velocity at reservoir rates. Furthermore, correlations illustrate that Sor
can be reduced below field waterflood residual in the laboratory corefloods if the lab
experiments are conducted at large NCAM.
In many field applications reservoir pressure has depleted to the point where
appreciable free gas saturation exists in the pores. Subsequently, prior to water injection
both a residual oil and gas saturation co-exist. If re-pressurization occurs during water
injection, the gas will dissolve back into the oil with little, if any, effect on the residual oil
saturation. However, if a trapped gas saturation is present at the time the residual oil is
trapped by water, a substantial reduction of residual oil saturation will occur.

For

example, a correlation shown in Figure 9.20 illustrates the reduction in residual oil
saturation for a water-wet, consolidated rock. Implied in the figure is that an increase in
9.30

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

initial flowing gas saturation is proportional to an increase in trapped gas saturation and
thus a reduction in residual oil saturation.

Sor,%

10

Sgi,%

30

Figure 9.20 Reduction in Sor for increasing initial gas saturation

9.7 Limitations of the frontal advance solution
In development of the frontal advance solution several limitations are evident.
Based on the assumptions in deriving the solution, the fluids were considered immiscible
and incompressible.

Furthermore, the porous media was assumed isotropic and

homogeneous, with uniform saturation distributions. And last, only one-dimensional,

linear flow was illustrated.
The frontal advance solution applies to a stabilized displacement process. In
other words, the displacement behavior is independent of injection rate and length of the
sample. Two parameters which must meet the criteria are the breakthrough saturation
and the recovery vs PV injected after breakthrough. An empirical correlation from
dimensional analysis was developed to determine if a flood was at stabilized conditions.

LuT w 0.835 x109 to 5.85 x109 {N }

0.62 to 7.75 { ft 2cp / day}

(9.74)

The left-hand-side is known as the critical scaling coefficient. If the numerical value of
this coefficient exceeds the critical value, then stabilized flow will occur. Since rate and
length effects occur when capillary forces become important in the displacement process,
this scaling factor also indicates when capillary forces are minimized. In applications,
under field conditions the displacement process is almost always stable. Under lab
conditions, to compute relative permeabilities from linear displacement tests, it is

9.31

Chapter 9 Simultaneous Flow of Immiscible Fluids

necessary to estimate the operating conditions to obtain stabilized flow. Two examples
from Willhite (1986) illustrate the point.
Example 1
A reservoir is 1000 ft long, and was flooded at an average frontal velocity of 1 ft/day.
The porosity of the reservoir is 19% and the displacing fluid viscosity is 0.7 cp. Estimate
the scaling coefficient and determine whether the displacement was stabilized.
Solution
In oilfield units, the value of uT = 0.19 ft/day (=1 ft/day*.19). Thus,
LuT w (1000)(0.19)(0.7) 133 ft 2 cp / day

This value is an order of magnitude greater than the critical values observed in lab
experiments, and therefore flow is stabilized.
Example 2
It is desired to conduct a laboratory waterflood experiment under stabilized conditions in
a core 2.54 cm in diameter and 5 cm long. The porosity of the core is 15% and the
viscosity is 1 cp [1 kPa-s]. Estimate the volumetric injection rate in cubic meters/second
if the critical scaling coefficient is 5.85 x 10-9 N.
Solution

LuT w (0.05m)(uT )(0.001Pa s) 5x105 uT

Substituting the critical value, results in uT = 1.17x10-4 m/s.
volumetric rate becomes,

q uT A 1.17 x10 4 (0.0254m) 2
4
8 3
q 5.93x10 m / s

9.32

Subsequently, the